MGT 475 Final

Group roles

Are set of expected behaviours associated with particular jobs or positions - Task roles - Relationship roles Several types of problems can impede group performance: Dysfunctional roles Role conflict Intrasender role conflict Intersender role conflict Interrole conflict Person-role conflict Role ambiguity

Innovation

As product life cycles continue to shrink, companies must be masters at anticipating customers' future needs, innovating new products and services, and rapidly deploying new technologies into efficient delivery processes

Achievement Orientation

Atkinson proposed that a person's tendency to exert effort toward task accomplishment depends partly on the strength of his/her motivation to achieve success (e.g. achievement orientation) McClelland said individuals with a strong need for achievement strive to accomplish socially acceptable endeavours and activities Achievement orientation is a component of the 5 factor model or OCEAN model of personality dimension of conscientiousness Achievement orientation is often a key success factor for people who advance to the highest levels of organisations

3 critical functions for team leadership

Dream Design Development

Setting goals

For goals to be achievable, should gave following characteristics: Specific Observable Attainable Challenging Supported by actual commitment Accompanied by feedback

Organisation's vary in their degree of formalisation

Formalisation is the degree of standardisation, which usually varies with size. Centralisation is the diffusion of decision making

Group members vs Team members

Group members often play a variety of roles within the group; however, team members often play a single, or primary, role on a team.

Cross functions

Organisations must operate with integrated business processes that cut across traditional business functions

Affectivity

Refers to one's tendency to react to stimuli in a consistent emotional manner, either positively or negatively People with negative affectivity tend to focus on the disadvantages of a situation People with positive affectivity tend to have optimistic approaches in new situations Research suggests that leadership initiatives may not be effective on a person's job satisfaction if their affective disposition is either extremely positive or negative.

Leader-Follower-Situation

Situation may be most complex factor Situations vary in complexity and strength

The Rocket Model of Team Effectiveness is a prescriptive model of team building

Tells leaders what steps to take and when to take them when building new teams Also a diagnostic model of team building. It helps determine where existing teams are weak and what needs to be done to get them back on track.

Overbounding

Tendency of highly cohesive groups to erect what amount to fences or boundaries between themselves and others.

Level of authority

The hierarchical level in an organisation

Multiple influence model

2 factors: Microvariables (e.g., task characteristics) Macrovariables (e.g., the external environment)

Group

2 or more people interacting with one another in a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person

Team leadership model

3 components Input(Individual characteristics, team factors, organisation systems), Process, Output Team Leadership Model is a mechanism to: Identify what a team needs to be effective. Point the leader either toward roadblocks or toward ways to make the team even more effective than it already is TLM outputs: outcomes of high performance teams HPT goals - outcomes are acceptable to stakeholders, individuals are satisfied, future capability of the team improves TLM Process variables - P1 effort, P2 skills & knowledge, P3 strategy, P4 group dynamics

Virtual teams - geographically dispersed teams (GDTs)

5 major areas need to change for global teams to work. Senior management leadership Innovative use of communication technology Adoption of an organization design that enhances global operations Prevalence of trust among team members The ability to capture the strengths of diverse cultures, languages, and people

Coaching process of Peterson & Hicks

5 steps Forging a partnership built on trust Inspiring commitment by conducting a GAPS analysis Growing skills by creating development and coaching plans Promoting persistence by helping followers stick to their plans Transferring skills by creating a learning environment The five-step model works particularly well for high performers.

Role theory

A leader's behavior depends on the leader's perceptions of critical aspects of the situation. - Rules and regulations governing the job - Role expectations of subordinates, peers, and superiors - Nature of the task - Feedback about subordinates' performance

Goal setting (continued)

A leader's implicit and explicit expectations about goal accomplishment can affect the performance of followers and teams. Leaders wanting to improve individual/team performance should set high but achievable goals and express confidence in their followers.

Clusters

A new alternative to the traditional idea of teams, are formed outside a company context, but are hired and paid by companies as a unit, as a permanent part of the company

Organisational culture (Informal organisation)

A system of shared backgrounds, norms, values, or beliefs among members of a group

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

According to Maslow, people are motivated by 5 basic types of needs (hierarchy of needs) Needs are internal states of tension or arousal, or uncomfortable states of deficiency When needs are not being met, people engage in certain behaviours to satisfy them To motivate employees to work harder, leaders must determine where theory followers are on the needs hierarchy and ensure that all lower-order needs are satisfied before appealing to their higher order needs Maslow believed lower-level needs must be satisfied before the higher level needs become relevant in motivating behaviour.

Group size

Additive task: A task where the group's output simply involves the combination of individual outputs Process losses: Inefficiencies created by more and more people working together Social loafing: Phenomenon of reduced effort by people when they are not individually accountable for their work Social facilitation: People increasing their level of work due to the presence of others

Knowledge workers

All employees must contribute value by what they know and by the information they can provide

Leaders

Although most leaders probably believe that feedback is an important skill, research has shown that leaders also believe they give more feedback than their subordinates think they do

Motivation

Anything that provides direction, intensity, and persistence to behaviour. -Not observable; must be inferred from behaviour

Organisational justice

Based on the idea that people who are treated unfairly are less satisfied, productive, and committed to their organisations and are likely to initiate collective action and engage in counterproductive work behaviours Consists of 3 components: Interactional justice - degree that people are given information about reward procedures and are treated with dignity and respect Distributive justice concerns followers' perceptions of whether the level of reward or punishment is commensurate with an individual's performance or infraction. Procedural justice relates to the process that rewards and punishments are administered.

Adaptive problems

Cannot be solved using currently existing resources or ways of thinking - It can be difficult reaching a common definition of what the problem really is - Adaptive problems can only be solved by changing the system itself - Adaptive problems, which involve people's values, require adaptive leadership for solutions

Technical Problems

Challenges for which the problem-solving resources already exist. - Resources have two aspects: specialised methods and specialised expertise. - Technical problems can be solved without changing the nature of the social system in which they occur.

Global Scale

Companies today compete against the best companies throughout the entire world

The Rocket Model

Comprised of 8 components: Results Power Morale Norms Buy in Context Mission Talent

Performance

Concerns behaviours directed toward the firm's mission/goals or the products or services resulting from those behaviours. -Differs from effectiveness i.e. making judgements about the adequacy of behaviour based on criteria

Kaplan and Norton identified six changes in the ways companies operate to address the changes in the environment

Cross functions Links to customers and suppliers Customer segmentation Global scale Innovation Knowledge workers

Principles of Effective Delegation

Decide what to delegate Decide whom to delegate to Make the assignment clear and specific Assign an objective, not a procedure Allow for autonomy while monitoring performance Give credit, but don't blame

Task Autonomy

Degree to which a job provides an individual with some control over what is done and how it is done

Task Feedback

Degree to which a person accomplishing a task receives information about performance from performing the task itself

Task Interdependence

Degree to which tasks require coordination and synchronisation for work groups or teams to accomplish a desired goals

Task Structure

Degree to which there are known procedures for accomplishing the task and rules governing how one goes about it

Common Reasons for Avoiding Delegation

Delegation takes leaders too much time in the short run, although it saves time in the long run. Delegation is risky because it reduces the leader's direct control over work that will be evaluated. Leaders fear the job will not be done properly. Leaders may resist delegating tasks that are a source of power or prestige. Leaders may feel guilty about delegating because people are already too busy.

According to Katzenbach and Smith, which of the following may be the most important single step in teamwork

Dream

Empowerment

Empowerment has 2 key components: Leaders delegate leadership and decision making down to the lowest level possible. Leaders equip followers with the resources, skills, and knowledge necessary to make good decisions. Macro psychological components: Motivation Learning Stress Micro psychological components: Self determination Meaning Competence Influence Some people believe empowerment is a top-down process where senior leaders in an organisation clarify goals and require followers to achieve them

Leaders can influence team effectiveness by

Ensuring the team has a clear sense of purpose and performance expectations. Designing or redesigning input stage variables at the individual, organizational, and team design levels. Improving team performance through ongoing coaching.

Punctuated equilibrium

Gersick studied project teams Punctuated equilibrium suggests teams do not start work immediately as described by Tuckman

Delegating

Gives responsibility for decisions to those individuals most likely to be affected by or to implement the decision More concerned with autonomy, responsibility, and follower development than with participation Leaders who delegate skilfully tend to have more satisfied and higher-performing work groups, teams, or committees

3 types of items are typically found on job sanctification surveys

Global satisfaction - overall degree that employees are satisfied with their organisation and their job Facet satisfaction - degree that employees are satisfied with different aspects of work (pay, benefits, promotion policies, working hours and conditions) Life satisfaction - concerns a person's attitudes about life in general

Locke and Latham's research identified several common aspects of goal setting

Goals that were both specific and difficult resulted in consistently higher effort and performance when contrasted to 'do your best' goals Goal commitment is critical. Goals set either by leaders unilaterally or through participation with followers can lead to necessary levels of commitment Followers exert the greatest effort when goals were accompanied by feedback, followers getting goals or feedback alone generally exerted less effort

The distinctive sets of values in the four quadrants of the Competing Values Framework define four unique organisational cultures

Hierarchy cultures tend to have formalised rules and procedures. Market cultures emphasise stability and control but focus their attention on the external environment. Clan cultures emphasise flexibility and discretion, focus primarily inward, and have a strong sense of cohesiveness. Adhocracy cultures emphasise a high degree of flexibility and discretion and focus primarily on the environment outside the organisation

Organisatoinal structures vary in complexity

Horizontal complexity is the number of "boxes" at any particular organisational level in an organisational chart. Vertical complexity is the number of hierarchical levels appearing on an organisational chart. Spatial complexity describes the geographical dispersion of an organisation's members

Group perspective

How different group characteristics can affect relationships both with the leader and among the followers

Motivators and Hygiene Factors ofthe Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene factors Supervision Working conditions Co-workers Pay Policies/procedures Job security Motivators Achievement Recognition The work itself Responsibility Advancement and growth

Customer segmentation

IT enables organisations to integrate supply, production, and delivery processes resulting in improvements in cost, quality, and response time

Links to customers and suppliers

IT enables organisations to integrate supply, production, and delivery processes resulting in improvements in cost, quality, and response time

Herzberg's 2 factor theory

Identified 2 factors of satisfaction The factors that led to satisfaction at work were labelled motivators The factors that led to dissatisfaction at work were labelled hygiene factors According to two-factor theory, efforts directed toward improving hygiene factors will not increase followers' motivation or satisfaction.

Team situations

In team situations, inputs refer to individual characteristics and organisational systems

Societal culture

Increasingly important variable at the environmental level Those learned behaviours characterising the total way of life of members within any given society

Formal organisation

Involves the disciplines of management, organisational behaviour, and organisational theory and can have a profound impact on leadership

Job satisfaction

Is how much one likes a specific kind of job or work activity - Satisfied workers engage in organisational citizenship behaviours

Goal setting

Leader's perspective - goal setting involves setting clear performance targets and helping followers create systematic plans to achieve them Locke and Latham - goals are the most powerful determinants of task behaviours Goals direct attetion mobilise effort help people develop strategies for achievement help people continue exerting effort until goals are reached This leads in turn to even higher goals

8 theories of satisfaction

Maslow's hierarchy of needs Achievement orientation Goal setting Operant approach Empowerment Affectivity Herzberg's 2 factor theory Organisational justice

MHoN

Maslow's theory does not make specific predictions about what an individual will do to satisfy a particular need The lack of specificity and predictive power limits the practical applicability of Maslow's theory in real life settings However, awareness of the general nature of various sorts of basic human needs seems fundamentally useful to leaders Leaders need to address some basic, fundamental areas before their attempts to get followers to expend more effort on work related behaviours will be successful

Conflict management

Most likely a group dynamic Group dynamics refers to interactions among team members, including such aspects as how they communicate with others, express feelings toward each other, and deal with conflict with each other, to name but a few characteristics.

Understanding and influencing follower motivation

Motivation theories are useful in certain situations but not as applicable in others Leaders who know about different motivational theories are more likely to choose the right theory for a particular follower and situation -Choosing the best theory may result in higher performing and more satisfied employees Most performance problems can be attributed to unclear expectations, skills deficits, resource/equipment shortages, or a lack of motivation Leaders have the most difficulty recognising and correcting motivation problems

Group norms

Norms are informal rules groups adopt to regulate and regularise group members' behaviour Norms are more likely to be seen as important and apt to be enforced if they: Facilitate group survival. Simplify, or make more predictable, what behavior is expected of group members. Help the group to avoid embarrassing interpersonal problems. Express the central values of the group and clarify what is distinctive about the group's identity.

Pygmalion effect

Occurs when leaders express high expectation for followers. These expectations alone lead to higher performing followers and teams

Golem effect

Occurs when leaders have little faith in their followers' ability to accomplish a goal. These expectations result in a self fulfilling prophecy and low performance

Situational engineering

Occurs when leaders use their knowledge of how the situation affects leadership to proactively change the situation to improve the chances of success.

Good coaches

Orchestrate rather than dictate development. Help followers clarify career goals. Identify and prioritize development needs. Create and stick to development plans. Create environments that support learning and coaching.

Group think

People in highly cohesive groups often become more concerned with striving for unanimity than in objectively appraising different courses of action.

Coaching

Peterson and Hicks, coaching is the "process of equipping people with the tools, knowledge, and opportunities they need to develop themselves and become more successful."

A successful intervention at the team level should:

Raise awareness about how teams really work. Use diagnostic, instrument-based feedback so team members can have a map of where they and their teammates are currently located. Provide a practice field for each intervention so team members can test their new behaviors in a risk-free, protected environment

Role conflict

Receiving differing messages about expected behaviour

Effects of goal setting

Research on the effects of goal setting demonstrates that worker acceptance and satisfaction tend to increase when workers are allowed to participate in setting goals

The Environment

Ronald Heifetz argues that leaders not only are facing more crises than ever before but that a new mode of leadership is needed because we're in a permanent state of crisis. Change has become so fast and so pervasive that it impacts virtually every organization everywhere, and everyone in them. VUCA describes this new state of affairs: volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous. Leadership has never been easy and appears to be growing more difficult.

Assortment of skills related to leader's relationship with followers

Setting goals Providing constructive feedback Team building for work teams Building high-performance teams—the Rocket Model Delegating Coaching

3 main situational levels of abstraction

Task Organisational Environmental

Task Interdependence

Task interdependence typically is greater with teams than with groups. However, task interdependence can vary greatly even across teams.

4 variables that need to be in place for team to work effectively

Task structure Group boundaries Appropriate norms Authority Hackman and Ginnett developed concept 'organisational shells' to help team leaders consider these variables

Collective leadership consists of 5 approaches

Team leadership Network leadership Shared leadership Complexity leadership Collective leadership

Team building intervention

Team-building intervention is more effective if it involves diagnostic, instrument-based feedback so team members can have a reasonably valid map of where they and their teammates now are located. Each intervention must include a practice field as well to test new behaviours in a reasonably risk-free, protected environment

There are several key characteristics of effective teams

Teams have a clear mission and high performance standards. Leaders often evaluate equipment, training facilities, and available outside resources. Leaders spend a considerable amount of time assessing the technical skills of team members. Leaders work to secure the resources and equipment necessary for team effectiveness. Leaders spend time planning and organizing in order to make optimal use of available resources. Teams have high levels of communication, which minimize interpersonal conflicts.

Providing constructive feedback

The development of good feedback skills is related to developing good communication, listening, and assertiveness skills To give good feedback, the provider must: Be clear about the purpose. Choose an appropriate context and medium. Send proper nonverbal signals. Try to detect emotional signals from the recipient. Be somewhat assertive in providing it. Leaders can improve their feedback skills by: Providing clear, unemotional feedback about behaviors under the other person's control. Identifying specific behaviors that are positive or negative. Providing descriptive feedback that avoids inferences. Giving timely feedback. Being flexible about when and how they give feedback. Giving both positive and negative feedback. Avoiding blame or embarrassment.

Power component of Rocket Model

The power component of the Rocket Model concerns the decision-making latitude and resources the team has to accomplish its goals. Teams reporting high levels of power have considerable decision-making authority and all the equipment, time, facilities, and funds needed to accomplish team goals

Group cohesion

The sum of the forces that attract members to a group, provide resistance to leaving it, and motivate them to be active in it - the glue that keeps a group together Highly cohesive groups interact with and influence each other more than less cohesive groups Greater cohesiveness does not always lead to higher performance. Highly cohesive groups may have lower absenteeism and lower turnover. Highly cohesive groups sometimes develop goals contrary to the larger organisation's goals.

Organisational structure

The way an organisation's activities are coordinated and controlled. It represents another level of the situation in which leaders and followers must operate.

5 motivational approaches

Theory or approach: 1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs 2. Achievement orientation 3. Goal setting 4. Operant approach 5. Empowerment Major themes of characteristics: 1. Satisfy needs to change behaviour 2. Personality trait 3. Set goals to change behaviour 4. Change rewards and punishments to change behaviour 5. Give people autonomy and latitude to increase their motivation for work

Leaders can modify culture

Through their reactions to crises. By rewarding new or different kinds of behavior. By eliminating previous punishments or negative consequences for certain behaviours

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Top of pyramid Self actualisation Esteem needs Belongingness needs Security needs Physiological needs

Developmental stages of groups

Tuckman's stages of group development: Forming Storming Norming Performing Stages important because: People are in many more leaderless groups than they realize. There are potential relationships between leadership behaviours and group cohesiveness and productivity

The operant approach (cont)

Using operant principles to improve followers' motivation and performance requires several steps Clearly specify what behaviors are important. Determine if those behaviors are currently being punished, rewarded, or ignored. Find out what followers find rewarding and punishing. Be wary of creating perceptions of inequity when administering individually tailored rewards. Do not limit oneself to administering organizationally sanctioned rewards and punishments. Administer rewards and punishments in a contingent manner whenever possible.

The operant approach

Utilises the following components to change the direction, intensity, or persistence of behaviour Reward Punishment Contingent rewards and punishments Non contingent rewards and punishments Extinction

Technical adaptive

What's the work? Applying current know-how Discovering new ways Who does the work? Authorities The people facing the challenges

Ollieism

When illegal actions are taken by overly zealous and loyal subordinates who believe that what they are doing will please their leaders.

Follower Satisfaction

Why do people leave organisations? Limited recognition and praise - 34% Compensation - 29% Limited authority - 13% Personality conflicts -8% Why do people stay with organisations? Promises long term employment 82% Supports training and education - 78% Hires/keeps hard working, smart people 76% Encourages fun, collegial relationships - 74% Bases job evaluation on innovation - 72%

Organisational climate

concerns members' subjective reactions to the organisation, which is partly a function of organisational culture.