Midterm Exam- Crime Analysis (Chapters 1-5)

Records Management System

A data entry and storage system designed especially for police records. For jails- warrant of particular judge, record and analyze.

Computer-aided dispatch system

A highly specialized system that uses telecommunications and geographic display to support police- or other public safety agencies such as fire dep.- dispatch and response functions

Levels of Activity: Long term problems

A long term problem is a set of related activity -That occurs over several month, seasons, or years. -That stems from systematic opportunities created -By everyday behavior and environement -Problems can consist of common disorder activity as well as serious criminal activity -Problems contain numerous patterns and/or repeat incidents -By identifying lower level events and the incident level responses, more can be learned about the problem

Crime analysis (IACA definition)

A profession and process in which a set of quantitative and qualitative techniques are used to analyze data valuable to police agencies and their communities. It includes the analysis of crime and criminals, crime victims, disorder, quality of life issues, traffic issues, and internal police operations, and its results support criminal investigation and prosecution, patrol activities, crime prevention and reduction strategies, problem solving, and the evaluation of police efforts.

Focused Deterrence

"Pulling levers" focused deterrence strategies. -essentially a very specific problem-solving approach to address serious violent offenders in high crime areas of a city. -the focus of the responses, based in deterrence theory, is that they be certain, severe, and swift. -A problem- solving approach is taken in which the specific deterrence strategies are implemented based on the nature of the violent crime and offending in a community. -Although the responses within this approach focus on individuals, the process of identifying the appropriate individuals involves identifying areas of disproportionately high crime. -And understanding the nature of crime and the relationship of the offenders to crime. -Both of which require crime analysis. Key elements: i. Specific problem-solving approach to address serious offenders in high crime areas of a city. Focus of the responses is that they can be certain, severe, and swift. ii. Some people commit crimes over and over again, so we need to target those people. Reach out to gang members, or risky offenders with the community to talk to them. Focus resources on them. iii. Most promising police strategy for VIOLENT crime. Strategies: i. Individual offenders are identified as chronic or high-risk and responses are tailored for each offender to encourage him or her to stop committing crimes. Research results of evaluation -Reduces crime at a significant level. Role of Crime analysis: i. Process of identifying the appropriate individuals involves identifying areas of disproportionately high crime and understanding the nature of crime and relationship of the offenders to crimes, both of which require crime analysis.

CJ Effectiveness in Preventing and controlling crime

American policing has seen significant changes in both thinking and practice due to: -Technological advances -New perspectives on policing -Evaluations of current practices. The most notable Police strategies -Standard model -Community model -POP -Hotspots -Focused deterrence -Broken Windows -Compstat

Data Considerations

"Reported" Activity -Certain types of activity tend to be reported more consistently or comes to the attention of the police more than others -May not provide the entire picture of a particular issue Local and Federal Crime Data Standards -UCR -NIBRS -UCR figures are "official" crime statistics for local jurisdictions -Figures from local crime and arrest databases will NEVER match the numbers reported to the FBI -Part I and Part II offenses Using Calls for Service Data to Study Crime Problems -Crime type: incident may come into dispatch differently than what it is. -Date and Time: calls for service information gives the date and time of the call not the inicdent -Location: this is normally the location of where the call came from, not where the crime occured -Calls for service are more helpful in analyzing police officer activity and disorder activity than to study crime Using arrest data to study crime problems and offenders -Arrests tend to reflect police activity -Arestees may not be representative of offenders because offenders who are caught may be different than those who are not caught -Arrests rates for certain crimes are extremely low and using a small number of offenders to understand the larger problem may be misleading

Compstat

- A specific program implemented by NYPD in 1994 in attempt to synthesize an accountability structure and strategic problem solving. -Its rapid and widespread adoption by police agencies around the US has moved it beyond an isolated strategy used by NYPD. -Analysis of up-to-date computerized crime, arrest, and "quality of life" data is used to produce statistics and maps. -This information is used in regularized, interactive crime prevention and reduction strategy meetings in which managers are held accountable for the crime prevention approaches they implement in their districts. Research Results: -There has been no formal evaluation of NYPD's CompStat- or of the national implementation of CompStat. -However, the first 3 years of NYPD's Compstat coincided with dramatic declines in crime rate and this decline-- (most other large cities as well). -NYPDs "success" resulted in other police agencies adopting the strategy and adapting it to their own agencies. -A national assessment of the adoption and elements of Compstat concludes that although the strategy appears to be new in its use of technology and crime analysis, the police management and response strategies remain consistent with traditional policing. The role of Crime Analysis: -Crime analysis is integral -The name itself (i.e "comp"- computer and "stat" statistics) -Regular analysis produced by crime analysts is used to hold managers accountable. -Crime mapping central in compstat meetings.

80/20 Rule (Pareto Principle)

- Concentration of incidents on something. - 5% of the city/street blocks with at least 50% of all incidents. Same with products, convenience stores, etc. - Crime analysis helps you figure out how you can figure this out. -Why is this important? Crime analysis helps you look into situation from that point of view. Helps you make the connections. Much better than analyzing overall crimes. -80% of some kinds of outcomes are the result of only 20% of the related causes -Numbers 80 and 20 are used here only to represent "large" and "small" amounts. -Actual proportions change in each analysis depending on the type of activity and nature of the community in which it occurs. -This is true in many phenomena in nature (earthquakes, hurricanes). -By identifying the small proportion of areas, victims, and offenders where a large amount of activity is concentrated, police can get the most out of their crime prevention efforts.

In a nut shell

- The most effective methods that research and practice have shown to prevent and control crime. -What works in crime prevention and control? -Evidence-based policing practices (Sherman, 1998); how do we know if something is useful -Only 3 dissertations examined influence of C.A. on crime rates in the US.---All 3 Turkish colleagues -The broader C.A activities of an agency, the lower the violent crime rates and the higher the violent property, and total clearance rates.

Displacment

-A crime phenomenon can change by being moved to another time and or place or can take on another form. Types of displacement: -Spatial displacement: shifting of an activity from targets in one area to those in another area. -Temporal displacement: shifting of an activity from one time to another. -Target displacement: shifting of the choice of victim/target to a more vulnerable victim/target. -Tactical displacement: shifting of tactics by offenders.

Analysis

-Includes the use of many different statistical and visualization techniques, all of which are described at length in parts 3, 4, 5, -Problems with the data- eg the data do not measure what needs to be studied or have not been collected correctly. Data modification subscycle -Analysists should never assume the data are correct and will immediately serve their purpose, Because unaniticapted complications often arise, and data on new aspects of crime, disorder, and policing may not have yet been collected.

Hot spots Policing

-A disproportionate number of crimes happens in particular areas in a city -Police systematically identify areas within a city that have disproportionate amounts of crime and employ responses in those specific areas. -The responses implemented in the hotspots are more traditional, such as increased police presence and arrests. Research results: -A significant amount of rigorously applied research on hotspots policing. -Does contribute to meaningful reductions of both crime and disorder. -Police crackdowns, which are a more temporary application of hotspots policing, have also shown to work, although primarily on a short-term basis. Crime analysis also plays an important role determining -Whether there is an effect on crime and -Whether the strategies result in displacement of crime and diffusion of benefits. Key elements: -Police-based approach Strategies: i. Traditional police strategies such as increased police presence and arrests, are implemented in hot spots with crime. ii. Areas with more crime---more police officers. iii. Hot-crime areas= more police officers; it ignores the setting of the area. How much can we fix those areas with heavy law enforcement? What can we fix specifically? Places with concentration of crime are also places with concentrated disadvantage: 1. Social disadvantage and people-creates hot spots of crime. 2. What can you do to fix this? Research results of evaluation: i. Effective in reducing crime, sustainability of the crime reduction is limited though and short term. When hot spots policing is coupled with more POP, we can understand why they are hot spots and can be effective in the long term. ii. Ineffective in long term on its own, it just means more arrests, doesn't get to the root of the problem. Role of Crime analysis i. Using mapping and spatial analysis has important role in identifying the hotspots where police strategies are best implemented.

Situational Crime Prevention

-A practice initiated in England in the 1980s by Ron Clarke. -Why crime occurs in specific settings and seeks solutions that reflect the nature of those settings. -Provides specific actions to take for addressing crime problems in local settings based on the crime analysis of those problems. - Depending on type of crime, you may need different responses. -Setting (definition)--who sets what? Setting relates to crime, place, and situation. Setting is the word we use in crime analysis and crime analysis. Place with social and physical features made by humans (ex: a university for a specific activity) being used around a time and has a specific location. Bars are different settings than universities;----Crimes take place in settings and if you are to prevent crime, tough on crime polices don't work. S.C.P Basics: -Increase the efforts in crime -Increase the risks in crime -Reduce the rewards -Reduce the provocation -Remove Excuses Look at chart on PPT Increasing the offender's perceived effort -Make it more difficult for the offender to commit the crime Five types: -Target hardening (deadbolts, special locks on sliding glass doors). - Controlling access to facilities (reducing numbers of entrances/exits, installing gated barriers) - Screening exits (using electronic merchandise tags, requiring a ticket for exit). - Deflecting offenders (closing streets, implementing a police beat office). - Controlling tools/weapons (restricting sales of spray paint to adults). Increase the offender's perceived risk in committing a crime -Make the offender "think twice" because he or she perceives a possibility of getting caught. Five types: Extending guardianship (joining a neighborhood watch group, carrying a phone, not walking alone). -Assisting natural surveillance (improving street lighting, maintaining landscaping) -Reducing anonymity (requiring school uniforms, requiring taxi drivers to display identification) -Utilizing place managers (having two clerks on every shift at convenience stores). -Using formal surveillance (installing video cameras and burglar alarms. Reduce the offender's anticipated rewards from committing the crime -Reduce the value to the offender of the crime itself Five types: -Concealing targets (parking vehicles in a garage instead of on the street, putting any valuables carried in a car in the trunk). -Removing targets (keeping a maximum of $50 in cash in a convenience store register). -Identifying property (licensing bicycles, etching a car's vehicle id number on the car's parts). -Disrupting markets (monitoring pawn shops and street vendors for stolen merchanidise -Denying benefits (installing removable faces on car stereos, attaching ink tags to clothing). Reduce the offender's provocation for committing the crime -Change social and environmental conditions in ways that will diminish stress, conflict, and temptation to offend. Five types: -Reducing frustrations and stress (managing lines efficiently, providing comfortable seating and or music or other entertainment for people waiting for service -Avoiding disputes (reducing crowding in bars, establishing fixed cab fares). -Reducing emotional arousal (eliminating a bikini contest at a bar). -Neutralizing peer pressure (dispersing groups at schools, reassuring juveniles that "it's ok to say no"). -Discouraging imitation (Repairing vandalized property rapidly, censoring details of crimes when providing information to the media). Removing excuses for the crime -Change social practices as a way of encouraging compliance with the law Five types: -Setting rules (requiring written rental agreements, requiring registration for admittance to a hotel). -Posting instructions (installing signs specifying "no parking" or "private property"). -Alerting conscience (installing a roadside speed display, posting signs that say, "shoplifting is stealing") -Assisting compliance (providing trash bins and containers for recyclables in public areas). -Controlling drugs and alcohol (installing breathalyzers in bars, refusing to serve alcohol to drunk individuals).

Other terms

-Agency Management System (AMS): An intranet web-based system. -Information sharing platforms -Jail management system Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS): -NCIC, UCR, IAFIS, NIRBS -Unit of analysis: "What" or "who is being studied o Before unit of analysis, need to distinguish between arrest data tool and the other tool o One is arrest data and one is crime reported § NOT the same thing. Unit of analysis § Arrest data and arrestee data are different. -In crime/data analysis, typical units of analysis include incidents (most common), individuals, places, vehicles, and properties.

Disorder Policing

-Also called "broken windows policing" -Based on a practical theory developed in the 1980s. -Strict enforcement of disorderly behavior and minor offenses, considered "quality of life" offenses prevents more serious crimes from happening. -Police should engage in 'order maintenance' and address physical deterioration of neighborhoods. Research Results: Mixed -A summary of studies in 7 cities found no evidence that strict enforcement of disorder reduced additional disorder or more serious crimes. -More recent study found a direct link between misdemeanor arrests and more serious crime but data imitations raised questions about the validity of the study's conclusions. -Most recent: a modest effect on crime in 30 randomized and quasi experiments--- no effect of order maintenance on crime or fear of citizens. The role of crime analysis: -Limited role when BW is applied generally. -When BW is focused in particular areas and particular times, crime analysis is key in deterring the areas and times where enforcement of disorder activity would be best applied.

4. Administrative analysis

-Analysis directed towards the administrative needs of the police agency, its government, and its community. Processes and techniques of administrative crime analysis include: -Districting and redistricting analysis -Patrol staffing analysis -Cost-benefit analysis -Resource deployment for special events. · More about the staff of the organization, than the crime

Predictive Policing

-Any policing strategy or tactic that develops and uses information and advanced analysis to inform forward-thinking crime prevention. -The process of using computer models, supported by prior crime and environmental data, to anticipate risk of crime and inform actions to prevent crime.

Databases used in Crime analysis

-Contains information from each crime report concerning the nature of the crime, such as the type of crime and how, when, and where the crime occurred. -The unit of analysis is the criminal incident; therefore, there is one record for each criminal incident. Variables typically used in crime analysis: -Record number -Date of Report -Type of crime -Location of the crime -Date and time of occurence -Method of the crime -Disposition Arrests database: -An arrest report that includes information specific to the arrest of that individual linked to the original crime report (if applicable) -The unit of analysis is the arrest, so there is one record for every arrest. Variables typically used in crime analysis: -Arrest number -Date and time of arrest -Charge -Location of arrest -Location of residence -Physical description -Date of birth · Arrestee and suspect data bases SEPARATELY because arrestees are arrested and suspects haven't been arrested yet. Calls for service database -Citizen generated: calls, officer responds, whether the reason is criminal or noncriminal -Officer generated: police officer proactively identify activity in the field. -The volume of officer-generated calls for service is highly influenced by the volume of citizen generated calls for service Variables typically used in crime analysis: -Incident number -Date and time (received, dispatched, arrived, and cleared) -Type of call -Priority -Disposition -Location of the call · Sample Call for Data table o Unit- calls for service · Accidents Database - Also called crashes -Incidents in which vehicles collide with people, property, or other vehicles -Each record in an accident database contains information about one accident; therefore an accident is the unit of analysis. Variables typically used in crime analysis: -Accident report number -Date of report -Date and time of occurence -Location of the accident -Violations Sample accident Data table o Unit- accidents o This data tells us something totally different from sample call for service data base Other databases: Persons database: individuals involved in criminal incidents, including witnesses, victims, investigative leads, suspects, and arrestees. -In this database the unit of analysis is the individual -Each record contains information about the individual and the nature of the contact. Property database: -Types of property that have been stolen, found, or used in the commission of crimes -The unit of analysis is the piece of property. Vehicle database: -Vehicles stolen, recovered, or used in the commission of crimes -The unit of analysis is the vehicle, and each record includes information about the vehicle and the nature of the incident. Field information database: "field interview cards" filled out by officers; -When an officer determines that a crime report is not necessary, but the agency would like to document the incident outside of the call-for-service record. Traffic database: -Traffic citations and vehicle stops Known offender database -Information about individuals who have been convicted, not just arrested, for crimes in the local jurisdiction Registered sex offender database: -Information about sex offenders who live in the local jurisdiction (or surrounding jurisdictions) and have registered as part of their sex offender status.

Types of Crime Analysis

-Crime analysis -Criminal analysis -Criminal--->offender -Crime---> event, including offenders, victims, targets, and places -Crime analysis---> public safety analaysis -This discipline is further broken down into subcategories that differ in purpose, scope, data, and analysis techniques.

Dissemination

-Information and statistics do not become analysis until they are effectively communicated. -Methods: paper and electronic reports and maps, presentations, e-mails, internet documents, and phone calls. -The audiences: police officers, police management, citizens, students, other analysis's, and the news media. · Sharing it to an audience. Get the results out but know who the audience is going to be.

Some important notes

-It takes the existence of a likely offender for granted since normal human greed and selfishness are sufficient explanations of most criminal motivation. -It makes no distinction between a human victim and an inanimate target since both can meet the offender's purpose. -it defines a capable guardian in terms of both human actors and security devices.

Data Integrity

-Crime analysis relies primarily on secondary data -The individuals who enter data often have no understanding of the importance of those data to crime analysis -Their lack of awareness regarding the need for data accuracy can lead to carelessness and result in unreliable data -Data entry can be improved with technology and proper training Timeliness -Data obtained are current and available in a timely manner -Missing or old data can affect the quality of crime analysis Validity -Data that accurately reflect the concepts they are intended to measure Reliability -Reliable data are data that are the same in repeated observations Data transfer process -data can be inadvertently or unavoidably lost or reformatted -Data compatibility Data confidentiality/privacy: -Crime analysis are managers of police data; therefore, they are responsible for protecting the information and individuals represented within the data -Police departments need to include specific crime analysis concerns in their data protection plans. Data Management -The term metadata refers to information about data -Information is written down to ensure consistency in data handling and cleaning procedures, to provide guidelines for sharing work with others and keeping track of products and files created, and to reduce duplication of effort.

Chapter 1: Crime analysis and the Profession

-Crime analysists- hired by different government agencies, new job. -Apply theory to specific crime problem -Understand patterns of crime to prevent crime -CJ alone cannot prevent crimes, but can analyze the data and can inform rest of the community. Important for decision making in community -Common data points for every crime and learning variables.

Crime analysis definition and Notes

-Defintiion of Crime Analysis- profession and process in which a set of quantitive and qualitative techniques are used to analyze data valuable to police agencies and other communities. It includes the analysis of crime and criminals, crime victims, disorder, quality of life issues, traffic issues, and internal police operations, and its results support criminal investigation and prosecution, patrol activities, crime prevention, and reduction strategies, problem solving, and evaluation of police efforts. -Disorderly behaviors- misdemeanors (ex: public drinking) -Cops, courts, corrections- to prevent crime, not to punish. Fear of crime/perception of safety affects quality of life. -Crime reduction strategy- proactive approach to stop crime (Hot spot policing and affing lights to dark places) Analysis helps strategy formation and if it works and crime density areas)

Diffusion of benefits

-Diffusion of benefits: a crime phenomenon can also change by being eliminated (partially or fully) -Research has shown that crime problems can be eliminated through the application of the principles of situational crime prevention, which aims to reduce/remove the opportunities for crime (Clarke, 1992). -Research indicates that when targeted problems are successfully eliminated, other problems are also often eliminated.

Environmental Criminology

-Does not attempt to explain root causes of crime or why people are criminals. -Focuses on the various aspects of "settings" in which crime occurs. Setting---- time, place, what's happening in the environment. -Asserts crimes occur only when the opportunity exists for that crime. -Some settings contain more opportunities for crime than others -Theories of environmental criminology help understand how opportunities are created -Goal is not to explain why a specific offender commits a specific crime but to understand the various aspects of a criminal event to identify patterns of behavior and environmental factors that create opportunities for crime and other unwanted activity.

Problem-Oriented Policing

-First introduced by Herman Goldstein in 1979 -The idea: police take a proactive role in identifying, understanding, and responding to problems (not just incidents) in their communities. -If police were to take a more "problem oriented focus" they could be more effective in impacting crime and disorder problems. To be "problem-oriented" the police must take a new, more systematic approach that demanded that -They collect new data, -Develop new methods of analysis, -Identify innovative solutions, -Apply measures for asserting the success of their efforts. The SARA model includes: -(S)canning and defining specific problems, -(A)nalysizing data to understand the opportunities that create the problem, -(R)expounding to the problem using both police and non-police methods, and -(A)assessing whether the response has worked. -Rooted in the theories of environmental criminology and situational crime prevention. -The analysis and strategies of POP are focused on identifying and reducing the opportunities for crime and disorder problems in specific situations. Research results: -Combined efforts by researchers and practitioners -Although more rigorous research needs to be conducted on POP effort, the evidence so far shows that it is the most promising of the police strategies. -Even those who criticize that POP has not been implemented as Goldstein originally intended- in terms of the depth of the problem identified and analyzed- conclude that even addressing problems somewhat superficially using the problems solving process is enough to impact crime and disorder levels. The role of crime analysis: -Most integral role in problem-oriented policing and the problem solving process. -Necessary for identifying and specifying the problem, analyzing data to understand why the problem is occurring, helping to develop when and where responses would be best implemented, and helping to assess the impact of the response on the problem. -POP cannot happen without crime analysis. Key elements: i. Police take proactive role in identifying, understanding, and responding to problems in their communities. Collect data, develop methods of analysis, identify solutions, and access the success of their efforts. ii. SARA- (Scanning and identifying problems; Analyzing data to understand opportunities to create the problem; Responding to the problems with police and non-police methods; Assessing whether response has worked or not). Crime that has spread out all around the world-cybercrime Strategies: i. Focus is on reducing opportunities for crime and disorder in specific situations. ii. All about identifying a specific problem that is recurring in a community and prevention effort. Research results of evaluation: i. Modest, but significant effect on crime reduction. Positive results of POP reducing crime. Most promising police strategy for PROPERTY crime. ii. Not as effective as CJS needs it to be, but it is still effective. Role of Crime analysis: i. Plays a role in all phases of problem solving (SARA)

What is GIS?

-Geographic Information System (GIS) -The software tools -Allow the crime analysis to map crime in many different ways- from a simple point map to a three-dimensional visualization of spatial or temporal data -A GIS is a set of computer based tools that allow a person to modify, visualize, query, and analyze geographic and tabular data.

Levels of Activity: Immediate Problems

-Incidents that occur and are resolved within minutes, hours, or in some cases, days (e.g hostage taking). -They are responded to by patrol officers and detectives who utilize the investigative skills learned in basic police training and more intensive investigative training. -Two types: 1. Incidents 2. Serious incidents. 1. Incidents: -Individual events that an officer typically responds to or discovers while on patrol. -Citizen and officer-generated calls for service and include crime, disorder, or service related tasks- such as disturbances, robbery in progress, traffic accidents, subject stops, and traffic citations. -Usually occur and are resolved within minutes and/or hours. -The goal is to resolve each incident as quickly and effectively as possible. 2. Serious incidents -individual events that arise from calls for service. -Deemed more serious by laws and policies of the CJ department. -Require additional investigation and or a more extensive immediate response- examples: rapes, hostage negotiations, homicides, traffic fatalities, or armed robbery. -Occur within minutes and or hours but may take days, weeks, or in some cases, months to resolve. -Typically, detectives or specially trained personnel conduct more comprehensive analysis and respond.

Rational Choice Theory

-Offenders make choices about committing crimes based on anticipated risks and rewards. -If given a chance, or the right "opportunity," any person will commit a crime. -Useful for crime analysis and policing because of the importance of determining why groups of offenders choose to commit particular crimes systematically. -Also suggests that individuals will decide not to commit crimes when the risks are too high or the rewards are not adequate; increase risks, decrease rewards to decrease crime likelihood. Example- Thieves on London subway system standing near signs warning that "pickpockets were operating" Why? On noticing the signs, passengers would reassuringly pat whichever pockets contained their wallets, which was a considerable help to the thieves.

Common Components in Definitions

-Supporting the mission of a law enforcement agency -Utilizing systematic methods and information -Providing information to a range of audiences

3. Strategic Crime Analysis

-The analysis of data directed towards development and evaluation of long term strategies, and prevention techniques. -Its subjects include long term statistical trends, hot spots, and problems. -Although it often starts with data from police records systems, strategic analysis usually includes the collection of primary data from a variety of other sources through both quantitive and qualitative methods. Processes and techniques of strategic crime analysis include: -Trend analysis, -Hot spot analysis, -Problem analysis

2. Tactical Crime Analysis

-The analysis of data directed towards the short-term development of patrol and investigative priorities and deployment of resources. -It's subject areas include the analysis of space, time, offender, victim, and modus operandi for individual high-profile crimes, repeat inicdents, and crime patterns, with a specific focus on crime series. Processes and techniques of tactical crime analysis include: -Repeat incident analysis (i.e where they repeat). -Criem pattern analysis (i.e related crimes) -Linking known offenders to past crimes. -Criminal investigative analysis (aka criminal profiling). -Goegraphic profiling. · Focus on tactic of the offender that is unknown. Tactical crime analysis is for similar crimes- burglary "DR", robbery, auto theft. Crime is committed and then the offender goes unknown. Understanding tactic behind crimes. · Crimes mostly go unknown. Analyze the most Recent crimes. Run tactical analysis to understand the modus operandi of unknown offender. Pull up incident report and then create data set and link data set to each other. 30 most recent cases of the specific crime.

Intelligence Led Policing (ILP)

-The intelligence or analysis function is central in police agency's crime reduction and prevention efforts. -focused on prolific and serious offenders. -No systematic evaluations of its effectiveness on crime reduction.

What is Crime Mapping?

-The process of using a GIS conduct spatial analysis of the crime problems and police related issues. 3 Main functions crime mapping: 1. To facilitate the visual and statistical analysis of the spatial nature of the crime and other types of events. 2. To provide the ability to link unlike data sources together based on a common geographic variable -e.g linking census information, school information, and crime data for a common area. 3. To create maps communicating analysis results.

Repeat victimization

-The recurrence of crime in the same places and or against the same people. -People and places that have been victimized in the past have a higher likelihood of being victimized again than do people and places that have never been victimized. -Individuals, streets, neighborhoods, properties, brands, could be victims. -Best predictor for victimization is if the person or place has been victimized in the past. -Facilitates the identification of patterns of opportunity Provides a focus for prevention, since those who have been victimized in the past should be at the top of the list for the targeting of prevention measures. 4 types of repeat victimization: -True repeat victims: the same residents living in the same house that was burglarized twice -Near victims: victims or targets that are physically close to the original victim and share characteristics with the original victim. Burglarly of several condos in the same community is an example because they are physically close but may also have the same door locks and ohsycial design. -Virtual repeats: victims or targets that are virtually identical to he original victim and share characteristics. For example, an electronics retail store of the same name that a re victimized across cities or states are virtual repeats becuause they have similar, if not identical, store layouts, policies, and types of property. Also, new occupants (owners of a store or residents of a home) of a place that twas victimized in the past are virtual repeats. -Chronic victims: Also called multple victimization, these are individuals who are repeatedly victimized over time by various offenders for various types of crimes (Assault, robbery, theft). Repeat victimization is also related to other ways in which crime cluster: -Repeat offenders: individuals who commit multiple crimes. These can be individuals who specialize in one type of crime (robbery) or commit a variety of crimes (theft, robbery, assault) -Hot spots: these are areas that suffer proportionately large amounts of crime. Areas can be hotspots based on one type of crime or a variety of crime. The size of the hotspot area depends on both the amount of crime and relative size of the jurisdiction. -Hot targets: types of places that are frequently victimized that are not necessarily in the same area. Examples include beauty salons, convenience stores, day care centers, bars, and fast food restuarnts. -Risky facilities: individual locations that attract or generate a dispproportionate amount of crime. Examples include a very large retail plaza or mall, a low budget motel, and a high school. -Hot products: types of property that are repeatedly victimized (CRAVED). Examples include cell phones, laptop computers, and weapons.

Problem Stratification

-Units of crime analysis center on the idea of the crime or disorder "problem" in contrast to the individual "incident." Important to distinguish different types for different types of analysis: Problems- 1. Immediate 2. Short-term 3. Long-term

Crime pattern theory

-seeks to understand how people come together in space and time within crime settings -Criminal events are more likely to occur in areas where the activity space of potential offenders overlaps with the activity space of potential victims/targets -An individual's activity space is that area that becomes familiar to him or her through everyday activities. -A crime event involving this offender and this victim can only occur within or stem from the intersection of their activity spaces. -Suggests that offenders commit crimes in places they know or frequent (ex: Home Alone movie). -Ex: we all go to grocery stores, schools, workplace. Crime patterned around these places. This is where victim and offender come into convergence Journey to Crime: -Bernasco (2010), offenders are more than 22 times more likely to commit crimes in an area where they currently live or formerly lived than in a comparable area where they have never lived, and this effect is similar for burglary, robbery, and theft from auto. -activity space: also, the space that or where the offenders are aware of.

The Crime Analysis Process

-the crime/problem analysis process begins with observations (data) -Data come from many sources including, in most cases, from outside crime analysis -Analysts examine data observed and collected by others, such as police officers, call for service dispatchers (911), community service officers, census workers, and geographers Collection Collation Analysis (data modification subsycle) Dissemination Feedback

1. Crime Intelligence analysis

1. Crime Intelligence analysis: · The analysis of data about people involved in crimes, particularly repeat offenders, repeat victims, and criminal organizations and networks. -· The confidential collection of information- "intelligence" about individuals and networks. -It seeks to understand more about the content of the lives, jobs, activities, motives, and plans of these individuals and networks, -Using this information to find ways to deter or disrupt harmful activity, -Often through priority enforcement, prosecution, and military or paramilitary action, but also strategies that do not depend on enforcement, such as focused deterrence. Processes and techniques of crime intelligence analysis include: -Repeat offender and victim analysis -Criminal history analysis -Link analysis -Commodity flow analysis -Communication analysis -Social media analysis

Key points about opportunity

1. Opportunities play a role in causing all crime. 2. Crime Opportunities are highly specific; (3) concentrated in time and space; (4) depend on everyday movements of activity. 5. One crime produces opportunities for another. 6. Some products offer more tempting crime opportunities than do others. 7. Social and technological changes produce new crime opportunities. 8. Crime can be prevented through the reduction of opportunities. 9. Reducing opportunities does not usually result in the displacement of crime. 10. Focused opportunity reduction can produce wider declines in crime.

Types of long term problems

1. Problem location (also called a "risky place") -Individual addresses or a type of place at which there is a concentration of crime or problematic activty -Various victims and offenders are involved in the activity -analysis: identifying all the activity, understanding how opportunities are created and acted upon and how that location or type of place compares to similar, non-problematic places. 2. Problem Offender (also called repeat offender) -Individual people who commit a disproportionate amount of crime or groups of offenders that share characteristics. -One person or a group of people move through different settings and take advantage of different victims. -Analysis and responses: understanding and addressing offenders and their behavior specifically. 3. Problem victim (or repeat victim) -Individual people or groups of victims who share characteristics. -One person or a group of people move through different settings and are victimized by different offenders. -Analysis and response: determines why these individuals are victimized and what about their behavior makes them vulnerable. 4. Problem property (or hot product) -Not one invidividual piece of property that is repeatedly stolen, but is a type of product that shares characteristics that make them attractive and vulnerable in various situations to various types of offenders. -Analysis and response: examines the crime settings around the property and the opportunities that exist. 5. Compound problem -Most broad type -Less frequent of all types of problems -Encompases various locations, offenders, and victims and in most cases exists through an entire jurisdiction -Analysis: require the most comprehensive analysis and response because there may be a number of factors (e.g offenders, locations, and victims) that are contributing to the problem.

Levels of Activity: Short Term Problems

1. Repeat Incidents 2. Patterns. 1. repeat incidents- Clusters -Two or more incidents that are similar in nature- have happened at the same place (typically) or by the same person- usually common non-criminal incidents or interpersonal incidents -Happens within hours, days, and in some cases weeks. -Analysis and problem solving: Focuses on identifying addresses with multiple calls for service and resolving the immediate underlying issue. 2. Patterns -Group of two or more crimes reported or discovered by police that is treated as one unit of analysis because they share one or more key commonalities which make them notable and distinct -There is no known relationship between victim and offender. -Criminal activity is typically of limited duration (occurs over days, weeks, or months). -patterns of these crimes are vitally important to police, citizens, business, the media, and all members of a community because they are perceived as the most immediate threat to personal safety. Difference between patterns and repeat incidents: -type of data that are analyzed -Repeat incidents consist of common "quality of life" or service calls. -Patterns consist of repeated more serious crime.

Goals of Crime Analysis

1. To support the operations of a PD 2. To assist in criminal apprehension 3. To prevent crime through methods other than apprehension 4. The final goal of crime analysis is also to assist with the evaluation of police efforts -Success of crime prevention programs and initiatives -Whether police organization is running effectively.

Geographic Information System (GIS)

A GIS is a set of computer-based tools that allows the user to modify, visualize, query, and analyze geographic and tabular data.

Data

A collection of organized information that has been collected or gleaned from experience, observation or experiment, or as set of ideas o Data: information that has been collected; numbers and trends are related to data. Information- numbers, words, or pictures. From experience, observation, or experiments. Human beings understand their surroundings with their five senses. This is called "observing your surroundings/life with your senses" How does something become observation? You inform yourself. § Information- something you're experiencing on a daily basis. § The idea of data collected information. Data is a plural form of datum. We get informed on a daily basis. § How is the daily information different from the data?---Data is STRUCTURED. Systematic way of collecting the data, not randomly asking questions, but you're asking this to any subject. Systematic way of getting the information from the unit of analysis. § Definition: A collection of organized info that has been collected or gleaned from experience, observation or experiment, or a set of ideas

Situational crime prevention

A crime prevention method that relies on reducing the opportunity to commit criminal acts by making them more difficult to perform, reducing their reward, and increasing their risks. Increase effort Increase risk Reduce rewards Reduce provocations Remove excuses

History of Crime Mapping

Beginnings of Crime mapping -Cartographic school of criminology examined levels of crime summarized by different areas (regions) and their relationship to sociological factors *look at PPTS for crime maps US- 1900- 1970 -New country, maps and census Data not readily available. -1920s and 30s, urban sociologists in Chicago mapped juvenile delinquency -1950s, 60s, and 70s, sociologists and others looking at crime and its causes continued to examine sociological factors -In the late 60s, spatial analysis of crime began to be conducted using large computer systems and unsophisticated visualization methods. 1970 to Present -During the late 60s, 70s, and early 80s, there was a movement by researchers in England, Canada, and the US to shift the study of crime away from the focusing on the criminal offender towards focusing on the criminal event -Significant improvements in computer technology and police data systems occurred in the early to mid-1990s -Crime mapping was advocated by Vice President Al Gore in the mid 1990s. -Government funding was allocated for police agencies to obtain crime mapping technology.

History of crime analysis

Beginnings of crime analysis: -London in the early 19th century. -Metropolitan Police Act, passed in the 1820s, -About 1,000 men were organized to form a London police force -Evidence of crime statistics. US 1900-1970 -Early 20th century: august volume wrote about pin mapping, the regular review of police reports, and the formation of patrol districts based on crime volume. 1950s and 60s': -Analysis happening but no evidence of crime analysis products (O.W Wilson's Writings) -Both emphasized that crime analysis must be formalized. 1970s: -1968 Omnibus Crime control and Safe Streets Act -Awarness of the use of analysis and evaluation in policing -Allocation of federal grants to assist state and local police agencies with any purpose associated with crime. COLLECTING AND ANALYZING DATA. -Beginnings of environmental criminology. -1973 Police Crime analysis Unit handbook -Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, Inc. (CALEA) in 1979. 1980s: -International Association of Crime analysts (IACA) -Problem Oriented Policing (1990), Herman Goldstein; When disease gets contagious in an area; signals them and usually are specific diseases. Collect and analyze data and then respond to it for prevention. Emphasized crime analysis. -Community policing -Improvements in computer hardware and software -1994 Violent Crime Control and Safe Streets Act -COMPSTAT; evaluating statistics on crime rates, NYPD initiated to collect and analyze data and have weekly meetings.

Literature

Center for Problem-Oriented Policing (POP) Center -popcenter.org -Create, warehouse, and distribute all the relevant research and practice on problem-oriented policing and more generally crime prevention -"Problem oriented guides for police" -Response guides -Problem solving tool guides.

Summary

Crime analysis is a discipline that relies heavily on computer technology, both hardware and a variety of software programs. o Crime analysis data is the topic of this week. Data is nothing but structured information. Information becomes data if you're able to put it into systematic structure and database. o Unit of analysis- what or who the data is collected for § Suspect, arrestee, jail, bookings, admissions, etc. o Good quality of data is related to systematic and agreed upon § Standardized o Never trust data that other people collect o Need good database. o Collect, collate, analyze, report, and feedback

Hardware and software considerations

Crime analysts use four basic types of general desktop software applications to organize data as well as to conduct analyses 1. Database management software 2. Spreadsheet software 3. Statistical software 4. GIS software 6 basic software applications, alone or in combination to create reports, publications, and presentations 1. Word processing software 2. spreadsheet software 3. graphics software 4. Publication softwaare 5. Presentation software 6. Software related to the use of internet and intranets A number of software applications have been created specifically for crime analysis -Smaller applications for data entry, etc. -Applications designed specifically for crime analysis have been created to perform functions that are not available in other existing software -Police departments have created their own software to perform crime analysis -Crime analysts use software products to automate the creation of crime analysis reports that are nearly identical each day, week, or month

Chapter 2: Theoretical foundations of Crime Analysis

Crime theories- on how people commit crime; to break chain of commission

Tabular Data

Events that are not inherently geographic but that may contain geographic variables o XY and dates on key terms slide- they are just XY coordinates and dates, they aren't quantitative or qualitative.

Standard Model of Policing

Involves enforcing the law in a broad and reactive way, primarily using police resources -Increased number of police officers (to increase the ability to detect crime and arrest offenders). -Unfocused, random motorized patrols (to create a perception of a police "omnipresence" to deter crime in public places). -Rapid response to calls for service (to increase the likelihood of catching offenders). -Follow up investigations by detectives (to increase the solvability of the crimes). -General reactive arrest policies (to deter and punish specific offenders as well as deter the general public from committing crimes). -of limited effectiveness. Role of crime analysis: -Little use for crime analysis in generally applied strategies -Determining the level of staffing in particular areas and providing statistics of police performance. Key elements: i. Enforcing the law in a broad and reactive way, primarily using police resources. Unfocused and not having the most evidence or targeting of anything, overwatching an area. ii. Assumption to prevent crime: random patrol around an area. First used, standard model. Emphasized random controls and hope in catching criminals. iii. Reactive policing-Reacts to crime, as opposed to proactive policing- setting up expectation of prevention. Strategies: i. Increased number of police officers (to increase ability to detect crime and arrests). ii. Unfocused, random monitored patrols (to create perception of police omnipresence to deter crime in public places). iii. Rapid response to calls for service (to increase likelihood of catching offenders). iv. Follow-up investigations by detectives (to increase the solvability of the crimes) v. General reactive arrest policies (to deter and punish specific offenders as well as general public). Research results of evaluation i. Not scientifically proven to be effect to control the crime because it is too broad. Doesn't focus on any specifics. Role of Crime analysis i. Little use beyond resource allocations (how many police are needed, etc.).

Crime Analysis Unit organizational chart

Intern/volunteer (police agency requirements) Crime analysis technician (HS, 2 years administrative) Entry-level crime analyst (BA, limited experience) ---> Speciality crime analyst (BA, 2 years relevant experience) OR Experienced Crime analyst (BA, 2 years crime analysis Crime analysis supervisor (MA, 2 years crime analysis, 1 year supervisory). Embedded Criminologist- works within police agency w/ doctorate degree. not analysits but may assist with projects and work closely with analyst personnel.

Table 1. Summary of Crime Analysis Assessment

ON PPT. A. All of these are Not mutually exclusive. Crime is normal in any social group. Need to react to the crime (Standard model) but to react to the crime, we need community (COMPOL), need to control through (POP) and concentration of crime in places (Hotspots), B. Rule of thumb: ***5% of all offenders in a jurisdiction commit 50% of crimes, but those 50% of crimes by 5% of offenders are taking place in 5% of cities...if you can identify those risky 5% of offenders**

Chapter 4: Crime Analysis Process and Application

Outline: Crime Analysis Process 1. Collection 2. collation 3. analysis 4. Dissemination 5. Feedback Data modification subcycle between collection and analysis Types of Crime Analysis 1. Crime intelligence analysis 2. Tactical CA 3. Strategic CA 4. Administrative CA Crime Mapping

Crime Mapping by Type of Analysis

Plays an important role in every type of analysis: -In crime intelligence analysis: where they live, work, and frequent (i.e, activity space). -Tactical crime analysis: patterns that are linked by the proximity of the incidents. -Strategic crime analysis: a) crime-disorder relationship, b) patterns of crime around specific locations (e.g schools), c) crime rates, d) incorporate crime data with qualitative info such as youth hangouts. -Administratvie crime analysis: determine geographic allocation of resources; convey criminal activity information to the public.

Outline of Policing strategies and levels of activity

Policing strategies (Key elements, research findings, role of crime analysis) 1. Standard Model 2. COMPOL 3. POP 4. Hotspots 5. Focused deterrence 6. BWP 7. CompStat 8. Predictive Policing Levels of Activity 1. Immediate 2. Short term 3. Long term

Primary Data collection

Primary data collected from people: -interviews- more in depth because they are one-on one and allow the analyst to clarify issues and use follow up questions with the interviewee -Focus groups are essentially interviews with groups of people -Surveys are used to collect information from a large number of individuals when resources and time do not allow interviews Primary data collected from places: -An environmental survey is used to systematically observe the physical features of a location -Direct observation refers to observing a location for a certain amount of time over several days or weeks to determine the social environment of the location.

Components of the Defintion:

Study: -Focused and systematic examination -Not haphazard or anecdotal -Application of social science: Data collection procedures, analytical methods, and statistical techniques. Qualitative and Quantitative data and methods: -Qualititative: examination of non-numerical data for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships (e.g, field research, observation). -Quantitative: conducting statistics on numerical or categorical data (frequencies, percentages, means, and rates). Crime and Disorder: -Information related to the nature of the incidents, offenders, and victims or targets -Much more than just the examination of crime incidents Socio-demographic information -Characteristics of individuals and groups such as sex, race, income, age, and education. -individual level: search for and identify crime suspects -Broader level: determine the characteristics of groups within areas Spatial nature of crime and police related issues -Visual displays of crime locations and their relationship to other events -Analytical techniques to determine clusters of activity Temporal nature of crime and police related issues -Long term trends over years -The seasonal nature of crime -Mid-length and short term patterns (e.g days/times).

Levels of Activity: Difference Between a Pattern and a Problem

Scope and length: -A problem: chronic (long developing) in frequency and duration and may be characterized by acute spikes, A crime pattern: acure (sever and sudden) in its frequency and duration Nature of activity: -A problem: related to "harmful events" that may include crime, safety, disorder or quality of life concerns, -A crime pattern- is limited to a specific set of reported crimes. Response: -A problem requires specialized strategic responses that often involve multi-agency and community collaboration -A crime pattern typically requires routine operational tactics carried out primarily by the police.

Problem Analysis Triangle

Small triangle: -Represents a particular type of problematic activity -Three sides and on top of the smaller triangle are the four necessary components for a crime to occur. -A crime event occurs when an offender and victim or target come together at a particular place at a particular time. Larger triangle: -Types of people or mechanisms that can exhibit control over victims/targets, places, and offenders. -They have the ability to both discourage or reduce opportunities and encourage or increase the opportunities for crime. Larger triangle cont'd: -Guardians: People who have the ability to protect victims/targets by watching over them or removing them from particular settings. -Managers: people who are responsible for places, such as hotel or store clerks and apartment building managers. They set rules and manage the places in crime settings. -Handlers: people who know the potential offenders and are in positions that allow them to monitor and or control potential offenders' actions. ***NEVER FORGET*** When crime is occurring: All INNER elements of the triangle must be PRESENT All OUTER elements WEAK or ABSENT

Displacement

Spatial, Temporal, Target, Tactical

What theories tell us

Specific event ---> RCT Crime Triangle --->RAT Crime mapping---> CPT How to prevent crime? Situational crime prevention---S.CP

Problem Analysis Triangle

The concept that at the core of environmental criminology theory, which asserts that crime occurs only when a motivated offender and a victim/target come together with likelihood of occurrence affected by handlers/guardians

Collection

The crime analysis data collection process requires the following: data must... 1. be collected accurately and consistently. 2. Only data relevant for crime analysis are compiled 3. Be collected in a timely manner. 4. Be stored (or achieved) for an adequate amount of time to allow for effective analysis 5. Be accessible in electronic raw form to be queried and downloaded These requirements apply to any data used in CJ, even data obtained outside the police agency (e.g probation and parole data, geographic data, and census information). · Ex: At what time does shop lifting occur most? · List all incidents; day/hour. · To ask a good question, need to know the 8 components of crime · After the questionfind the data · Sticky notes- many experienced cj professionals use it. Mental notes about an incident; NOT DATA. · Systematic collection of data needed, and analytical tool needed. · Mental notes and Experiences do not reflect the reality; it misses key pieces of information like guardianship, and locations, etc. · Analysis/prevention- is the broader goal. To prevent, you should know what to prevent, which requires analysis. Prevention goes back to analysis and good quality of data and data comes from datum (one observation). · Observation- go out and observe things, people, places, etc. and take notes. A datum is an observation and data are a lot of observations in the same nature which is what you analyze. Data about incidents, locations, offenders, victims, etc- must have tabular data to feed illustration. To summarize the data; collecting data in this format will allow you to answer some questions about components of the crime. · Systematic, accurate, and consistent data collection. Know what to focus on, where, and the time, among other factors. · Observation know what data sources you have (9-11 calls) and analyze data and make decision on what is the biggest crime in the community.

Community policing (COMPOL)

The key elements of community policing: 1. Police must work with the community. 2. Draw from other resources outside police to prevent and solve crime problems. -One of the most widely adopted police strategies in the last several decades -May be more of a philosophy of policing than a specific strategy. Several specific strategies have been primarily used to represent community policing in evaluations. 1. Neighborhood watch 2. Strategies that increase flow of information from the community to the police. 3. strategies in which the police provide crime information to the public. Research results: -because community policing is difficult to define, it has also been difficult to evaluate. -Neighborhood watch, community meetings, storefront offices, and newsletters do not reduce crime. -Door-to door visits by police have been found to reduce crime but simply providing information about crime to the public has not shown to prevent crime. -Overall community policing as measured by these specific strategies does not seem to increase police effectiveness on preventing crime. The role of crime analysis: -Crime analysts provide crime statistical information to community groups. -Crime analysis also assists by collecting and analyzing information from the public. -When community policing also induces problem solving, crime analysis plays a key role. Key elements: i. Focuses on relationships with members of the community. How does the community prevents/controls crime? ii. Developing partnerships and relationships with community to understand and respond to problems and engender cooperation and legitimacy of the police so that partnerships are meaningful. Problem Solving techniques. iii. Not really focused on how to do this. Strategies: i. Neighborhood watch, ii. Increasing surveillance by residents and community iii. Increasing flow of information from community to police through community meetings, iv. Officers walking their beat and talking to residents, v. Storefront beat offices, vi. Providing crime info to the public. Research results of evaluation i. Just community policing from 1980s may not control or prevent crime. Role of Crime analysis: i. Not much of it, Gets info from citizens to get information from them to inform the police system. Crime analyst units are like the manufacturers of information. Create analysis and distribute them out to public.

Conclusions

The more focused and specific strategies of the police and the more they are tailored to the problems they see to address, the more effective the police will be in controlling crime and disorder. ·Evidence based policing: what type of evidence we are referring to when we refer to evidence-based policing? o Research evidence- whether what we're doing is working. o Policing- the strategies and tactics. How to keep things orderly in an area. o Policing=prevention. · When police are around a particular area, it usually prevents crime from being there. · Origin of policing: Rome—protection of some places. Policing started in western societies. In the form that youth in a community (village/other setting) were tied to each other to be in charge of each other. The community set the youth in charge of each other. Controlling each other in case any of them could be harmful toward other people. First form of getting around infractions and violations in a community. All about prevention. Protection of people of community was the essence of policing. If you want to have less criminals, then go for the obvious, try to prevent the crime through policing. Use strategies that are based on evidence from research that it works to prevent the crime. Crime rates per 100k by year--- o Crimes are going up. Tasked with controlling it and preventing. If you are able to turn it around and give it a downward trend you are preventing it. o Control- on the grid is a straight line o Prevention- is crime going on down line.

Crime mapping

The process of using a GIS to conduct spatial analysis of crime and disorder problems as well as other police related issues

Definition of Crime Analysis

The systematic study of crime and disorder problems as well as other police related issues -Including socio demographic, spatial, and temporal factors. To assist the police in: -Criminal apprehension, -Crime and disorder reduction, -Crime prevention, and -Evaluation (of effectiveness of an agency) Crime as a disease of the community

Crime pattern theory

a theory that addresses the nature of the immediate situations in which crimes occur. According to this theory, criminal events are most likely to occur in areas where the activity space of offenders overlaps with the activity space of potential victims/targets.

Rational Choice Theory

a theory that asserts that all people make choices about the actions they take based on the opportunities and rewards they anticipate receiving as a result. This theory suggests that, if given a chance or right opportunity, any person will commit a crime.

Routine Activities Theory

a theory that focuses on how opportunities for crime change based on changes in behavior on a societal level.

Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA)

an independent accrediting authority whose purpose is to improve delivery of police service by offering a body of standards, developed by police practitioners, covering a wide range of up-to date police topics.

Diffusion of benefits

efforts to prevent one crime help prevent another; in other instances, crime control efforts in one locale reduce crime in another area

Databases (summary)

o 1. Calls for service o 2. Accidents o 3. Crime incidents o 4. Arrests o 5. Persons o 6. Property o 7. Vehicle o 8. Field Information o 9. Traffic o 10. Known offender o 11. Registered sex offender · Sample Crime incidents data table · Criminality in the US is measured by number and rates of arrest. · Having data bases is important but understanding it is the most important. Crime prevention strategies and data are important. How you can understand the nature of crime and reduce the crime and where you're supposed to be present. · Record management system and CAD · Any illustration has underlying data. o Fed by tabular data o But sometimes, one illustration may not be enough for you to understand.

Geographic Data System

o A system that creates, maintains, and stores geographic data to be used by various departments and agencies.

Collation

o The main sources of data (e.g crime reports and calls for service) used in CA are general police data collection systems. o They capture and store data but not facilitate analysis o So, crime analysist might need to purposefully change the data before they can use them for anlaysis. Three forms § Cleaning: process of correcting mistakes and inconsistences in the data § Geocoding: process of bringing crime analysis together with geographic data- so they can be analyzed spatially. § Creating new variables: process of recording or computing new variables from existing ones; (e.g call for service response time and categories of crime). ·· Arranging and organizing and categorizing the data that's been collected. When your data do not answer the question that you're trying to answer, you can add more information into the data set. · Add categories to your collected data. Setting the question is more important than running the analysis. ***** MIDTERM QUESTION: What is collation; which one is NOT a type of a data collation or a type of Collation?

Repeat Victimization

the recurrence of crime in the same places and/or against the same people Know the four types: -True repeat -Near victims -Virtual repeats -Chronic victims Also related to: -Repeat offenders -Hot spots -Risky facilities -Hot products

Database

§ A data matrix that has been organized for the purposes of retrieval, searching, and analysis through a computer. § Must be consistent. If you're getting data that you didn't collect, try to understand if there is inconsistencies. If you see them, try to test what is meant by the concepts.

Data Matrix

§ A rectangular table of variables and units from which data have been collected, such as individuals, organizations, crimes, that are organized into rows and columns § Unit of analysis- in the rows § Columns are the variables § The data organized in table/excel § Stored.

Secondary Data

§ Data that have been collected previously and normally on an ongoing basis; such data are typically housed in electronic databases. Most of the data looked at in Criminal Justice are secondary data.

Geographic data

§ data about the geographic features associated with crime and other activity into geographic information systems for analysis purposes. Most widely used system

What do we mean by 80/20 rule (also called the Pareto Principle)?

• 80% of some kinds of outcomes are the result of only 20% of the related causes. • Small portion of victims/targets are a result of large amount of crime. More months have more crime, 1-2 hours out of 24 hours has more crime, etc. • By identifying small portion of areas, victims, and offenders where a large amount of activity is concentrated, police can get the most out of their crime prevention efforts.

Why is theory important in Crime analysis?

• A theory has been tested out on different situations and different people. Testing and trying to prove/disprove. Trying to prove something. • It might not be able to be experimented on, it might just be a general explanation that is bigger than you can prove. All about us human beings and we try to explain why something we see is happening. Causes are usually related to the concept. • Tries to give us insight about why something is happening. Gives us factors to look at when looking at crime. • Helps us prevent crime. Need to understand causes, etc to prevent it. Need to know crime to prevent it.

What does Situational Crime Prevention mean? And why is it useful?

• Changes certain features of the situation to prevent the crime. • Situation= includes a set of conditions. Those conditions might be related to place, time, regulations, people, type of behavior. • In rational choice theory, we learned that anyone could commit crime by making cost/benefit analysis. If costs are high and benefits are low, you're not going to do it. • We can manipulate the situations and decrease the benefits of the crime. • Situational crime prevention is extension of rational choice theory. If we prevent crime, we have to focus on the situation. Situational crime prevention tells us that if we increase the risks, we can reduce the benefits and remove the excuses and then are in a better prevention to control the crime situations. If can't find opportunity, can't commit the crime. ex: adding cameras to a store would deter an offender; increases risk. • Crimes can be prevented if community has good mechanism of control. Know which tests/analyzing you're going to do. Safe community depends on crime analysis.

What is Problem Analysis Triangle and what is its use?

• Explains the situations that occur to let crime happen. Inner triangle: • Offender • Victim/Target • Place Outer triangle: • Handler (control over offender) • Guardian (protects victim) • Manager (protects place) • If one of the things in the outer triangle are present, maybe might prevent the crime. If there is enough guardianship, then crime is not going to happen (social control, informal/formal). • Guardianship helps you figure out who else should be involved in crime prevention • ***MIDTERM KNOW GAURDIANSHIP (3 Questions on it) ***.

What is repeat victimization?

• Four types of repeat victimization: • 1. True repeat victims: Same target/victim attacked twice. • 2. Near victims: Victims or targets that are physically close to the original victim and share characteristics with the original victim. • 3. Virtual repeats: Victims or targets that are virtually identical to the original victim and share characteristics. (ex: an electronics retail stores of the same name that are victimized across cities and states are virtual repeats because they have similar, if not identical, store layouts, policies, and types of property. Also, new occupants (owners of a store or residents of a home) of a place that was victimized in the past are virtual repeats). • 4. Chronic victims: Also called multiple victimization, these are individuals who are repeatedly victimized over time by various offenders for various types of crimes (e.g assault, robbery, theft). -More likely in cases of rape, (domestic abuse victim; offender has access to victim very easily).

What does Routine Activities Theory propose? And how does it influence the way we think about crime?

• If there's a motivated offender, a victim, and the opportunity. • Basis of crime analysis (1979)-----Cohen and Felson: crime occurs around daily routine activities of people. A specific crime is being committed when motivated offender converges suitable target/victim in absence of a capable guardian. -Crime occurs when offender meets victim/target in time and space in the absence of a capable gaurdian (protects victim); motivation, suitability of target, etc. • Crime occurs when guardianship lacks; when other people are around, you're not going to commit a crime. • Crimes could be prevented by the community. • Residential Burglary: more likely to occur at night. -Burglary happening more often because: • 1. The society's routines have changed; female citizens working outside home. This caused the houses to be left unattended. • 2. Society's routine changed because of new technology: television and other appliances in 60's-70s. More things to be stolen. Those who cannot afford but want them anyway are going to steal them. • When something new comes into society, think about how that could cause a crime. • Summary: Crime is the business of human beings, crime is an event, and crime is a decision. In any crime, it's going to revolve around opportunity. Specific crimes have specific patterns, decision making, and revolve around routine activities. -Jurisdiction (2 types in criminal justice): • Jurisdiction in Authority • Jurisdiction in Geography • In any jurisdiction in CJ, this is what we're looking for: if there's a specific crime that is going up or down; if this crime is a product of something new in the jurisdiction • Any new changes in jurisdiction may result in new crimes to go up. • Something new can come into your city or something could be leaving/dying in your city (like factories/jobs leaving a city).

What does Rational Choice Theory propose? And how does it influence the way we think about crime?

• States that before any action is taken, the person pursuing the action weighs the risks of the action and rewards. • Type of crime matters. What are the factors that go into that choice. Learn what types of risks are too high to prevent crime. Addresses 3 concepts: • What is the benefit of the crime? (risks/rewards?) • People make decisions before they act • If crime is an act, then they have to have a plan. How do we make our plans? Making plans on specific events. • Crime specificity: narrow it down to specific crime and then analyze it.

What does Crime Pattern Theory propose? And how does it influence the way we think about crime?

• Suggests how can you reduce crime. Specific suggestions are based around the location of the offender and where they are more likely to commit crime. • Where the offender will have more victims/targets. • Life is patterned around time and so is crime. Analyze temporal aspects and geography. Crime is being committed by people and those people are going to commit crime and they are going to form some patterns, like temporal/geographic patterns or some patterns targeting similar items. • Why criminals are targeting specific things/people at specific times.