Methods of Data collection Ch. 9 & 10

Matrix

A chart used to condense qualitative data into simple categories and provide a multidimensional summary that will facilitate subsequent, more intensive analysis.

Lasswell's chain on communication

A convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions: Who Says What In Which Channel To Whom With What Effect?[3]

Narrative analysis

A form of qualitative analysis in which the analyst focuses on how respondents impose order on the flow of experience in their lives and so make sense of events and actions in which they have participated.

Text

A general name for symbolic meaning within a communication medium measured in content analysis.

Gatekeeper

A person in the field setting who can grant researchers access to the setting

Ethnomethodology

A qualitative research method focused on the way that participants in a social setting create and sustain a sense of reality

Complete observation

A role in participant observation in which the researcher does not participate in group activities and is publicly defined as a researcher

Theoretical sampling

A sample that is drawn in a sequential fashion, with settings or individuals selected for study as earlier observations or interviews indicate that these settings or individuals are influential.

Conversation analysis

A specific qualitative method for analyzing ordinary conversation.

Visual sociology

An area of sociology concerned with the visual dimensions of social life

Key informant

An insider who is willing and able to provide a field researcher with superior access and information, including answers to questions that arise in the course of the research

Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis

Analysis of textual, aural, or pictorial data using a special computer program that facilitates researching and coding text.

Step four in qualitative data analysis

Authentication conclusions by evaluating alternative explanations, dis confirming evidence, and searching for negative cases.

Jotting

Brief notes written in the field about highlights of an observation period.

Who id known as the origin of Ethnograpohy

Bronislaw Maknowski- a Polish anthropologist, one of the most important 20th-century anthropologists. He has been also referred to as a sociologist and ethnographer. Founding father of scientific method of ethnographic research.

Step two in qualitative data analysis

Conceptualization and coding

Ethical issue in Qualitative research

Confidentiality

Two approaches to analyzing qualitative reseach

Deductive- hypothesis-testing approach Inductive- exploratory approach

Step one in qualitative data analysis

Documentation of the data and data collection

Unobtrusive measures

Emphasized that people being studied are not aware of it because the measures do not intrude.

Step three in qualitative data analysis

Examining relationships to show how one concept may influence another.

Pro to overt, participant observation

Experience helps better understanding

Overt obeservation

Explicit, in the open

Strength of Field Research

Flexibility

Strength of Field Research

Helps study hard to reach groups

Ethical issue in Qualitative research

Identity disclosure

Tactic knowledge

In field research, a credible sense of understanding of social processes that reflects the researchers awareness of participants actions, as well as their words, and of what they fail to state, feel, deeply, and take for granted.

Weakness of Field Research

Inappropriate for strict statistical analysis

Nonreactive methods

Measures in which people being studied are unaware that they are in a study

Qualitative methods

Methods include participant observation, intensive interviewing, and focus groups, that are designed to capture social life as participants experience it rather than in categories the researcher predetermines.

Weakness of Field Research

convenience sampling (lack of representativness)`

Participant observation

gathering data that involves developing a sustained relationship with people while they go about their normal activities.

Covert observation

hidden, secretive

Intensive (depth) interviewing

involves open-ended, relatively unstructured questioning in which the interviewer seeks in-depth information on the interviewee's perceptions.

Focus groups

involves unstructured group interviews in which the focus group leader actively encourages discussion among participants on the topics of interest.

Con to covert, non-participant observation

less appreciation and understanding

Manifest content

the actual literal subject-matter

Reactive effects

the changes in an individual or group behavior that are due to being observed or otherwise studied

Inter-judge reliability

the consistency of measurement obtained when different judges or examiners independently administer the same test to the same subject.

Generalizability

the extent to which the findings of the research can be applied to the larger population of which their sample was a part.

Latent content

the underlying meaning of these symbols

Weakness of Field Research

typical, special, and deviant cases

Strength of Field Research

well suited for exploratory and descriptive research

Field Research

Research in which natural social processes are studied as they happen and left relatively undisturbed.

Root to the work Ethnography

Rooted from the greek terms: Ethno= culture Grapho= to describe Thus it means to "describe culture"

Structured vs. unstructured inteviews

Structured interviews used in survey research Unstructured interviews used in qualitative research

Ethical issue in Qualitative research

Subject well-being

Grounded theory

Systematic theory developed inductively, based on observations that are summarized into conceptual categories, reevaluated in the research setting, and gradually refined and linked to other conceptual categories.

Qualitative data analysis

Techniques used to search and code, textual, aural, or pictorial data and to explore relationships among the resulting categories.

Saturation point

The point at which subject selection is ended in intensive interviewing because new interviews seem to yield little additional information.

Progressive focusing

The process by which a qualitative analyst interacts with the data and gradually refines his or her focus.

Coding

The process of converting raw information or data into another form of analysis. In content analysis, it is a means for determining how to convert symbolic meanings in text into another form, usually numbers; in qualitative data analysis , it is a means for assigning numbers; and in qualitative data analysis, it is a series of steps for reading raw notes and assigning codes or conceptual terms.

Ethnography

The study and systematic recording of human cultures

Netnography

The use of ethnographic methods to study online communities

Triangulation

The use of multiple methods to study one research question

visual sociology

area of sociology concerned with the visual dimensions of social life.

How did Lutz and Collins select their documents?

They chose National Geographic because it is one of the most culturally valued and potent media vehicles shaping American understanding of, and responses to, the world outside the US.

What was Lutz and Collins research question?

They wanted to know what popular education tells Americans about who non-westerners are, what they want, and what our relationship is to them.

Deductive approach in qualitative analysis

start by creating a series of categories and then sorting your notes into those categories, which were created in advance

Strategies to build relationships in intensive interviews

Treat participant with respect State commitment to confidentiality Consider in advance how they will react to the interview arrangements and; develop an approach that does not violate their standards for social behavior

Contact summary form

Used in the documentation stage, used to keep track of observational sessions in a qualitative study.

Define narrative analysis

Uses field texts, such as stories, autobiography, journals, field notes, letters, conversations, interviews, family stories, photos (and other artifacts), and life experience, as the units of analysis to research and understand the way people create meaning in their lives as narratives.

Ethical issue in Qualitative research

Voluntary participation- an issue in observational studies

Strength of Field Research

aimed at depth of understanding

Inductive approach in qualitative analysis

allows themes and categories to emerge from the date themselves

What documents did Lutz and Collins study?

Pictures from National Geographic magazines.

Weakness of Field Research

Poor reliability and validity

Step five in qualitative data analysis

Reflexivity- an attitude of attending systematically to the context of knowledge construction, especially to the effect of the researcher, at every step of the research process.

Emic focus

Representing a setting with the participants terms

Etic focus

Representing a setting with the researchers terms

Weakness of Field Research

NOT representative and NOT generalizable

Field notes

Notes that describe what has been observed, heard, or otherwise experienced in a participant observation study. These notes usually are written after the observational session.

Three characteristics/ forms of content analysis

Objective, systematic, quantitative

Ethical issue in Qualitative research

Online research- may violate voluntary participation and identity disclosure.

Three forms of data collection in qualitative research

Participant observation, focus groups, intensive interviewing

Conceptualization

Process of specifying what is meant by a term

Qualitative vs. quantitative data analysis

Qualitative- typically inductive, or has an emic focus (a setting with participants terms). Analyst identifies important categories from within the data Quantitative- typically deductive, or has an etic focus (a setting with researchers terms). Analyst typically has predetermined categories or a standard set of questions.

Sample selection in intensive interviews

Random selection is rarely used. Try to select participants who are knowledgeable about the subject Subjects who are open to talking Who represent a range of perspectives Selection of new participants should continue until "saturation point"

Con to overt, non-participant observation

Reactivity

Content analysis

a research method for systematically analyzing and making inferences from text. Qualitative data analysis.

Complete (covert) participation

a role in field research in which the researcher does not reveal his/herself identity as a researcher to those who are observed.

Pro to covert, participant observation

people around researcher behave naturally

Con to overt, participant observation

people around researcher do not behave naturally (reactivity)

Pro to covert, non-participant observation

people behave naturally

Content

refers to words, meanings, pictures, symbols, ideas, themes, or any message that can be communicated.

Quantitative methods

research involving systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques.

Con to covert, participant obeservation

researcher does not always know how to behave properly

Con to covert, participant obeservation

researcher effects situation

Pro to covert, non-participant observation

researcher has low affect on situation

Pro to overt, non-participant observation

researcher makes less affect on natural behavior

Con to overt, participant observation

researcher may "go native"

Con to covert, participant obeservation

researcher may go native