Methods of Data collection Ch. 9 & 10
Matrix
A chart used to condense qualitative data into simple categories and provide a multidimensional summary that will facilitate subsequent, more intensive analysis.
Lasswell's chain on communication
A convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions: Who Says What In Which Channel To Whom With What Effect?[3]
Narrative analysis
A form of qualitative analysis in which the analyst focuses on how respondents impose order on the flow of experience in their lives and so make sense of events and actions in which they have participated.
Text
A general name for symbolic meaning within a communication medium measured in content analysis.
Gatekeeper
A person in the field setting who can grant researchers access to the setting
Ethnomethodology
A qualitative research method focused on the way that participants in a social setting create and sustain a sense of reality
Complete observation
A role in participant observation in which the researcher does not participate in group activities and is publicly defined as a researcher
Theoretical sampling
A sample that is drawn in a sequential fashion, with settings or individuals selected for study as earlier observations or interviews indicate that these settings or individuals are influential.
Conversation analysis
A specific qualitative method for analyzing ordinary conversation.
Visual sociology
An area of sociology concerned with the visual dimensions of social life
Key informant
An insider who is willing and able to provide a field researcher with superior access and information, including answers to questions that arise in the course of the research
Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis
Analysis of textual, aural, or pictorial data using a special computer program that facilitates researching and coding text.
Step four in qualitative data analysis
Authentication conclusions by evaluating alternative explanations, dis confirming evidence, and searching for negative cases.
Jotting
Brief notes written in the field about highlights of an observation period.
Who id known as the origin of Ethnograpohy
Bronislaw Maknowski- a Polish anthropologist, one of the most important 20th-century anthropologists. He has been also referred to as a sociologist and ethnographer. Founding father of scientific method of ethnographic research.
Step two in qualitative data analysis
Conceptualization and coding
Ethical issue in Qualitative research
Confidentiality
Two approaches to analyzing qualitative reseach
Deductive- hypothesis-testing approach Inductive- exploratory approach
Step one in qualitative data analysis
Documentation of the data and data collection
Unobtrusive measures
Emphasized that people being studied are not aware of it because the measures do not intrude.
Step three in qualitative data analysis
Examining relationships to show how one concept may influence another.
Pro to overt, participant observation
Experience helps better understanding
Overt obeservation
Explicit, in the open
Strength of Field Research
Flexibility
Strength of Field Research
Helps study hard to reach groups
Ethical issue in Qualitative research
Identity disclosure
Tactic knowledge
In field research, a credible sense of understanding of social processes that reflects the researchers awareness of participants actions, as well as their words, and of what they fail to state, feel, deeply, and take for granted.
Weakness of Field Research
Inappropriate for strict statistical analysis
Nonreactive methods
Measures in which people being studied are unaware that they are in a study
Qualitative methods
Methods include participant observation, intensive interviewing, and focus groups, that are designed to capture social life as participants experience it rather than in categories the researcher predetermines.
Weakness of Field Research
convenience sampling (lack of representativness)`
Participant observation
gathering data that involves developing a sustained relationship with people while they go about their normal activities.
Covert observation
hidden, secretive
Intensive (depth) interviewing
involves open-ended, relatively unstructured questioning in which the interviewer seeks in-depth information on the interviewee's perceptions.
Focus groups
involves unstructured group interviews in which the focus group leader actively encourages discussion among participants on the topics of interest.
Con to covert, non-participant observation
less appreciation and understanding
Manifest content
the actual literal subject-matter
Reactive effects
the changes in an individual or group behavior that are due to being observed or otherwise studied
Inter-judge reliability
the consistency of measurement obtained when different judges or examiners independently administer the same test to the same subject.
Generalizability
the extent to which the findings of the research can be applied to the larger population of which their sample was a part.
Latent content
the underlying meaning of these symbols
Weakness of Field Research
typical, special, and deviant cases
Strength of Field Research
well suited for exploratory and descriptive research
Field Research
Research in which natural social processes are studied as they happen and left relatively undisturbed.
Root to the work Ethnography
Rooted from the greek terms: Ethno= culture Grapho= to describe Thus it means to "describe culture"
Structured vs. unstructured inteviews
Structured interviews used in survey research Unstructured interviews used in qualitative research
Ethical issue in Qualitative research
Subject well-being
Grounded theory
Systematic theory developed inductively, based on observations that are summarized into conceptual categories, reevaluated in the research setting, and gradually refined and linked to other conceptual categories.
Qualitative data analysis
Techniques used to search and code, textual, aural, or pictorial data and to explore relationships among the resulting categories.
Saturation point
The point at which subject selection is ended in intensive interviewing because new interviews seem to yield little additional information.
Progressive focusing
The process by which a qualitative analyst interacts with the data and gradually refines his or her focus.
Coding
The process of converting raw information or data into another form of analysis. In content analysis, it is a means for determining how to convert symbolic meanings in text into another form, usually numbers; in qualitative data analysis , it is a means for assigning numbers; and in qualitative data analysis, it is a series of steps for reading raw notes and assigning codes or conceptual terms.
Ethnography
The study and systematic recording of human cultures
Netnography
The use of ethnographic methods to study online communities
Triangulation
The use of multiple methods to study one research question
visual sociology
area of sociology concerned with the visual dimensions of social life.
How did Lutz and Collins select their documents?
They chose National Geographic because it is one of the most culturally valued and potent media vehicles shaping American understanding of, and responses to, the world outside the US.
What was Lutz and Collins research question?
They wanted to know what popular education tells Americans about who non-westerners are, what they want, and what our relationship is to them.
Deductive approach in qualitative analysis
start by creating a series of categories and then sorting your notes into those categories, which were created in advance
Strategies to build relationships in intensive interviews
Treat participant with respect State commitment to confidentiality Consider in advance how they will react to the interview arrangements and; develop an approach that does not violate their standards for social behavior
Contact summary form
Used in the documentation stage, used to keep track of observational sessions in a qualitative study.
Define narrative analysis
Uses field texts, such as stories, autobiography, journals, field notes, letters, conversations, interviews, family stories, photos (and other artifacts), and life experience, as the units of analysis to research and understand the way people create meaning in their lives as narratives.
Ethical issue in Qualitative research
Voluntary participation- an issue in observational studies
Strength of Field Research
aimed at depth of understanding
Inductive approach in qualitative analysis
allows themes and categories to emerge from the date themselves
What documents did Lutz and Collins study?
Pictures from National Geographic magazines.
Weakness of Field Research
Poor reliability and validity
Step five in qualitative data analysis
Reflexivity- an attitude of attending systematically to the context of knowledge construction, especially to the effect of the researcher, at every step of the research process.
Emic focus
Representing a setting with the participants terms
Etic focus
Representing a setting with the researchers terms
Weakness of Field Research
NOT representative and NOT generalizable
Field notes
Notes that describe what has been observed, heard, or otherwise experienced in a participant observation study. These notes usually are written after the observational session.
Three characteristics/ forms of content analysis
Objective, systematic, quantitative
Ethical issue in Qualitative research
Online research- may violate voluntary participation and identity disclosure.
Three forms of data collection in qualitative research
Participant observation, focus groups, intensive interviewing
Conceptualization
Process of specifying what is meant by a term
Qualitative vs. quantitative data analysis
Qualitative- typically inductive, or has an emic focus (a setting with participants terms). Analyst identifies important categories from within the data Quantitative- typically deductive, or has an etic focus (a setting with researchers terms). Analyst typically has predetermined categories or a standard set of questions.
Sample selection in intensive interviews
Random selection is rarely used. Try to select participants who are knowledgeable about the subject Subjects who are open to talking Who represent a range of perspectives Selection of new participants should continue until "saturation point"
Con to overt, non-participant observation
Reactivity
Content analysis
a research method for systematically analyzing and making inferences from text. Qualitative data analysis.
Complete (covert) participation
a role in field research in which the researcher does not reveal his/herself identity as a researcher to those who are observed.
Pro to covert, participant observation
people around researcher behave naturally
Con to overt, participant observation
people around researcher do not behave naturally (reactivity)
Pro to covert, non-participant observation
people behave naturally
Content
refers to words, meanings, pictures, symbols, ideas, themes, or any message that can be communicated.
Quantitative methods
research involving systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques.
Con to covert, participant obeservation
researcher does not always know how to behave properly
Con to covert, participant obeservation
researcher effects situation
Pro to covert, non-participant observation
researcher has low affect on situation
Pro to overt, non-participant observation
researcher makes less affect on natural behavior
Con to overt, participant observation
researcher may "go native"
Con to covert, participant obeservation
researcher may go native
