Midterm Review Questions
What is the evidence that led modern biblical scholars to formulate the Documentary Hypothesis theory?
Evidence that has led modern biblical scholars to formulate this theory are doublets and triplets found within text. From there we can dissect the text even further by recognizing different language, literary styles, theological approaches, etc.
8. Describe the ancient Near Eastern treaty form, as well as the social categories that treaty language uses for its conceptualization.
Ancient Near Eastern treaties provide important comparative data for interpreting the biblical concepts of covenant. There are two primary types of ancient Near Eastern Treaties: the parity treaties and the suzerainty treaties. Parity treaties are treaties between equal partners, whereas suzerainty treaties occur between a superior and an inferior (vassal). In a parity treaty, the treaty partners often times refer to each other as "brother." However, in a Suzerainty treaty they refer to each other with one of two metaphors: (1) master to slave or servant and (2) father to son. As an extension of the father-son analogy, the relationship between the two parties of a treaty is often described as one of "love" as well as "know."
Explain the Documentary Hypothesis. What are its intellectual organs?
Associated especially with the nineteenth century German biblical scholar, Julius Wellhausen, the Documentary Hypothesis posits that there are four main literary works - labeled J, E, P, and D - that stand behind the final version of the Pentateuch.
Provide a feminist-critical interpretive analysis of Genesis 1-3 and/or the Song of Songs.
Genesis 1-3 is arguably gender basis, I mean after all the Bible was written by men, in a patriarchal society. Right off the bat in Genesis 1-3 God gives the man the job of naming all of the animals and his new creation (a woman) a name. God is setting precedents that men are dominate over women because after all we were made from a man. Women were given to man because the animals were not suffice enough for him. Women are mans helper. They were created for the sole purpose of child bearing, being only necessary to man for reproduction. God also designates the labor spheres, giving man the hard laboring jobs (mainly using there hands, outside jobs, etc.) because women were not seen as physically strong enough to perform hard labor. Therefore, women got stuck with caring for the kids and having to do household duties. After all Yahweh gave Adam a women which he then blames the downfall of humanity on. God's does not give a statement of consequences, but declares a divine punishment.
5. What is "history"? Does the Hebrew Bible qualify as history? Why or why not? What complications are there in using the biblical writings as sources of history?
History is the study of the past, particularly the people, societies, events, and problems of the past, and our attempts to understand them. We look at the Bible for a better understanding of what was going and try to figure out biblical society, etc. The question of whether the Bible is history is quite tricky. Depending on book/specific text determines whether or not the Bible is history. I say this because we don't have evidence that each and every story written in the Bible is true or false. Scholars use source-criticism to determine whether or not texts are history. They also use archeological evidence, letters, steles, artifacts, etc to aid them in their decision on whether or not the Bible is history. It can be complicated to use the biblical writings as a source of history due to many reasons. For example, there are some books/stories in the Bible that have specific archeological evidence that those events happened. The Bible often times, has multiple versions of the stories. There is evidence for multiple stages of writing, editing, and redaction, introducing anachronisms and other elements from the time of the late biblical authors and editors.
Discuss the Genesis creation stories in Genesis 1-3 within their ancient Near Eastern context. Using specific examples, compare and contrast at length the Genesis creation stories with other biblical creation texts, such as Psalm 74 and Habakkuk 3, as well as Enuma Elish.
In Genesis 1-3 there are two creation stories, the P found in Gen 1-2:4a and non-P found in Gen 2:4b-3:22. These two accounts of the creation story can be quite different when you dive into the text. For example, the P material refers to deity as Elohim whereas the non-P refers to deity as Yahweh. In addition, Elohim appears as a transcendent deity and Yahweh seems to be imagined in human-like terms (anthropomorphic). Another example, is that Elohim (God) creates through speech and ordering/separation where as Yahweh creates through highly physical acts. Enuma Elish and the creation stories found in Gen 1-3 have many similarities and differences. Like the P and non-P creation stories, Enuma Elish begins with a temporal clause describing preexisting realities. Creation in both Genesis and Enuma Elish occurs through the process of ordering already existing elements into a structured cosmos by the creator deity. Although there are many similarities there are also many differences. One difference is that Genesis lacks the complex polytheism of Enuma Elish. In addition, God creates through speech in Gen 1, while Marduk creates following an epic battle with Tiamat. In Gen 1 humans rule creation, whereas in Enuma Elish humans serve the gods as their slave/servants, building them homes and providing them food. Psalm 74 and Enuma Elish have many parallels within their stories. They both have to battle and defeat either a sea monster or sea goddess in order to create the cosmos. Whereas in Habakkuk 3 it appears the cosmos have already been created. In all three stories it they all have an epic battle, which then results in the people having a "hero" and praising the deity.
Apply the historical-critical method to specific biblical texts/traditions, such as the ancestor traditions in Genesis, the Flood accounts in Genesis 6-9, and/or the Exodus tradition(s).
In Genesis 6-9 we can see numerous narrative and linguistic doublets throughout the passage, therefore, we can see that there is most likely two sources. This is where source criticism comes into play. Source criticism helps us distinguish the sources in this text, P and non-P. The first difference I spot is why the flood was sent. In the P source, Elohim sends the flood because of human violence and corruption, whereas in the non-P Yahweh sends the flood because of human corruption. Next, I see the P source has detailed instructions from God to Noah for building the arch, whereas in the non-P, Yahweh gives Noah no instructions. In my opinion, one of the tell tell signs of P vs. non-P is the use of anthropomorphism. The non-P source is filled with anthropomorphism, from Yahweh feeling regret and grief over human wickedness to Yahweh smelling the sacrifice Noah offers. Comparing the biblical flood story to the Mesopotamian myth of Atrahasis we can better understand whether this story could be history or not. We must identify how closely they are related. Both texts have a deity give instructions on how to build the ark/boat. They both give instructions to put their family and animals on the ark/boat. To see whether it is safe to get out of the boat/ark, Noah releases three doves (non-P) or a raven (P). We can see that the story of atrahasis also releases a dove, then a swallow, then a raven. Lastly, both Noah (non-P) and Atrahasis offers sacrifice after the Flood.
Provide a critical analysis of Genesis 19 and/or the sexual purity laws in Leviticus 18; 20 dealing with homoeroticism using queer theory.
In Leviticus 18; 20 the passage appears to condemn male same-sex eroticism for multiple reasons. For example, within the biblical world, such activity often was thought to involve symbolic emasculation. In a patriarchal society with strict gender hierarchies, symbolic emasculation was seen as shameful. This cultural attitude may help to explain why female same-sex sexual eroticism is never mentioned or condemned in the Hebrew Bible. In addition, within the Priestly conception of the world, male same-sex eroticism also may be thought to blur the lines between men and women. The Priestly is also concerned with ritual purity/contamination. This could be at play, since bodily emissions could ritually defile a person. Moreover, premodern conceptions of procreation may be at play: in the Hebrew Bible, semen is considered the crucial substance for human reproduction - women were understood merely as receptacle for the male "seed." This view of human biology and reproduction may further help to explain the complete absence of concern for female same-sex eroticism in the Hebrew Bible, as female homoeroticism does not concern patriarchy or paternity.
12. Describe queer theory and the nature and purpose of LGBTQI+ approaches to the Hebrew Bible.
Queer theory is a type of critical theory concerned with cultural expressions of power through social constructions of sexuality and gender. Appropriating poststructuralist critiques of "natural" identities, queer theory seeks to disrupt modernist conceptions of gender and sexuality as fixed and immutable categories. From the perspective of queer theory, sexual identity is not "natural" and stable, but culturally constructed and a functional product of social-historical processes. Queer theory denaturalizes all cultural constructions of sexual identity, including heterosexuality and homosexuality, revealing their mutability in relationship to history and politics.
11. Discuss the category of ritual and the concept of "ritualization." Develop your discussion of "ritual/ritualization" with respect to the book of Leviticus, particularly its sacrificial system and priestly/holiness conceptions of ritual purity/cleanness vs. ritual impurity/uncleanness.
Ritualization is ritual as a form of human practice. It is the strategic production of ritualized acts within specific social-cultural contexts. The term ritualization emphasizes that such strategies are socially and culturally specific, and cannot be extrapolated into an absolute category. Therefore, it highlights the situational, culturally conditioned strategies of practice used within specific social-historical circumstances. Ritualization operates through the production of oppositions that are interpreted in light of each other. Such oppositions generate hierarchal schemes and asymmetrical relations of power. Therefore, it is concerned with power relations, since power is embedded in social relationships and practices. Ritualization also commonly seeks to create and privilege a qualitative distinction between the "sacred" and the "profane," and for ascribing such distinctions to realities conceived of as transcending the powers of human actors Ritual purity refers to suitability for human use and/or ritual use whereas ritual impurity refers to unsuitability for human or ritual use. Contact with someone/something impure leads to contraction of the uncleanness. Not all clean animals are permissible for sacrifice, due to the greater degree of holiness required for contact with deity. Priests often functioned as medical practitioners because disease- which spreads impurity- often was thought to be divinely caused as punishment for sin. We can see clean/unclean come into play in Leviticus 16. In this a part of this sacrifice, the Israelites are to basically confess their sins to the scapegoat. In this ritual, Aron places one hand on the goats head and lays all of the sins on the goat. From there the goat is released into the wilderness for the scapegoat. In this sacrifice the Israelites are transferring their uncleanness onto the goat the same way contact with someone/something unclean leads to the contraction of the uncleanness. Which is ultimately why they probably release the goat into the wilderness far away from them. Once the designated people have released the goat into the wilderness they have to perform a ritual to become clean again.
What is the Hebrew Bible?
The Hebrew Bible is a religiously neutral name for the Jewish Bible. It contains the collection of Hebrew Biblical Scriptures known as the Old Testament. The Old Testament has three section the Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketubim
What is the Holiness Code? Discuss the concept of "holiness" in the biblical world in relation to modern theorizing on the holy/sacred in religious studies.
The Holiness Code, found in Leviticus 17-26, has the separation between the "sacred/holy" and the "profane/common" as its central theme. It reflects distinct priestly interests and conceptions. The concept of "holiness" in origin is connected to the notion of cleanliness, though not simply the absence of dirt, but also brightness and luminosity. It is thus based analogically on the profane concept of cleanliness, both in the negative sense as free of dirt and in the positive sense of brilliance. Holiness in ancient Israel/Judah also developed a further sense as "set apart," probably a reflection of priestly concerns for categorization and separation.
What is the Torah?
The Torah, (also referred to as the Pentateuch, Law of Moses, or the Five Books of Moses) is the teaching or law of the Hebrew Bible. It contains the first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. This section of the Bible narrates the creation story, ancestral stories, various legal and ritual traditions, and the formation of the people of Israel as a social-political body.
Discuss biblical legal traditions—e.g., the Covenant Code, the Deuteronomic Code, etc.—in relation to each other and within the context of ancient Near Eastern legal sources, particularly the Code of Hammurabi. How do biblical and ancient Near Eastern legal collections give insight into the social worlds that produced them? How are legal traditions framed literarily in the Hebrew Bible and in the ancient Near East? What are the similarities between the biblical and ancient Near Eastern legal traditions and collections? What are the differences? How do you explain these similarities and differences from a historical-critical perspective?
The biblical legal traditions, the Covent Code, the Deuteronomic Code, etc., are very similar, but very different from Near Eastern Treaties. Not to mention that the biblical legal traditions also differ from each other. Let's begin with biblical legal traditions, particularly the Covenant Code. The Covenant Code is written primarily in casuistic form, but like the Deuteronomic Code it mixes between casuistic and apodictic. However, most ancient Near Eastern law collections are written in casuistic form only, never mixes. Legal cases in the Covenant code are not comprehensive and they deal with criminal, civil, and religious matters. God sometimes appears to be the speaker, while at other times is referred to in the third person. Whereas in the Code of Hammurabi the laws are framed by a literary prologue and epilogue in which the voice of Hammurabi is present in the first person. In the Covenant Code it is framed by laws pertaining to worship, perhaps to emphasize the sacral character of collection. Both the biblical legal traditions and Near Eastern Treaties frame the laws through narrative that sets them within a religious context. Also, the deity is the ultimate source of legal authority and in both there is a human intermediary - making violation of the laws a sacral as well as a secular offense. The Deuteronomic Code is deeply indebted to treaty/covenant language and Near Eastern literary forms. It contains distinctive language and themes, and its rhetorical style is educative/instrumental in nature. It drew upon Assyrian treaty genre, but used it to asset Judah's vassal status and exclusive loyalty, not to Assyria, but to Yahweh. Overall, the Hebrew bible contains legal collections that have significant parallels with ancient Near Eastern law collection, but there are many differences as well. Unlike the code of Hammurabi, the biblical legal collections do not distinguish between classes of non-slaves. Biblical law typically - although not always- places a higher value on human life, somewhat limiting capital punishment as compared to the Code of Hammurabi. Biblical law also generally avoids vicarious punishments, which are found in the code of Hammurabi. The literary, topical, and textual links between biblical legal texts and ancient Near Eastern law collections demonstrate that the biblical authors were aware of a larger ancient Near Eastern tradition of written legal collections that they then drew upon, adapted, and changed to suit their purposes and contents
Discuss the ancient Near Eastern treaty form in relation to the Decalogue, the Covenant Code, and/or the book of Deuteronomy. How does the Hebrew Bible uniquely develop the treaty form vis-à-vis ancient Near Eastern treaties?
The book of Deuteronomy is deeply indebted to treaty/covenant language and ancient near eastern literary forms. Both biblical legal collections and Near Eastern treaty frame the laws through narrative that sets them within a religious context . Literary, topical, and textual evidence links between biblical legal texts and ancient Near Eastern law collections. In contrast to ancient Near Eastern law collections, the Covenant Code and the Deuteronomic Code mix together criminal and civil law with ritual worship regulations. Unlike ancient Near Eastern Law, there is no human king in the Covenant Code, and the King's role is greatly circumscribed in the Deuteronomic Code- instead, Yahweh is king. Further, unlike most ancient Near Eastern law collections, the Hebrew Bible mixes apodictic and casuistic form
As an explanation for the formation of the Pentateuch as a whole, how does the Documentary Hypothesis compare and contrast with more recent redaction-critical and tradition-historical models of the Pentateuch's formation.
The documentary hypothesis believes that the J,P,E, and D sources are one long string of complied text, whereas, the redaction-critical and tradition-historical models believe that the Bible is comprised of independent compositions that were then later woven together.
6. Explain the historical-critical method used by modern scholars in the study of ancient Israel and the Hebrew Bible.
The historical-critical method focuses on the time and place of a text's composition as the primary social and cultural context for its interpretation. More specifically, scholars use source criticism, a literary-critical method within the broader scope of historical criticism that seeks to identify distinct literary sources that stand behind the final textual form of the biblical texts.
What historical critical method is the Documentary Hypothesis based on and how does it operate?
The historical-critical method the Documentary Hypothesis is based on is Source Criticism. Source Criticism is a literary-critical method within the broader scope of historical criticism that seeks to identify distinct literary sources that stand behind the final textual form of the Bible.
What is the Ketubim?
The third book of the Hebrew Bible is the Ketubim, containing the "writings." This is a very diverse section of the Old Testament because it offers so many different genres including liturgical poems, love poetry, historical narratives, wisdom literature, etc. The Ketubim also includes some of the latest books to make it into the Bible.
Explain the different Old Testaments.
There're different Old Testaments, one being the Protestant Old Testament and the other being the Catholic and Orthodox Old Testament. The Protestant Old Testament contains the same books as the Jewish Bible, but is a different order after the books of Kings. Catholic and Orthodox Old Testament contains additional books beyond the Protestant Old Testament called Apocrypha.
Discuss non-biblical textual and archaeological materials relevant to the biblical texts/traditions that you choose to treat (e.g., the Amarna Letters, the Merenptah Stele, Atrahasis, the Kirta epic from Ugarit, etc.)
These stories are so closely related, that they must have some kind of correlation between the them. One must have influenced the other for them to be so similar, so who was it? The story of Atrahasis was written a century before the Flood story in the Bible, but how did the biblical authors know about Atrahasis? Well, biblical authors would have been exposed to this ancient Mesopotamian myth during the Assyrian and Babylon rule. This story would have been verbally told by many, influencing biblical authors.
What is the Nevi'im?
This section includes the prophet books, more specifically the former and latter prophets. Former prophets inlclude the books of Joshua, 1-2 Samuel, and 1-2 Kings. Latter prophets are prophet books ascribed to individual prophet figures by names. There are two subsections within the latter prophets, the major and minor prophets. Major prophets include the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. Minor prophets include 12 prophet books.
Use the creation stories and Flood accounts to illuminate your discussion of this method and the Documentary Hypothesis.
Throughout the Flood story in Genesis 6-9 we can see both narrative and literary doublets. Some narrative doublets include, when animals get on the ark, the flood begins, Noah sends out a raven and dove to look for dry land, among many more. If we were to dissect the doublet of when the animals get on the ark, we can see one comes from the P source, whereas the other comes the non-P source. In the P source we can see that God instructed Noah to bring two of every animal onto the ark. Whereas in the non-P source Noah is instructed to bring seven pairs of ritually "clean" animals and two pairs of ritually "unclean" animals. Lastly, there are also many linguistic doublets including, the use of God (elohim) vs. Yahweh, earth dries vs. ground dries, etc. In, the P material the use of Elohim is how we distinctly tell the difference between the two sources, whereas in the non-P material the literary authors refer to God as Yahweh.
How does the ancient Near Eastern treaty help to illuminate the notion of "covenant" in the Hebrew Bible?
When trying to understand the biblical concept of covenant the suzerainty treaty is highly important. Suzerainty treaties are between a superior, God, and an inferior, the Israelites. In addition, the Bible uses the same language as suzerainty treaties. Biblical authors also drew upon the social-economic marriage contract to conceptualize the covenant between Yahweh (the "husband) and Israel (the "wife"). As the suzerainty/"husband," Yahweh demands complete loyalty and fidelity from Israel, his vassal/"wife". Lastly, the suzerainty treaty and biblical covenants use similar language of love and know.