Misssed Concepts from All Full lengths part 1

Mead's I, Me, and generalized other

"I" is the spontaneous and autonomous part of the self, according to Mead's theory of identity. The "me" is the part of the self that is formed in interaction with others and with the general social environment.

Basicity of amines

1. Aromatic amines are weaker bases than aliphatic amines. This is because the amine donates its electron density to the aromatic ring. Also, the amine forms stable resonance structures with the aromatic ring, which is absent once the amine becomes protonated. 2. Electron donating groups on the aromatic amine increase the basicity of aromatic amines. This is because the electron donating groups contribute to the electron density on the nitrogen. 3. Electron withdrawing groups on the aromatic amine decrease the basicity of aromatic amines. This is because the electron withdrawing groups steal electron density from the nitrogen. 4. Anything ortho to the amine, no matter whether it is electron donating or withdrawing, will decrease the basicity of the aromatic amine. This is because of the ortho effect, which is basically sterics. The protonated amine will have a greater steric interaction with the ortho group, so it will be less stable.

Protein oxidation/ATP production

1. Crebs cycle 2. Gluconeogenesis 3. Ketone body formation

Ways enzymes lower activation energy

1. Modifying the local charge environment 2. Forming transient covalent bonds 3. Acting as electron donors or acceptors

Unfolded protein response

1. Stop translation 2. Chaperone's are recruited to the location of misfolded proteins 3. Misfolded proteins are tags with ubiquitin for degradation 4. If all of the above steps failed, the cell undergoes apoptosis

Lewis Base

A Lewis base is a substance that donates an electron pair in forming a covalent interaction.

Neural crest

A band of cells along the border where the neural tube pinches off from the ectoderm; the cells migrate to various parts of the embryo and form the pigment cells in the skin, bones of the skull, the teeth, the adrenal glands, and parts of the peripheral nervous system.

Static friction

A board tilted at an angle with respect to the horizontal causes a component of the gravitational force on the block to point down the length of the board. The coefficient of static friction is the ratio of the force along the board to the normal force (which also changes because of the angle). The mass of the block cancels in the ratio. Only the angle of tilt determines the static friction result.

Facts about phenotypes?

A certain phenotype can correspond to multiple genotypes, because alleles, or variants of genes, can be described as dominant or recessive. For dominant alleles, only one copy is necessary for its associated phenotype to be expressed, meaning that heterozygous individuals express the dominant phenotype. For recessive alleles, both alleles must be recessive for the phenotype in question to be expressed, meaning that heterozygous individuals do not express the phenotype.

Noncompetitive inhibitors

A characteristic of noncompetitive inhibitors is that they bind the enzyme and the enzyme-substrate complex with the same affinity; Vmax is affected, but KM does not change.

Chiral stationary phase

A chiral stationary phase can also be used to separate stereoisomers based on the principle that the various enantiomers of a compound may interact differently with such a stationary phase.

Conversion disorder

A conversion disorder is a condition in which a psychological stressor is converted to physical symptoms that have no underlying medical cause. Usually, a mental illness or psychologically stressor is present first, after which a person begins to feel physical pain or symptoms related in some way to the event

A crossover design

A crossover design occurs when participants participate in each group in a study.

Cult

A cult is a relatively small religious organization that has beliefs and practices that are typically far outside of what a society regards as normal or even acceptable. A cult that survives and grows can become a major religion.

Induction (cell-to-cell communication)

A factor secreted by certain cells induces other cells to differentiate

Family group

A family group is generally determined either by birth, adoption, or marriage, joining people of different ages and sexes through strong emotional ties. A family group is typically united by blood (familial relationship) or law (marriage, adoption). In contrast, a peer group includes people of similar ages, statuses, and with similar interests, who have all chosen to join the group. Whereas a family group is not self-selected, a peer group is. A peer group can provide individuals feelings of belonging and friendship.

A frameshift mutation

A frameshift mutation arises from an insertion or deletion of nucleotides in a DNA sequence. It results in a changed reading frame and an altered protein. Such an alteration would almost certainly occur at more than a single amino acid residue.

Glycosidic bond and hemiacetal

A glycosidic bond is formed between two monosaccharides (isolated sugar molecules) to form a disaccharide, a hemiacetal or hemiketal is converted into an acetal or ketal.

Hermann Grid Illusion

A grid of black squares with white borders separating them, but if you look at it the interstices of the grid don't appear as white as elsewhere outside the grid

Neural tube

A groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord

Guanine at 5' position

A guanine at the 5' position is required for RNA splicing. If a different nucleotide were present, the process would not function and the intron would not be removed.

Kinship of affinity

A kinship of affinity is one in which individuals are related by choice, such as through marriage, rather than through blood, such as the other choices.

Magnetic field

A magnetic field (B) induced by moving charges in a straight wire has a strength of B = μ0I/2πr, where μ0 is a constant known as the permeability of free space, I is the current running through the wire, and r is the distance from the wire. The magnetic field around a current-carrying wire has field lines that run in concentric circles, and the directionality is determined by one of two right-hand rules. To determine the direction of the magnetic field at a point around a current-carrying wire, align your right thumb with the direction of the current flow, and your fingers will curve around in the direction of the field.

Magnetic force

A magnetic force acts on a moving charge in a direction that is perpendicular to both the velocity of the charge and the direction of the magnetic field.

What is mature RNA composed of?

A mature mRNA consists of a 5'-cap (one base pair), the 5' UTR, coding regions, the 3' UTR, and a poly(A) tail.

Mediating vs moderating variable

A mediating variable is one which explains the relationship between two other variables. Here, emotion explains the relationship between competence group and behavior. A moderating variable is one which changes the relationship between two variables. There is no indication that the level of emotion changes the strength of the relationship between group and behavior.

peg-word system

A mnemonic in which the items in a list to be remembered are associated with the sequential items in a memorized jingle and then the list is retrieved by going through the jingle and retrieving the associated items.

Nucleoside

A nucleoside is composed of a nitrogenous base and a five-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose).

Peptide bond

A peptide bond is formed through the condensation of the amine group of one reactant and the carboxyllic acid group of the other reactant

Phenomenological research

A phenomenological research study focuses on subjective elements of an experience by trying to understand individuals' perceptions, perspectives and understanding of a particular situation or event. Often, this is done by way of collecting narratives from multiple subjects regarding the same situation or experience, in order to make generalizations about the research topic

Phenomenological research study

A phenomenological research study focuses on subjective elements of an experience by trying to understand individuals' perceptions, perspectives and understanding of a particular situation or event. Often, this is done by way of collecting narratives from multiple subjects regarding the same situation or experience, in order to make generalizations about the research topic.

Primary vs secondary group

A primary group features direct interaction between members with close and intimate relationships made that tend to last a long period of time. Families, close groups of friends, and teams can be examples of primary groups. A secondary group features superficial interaction between members, with weak and not-so-intimate relationships made that tend to not last very long. A group of students working on a project and a group of coworkers at a temporary summer job can be example of secondary groups.

Primary vs secondary groups

A primary group features direct interaction between members with close and intimate relationships made that tend to last a long period of time. Families, close groups of friends, and teams can be examples of primary groups. A secondary group features superficial interaction between members, with weak and not-so-intimate relationships made that tend to not last very long. A group of students working on a project and a group of coworkers at a temporary summer job can be example of secondary groups.

Primary group

A primary group is a small group whose members share close, enduring relationships, like a family or childhood friends. Looser, more temporary groups such as coworkers are secondary groups. . A secondary group features superficial interaction between members, with weak and not-so-intimate relationships made that tend to not last very long.

Protein Pi and PH

A protein with a low pI would be negatively charged at pH 7. This protein, being anionic, would bind to an anion exchange column (eliminates choices C and D). Largest negative net charge implies the presence of a large quantity of negatively charged amino acids, allowing the protein to bind tightly to the column. A high concentration of NaCl would be required for elution

Dissociative identity disorder

A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder.

Ratio level of measurement

A ratio level of measurement is one in which there are a range of quantitative responses, ordered at equally-spaced intervals, and with it being possible to score 0 (complete absence of the quantity).

Glycolysis halt by

A reduction in either glucose, NAD+, or ADP will result in a slowing or halt to glycolysis.

ELISA

A related technique is known as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In general, ELISA uses a solid-phase enzyme immunoassay that detects the presence of an antigen. First, a sample containing an unknown amount of antigen is applied to a solid-phase supporting structure. After the antigen contained in the sample becomes attached to the solid support, a specific detection antibody is applied to, and binds with, the antigen. The antibody is then covalently linked to an enzyme directly or through a secondary antibody that is conjugated with an enzyme. Between steps, the plate is often washed with a detergent to rinse unbound proteins or antibodies. Following addition of the enzyme's substrate, a reaction occurs that produces a visualizable signal. The intensity of this signal is related to the quantity of protein antigen present in the original sample.

Salt Bridge

A salt bridge is required to maintain homeostasis in charge in a galvanic cell

Sleep cycle info

A sleep cycle is a complete progression through all of the stages of sleep, from Stage 1 to REM and over again. At the beginning of the night, a person spends most time in Stage 4, but as the night progresses, REM predominates, and a person may even have very brief moments of being awake. The length of the sleep cycle increases from childhood to adulthood, from about 50 minutes to 90 minutes, respectively.

Crystaline solid

A solid that is made up of crystals in which particles are arranged in a regular, repeating pattern. In solid sodium chloride (NaCl), for example, each Na+ ion is surrounded by six Cl- ions, and each Cl- ion is in turn surrounded by six Na+ ions. This structured arrangement is termed a lattice structure, and is extremely difficult to disrupt. However, it can be broken if the NaCl is dissolved in water, in which case polar H2O molecules will "solvate," or separate and surround, the individual ions. The lattice energy of an ionic solid refers to the amount of energy required to separate the solid into its component cations and anions

Disulfide linkages

A special property displayed by only one standard amino acid is the ability to form special bonds between sulfur atoms known as disulfide linkages. The amino acid that forms these bonds is cysteine, which has a thiol (-SH) group in its side chain. Disulfide bonds arise when one cysteine's sulfur atom connects to another, losing the attached hydrogen atoms in the process. These bonds are a key part of protein tertiary structure.

Splicesome

A splicesome consists of a complex of proteins along with RNAs (snRNAs) that are reponsile for the clevage of the primary RNA transcript.

R2 value meaning

A squared correlation value (r2) explains how much variability in one variable is accounted for by variability in the otehr variable

Stimulus motives

A stimulus motive is defined as a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity. These motives are not necessary for survival.

Independent stressor

A stressor that happens regardless of your personal behavior, feelings, thoughts, attitudes, etc. e.g. get hit by drunk driver

Dependent stressor

A stressor that happens to you that was caused or worsened by your own behavior, feelings, thoughts, attitudes, etc. e.g. you hang out with the wrong crowd

Dependent stressor

A strssor that happens to you that was caused or worsened by your own behavior, feelings, thoughts, attitudes, etc. e.g. you hang out with the wrong crowd

Social control theory

A theory of delinquency that links deviance with the absence of bonds to society's main institutions

Social Disorganization Theory

A theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control

Inclusive fitness

A theory that refers to the idea that an organism improves their genetic success through altruistic social behavior

Collagen

A third type of structural protein you should know for test day is collagen, which is found in tendons, forms connective ligaments within the body, and gives extra support to the skin. Collagen is a triple helix formed by three proteins that wrap around one another. Many collagen molecules are cross-linked together in the extracellular space to form collagen fibrils to provide structural support for the cell. Elastin polypeptide chains are cross-linked together to form flexible, elastic fibers that give stretched tissues flexibility and the ability to recoil spontaneously as soon as the stretching force is relaxed.

Open reading frame (ORF)

AUG followed by a number of codons and a stop codon in the same reading frame

Which one is easier to measure??

Absolute poverty is simply an income cutoff; therefore, it is easier to measure than relative poverty, which requires the researchers to calculate the income distribution for each year of the study.

Acclimation

Acclimation occurs when an individual adapts to changes in their environment without a change in genotype

How are the genital and phallic stages most similar?

According to Sigmund Freud, both of these stages of development involve the genitals as the main erogenous zone. In Freud's theory, the phallic stage takes place between 3 and 6 years of age. During this stage of development, both boys and girls have a desire to have intimate relations with the opposite sex parent. The genital stage of development starts at puberty and continues throughout the lifespan. This is when sexual interests reach maturity.

Fluid Mosaic Model

According to the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane, the cell membrane is a bi-layer membrane composed of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are often combined with proteins to form glycoproteins. These glycoproteins play a pivotal role in cell-to-cell recognition

Types of relation status

According to the former system (which distinguishes on the basis of closeness), primary kinship involves a direct relationship, such as that between a brother and sister or between a father and daughter. Secondary kinship exists between an individual and "the primary kin of that person's primary kin." For example, the relationship between a grandson and his paternal grandmother would typically be secondary kinship, since the grandson is primary kin with his own father, who is primary kin with his mother (the grandmother). Finally, tertiary kin is one step further removed, and can refer to primary kin of one's primary kin's primary kin (three levels!) or to the secondary kin of one's primary kin, such as one's husband's grandmother.

KMT (Kinetic Molecular Theory)

According to the kinetic molecular theory, the average kinetic energy of a sample of gas depends only on the temperature of the sample. The following formula shows this relationship: KE = (3/2)KBT, where KB is the Boltzmann constant.

Acculturation

Acculturation refers to developing the ability to interact within a dominant culture while internally preserving facets of one's own culture of origin.

Acculturation basics

Acculturation refers to developing the ability to interact within a dominant culture while internally preserving facets of one's own culture of origin.

Accuracy vs. Precision

Accuracy: how close experimental value is to accepted value; systematic error are associated with accuracy Precision: how closely measured values agree with each other

Acetals and ketals blocking group

Acetals/ketals are also noteworthy in organic chemistry because they can be used as protecting groups. For instance, if we had a compound with a carboxylic acid functional group (-COOH) and a terminal carbonyl group (C=O), we might want to reduce the carboxylic acid group to an alcohol using LiAlH4 while not affecting the carbonyl group. The challenge here is that LiAlH4 is capable of reducing both groups. Treatment of the carbonyl carbon with two equivalents of an alcohol (often accomplished by using a single equivalent of a diol) results in the formation of an acetal group, which is not affected by LiAlH4 and can easily be removed under acidic conditions after the carboxylic acid functional group is reduced.

Acetals/Ketals as protecting group

Acetals/ketals are also noteworthy in organic chemistry because they can be used as protecting groups. For instance, if we had a compound with a carboxylic acid functional group (-COOH) and a terminal carbonyl group (C=O), we might want to reduce the carboxylic acid group to an alcohol using LiAlH4 while not affecting the carbonyl group. The challenge here is that LiAlH4 is capable of reducing both groups. Treatment of the carbonyl carbon with two equivalents of an alcohol (often accomplished by using a single equivalent of a diol) results in the formation of an acetal group, which is not affected by LiAlH4 and can easily be removed under acidic conditions after the carboxylic acid functional group is reduced.

Acetals/ketals as protecting group

Acetals/ketals are also noteworthy in organic chemistry because they can be used as protecting groups. For instance, if we had a compound with a carboxylic acid functional group (-COOH) and a terminal carbonyl group (C=O), we might want to reduce the carboxylic acid group to an alcohol using LiAlH4 while not affecting the carbonyl group. The challenge here is that LiAlH4 is capable of reducing both groups. Treatment of the carbonyl carbon with two equivalents of an alcohol (often accomplished by using a single equivalent of a diol) results in the formation of an acetal group, which is not affected by LiAlH4 and can easily be removed under acidic conditions after the carboxylic acid functional group is reduced.

Gluconegogenesis and Acetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoA cannot, when produced from the oxidation of even-chain fatty acids, serve as a substrate for gluconeogenesis. This is because the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA is irreversible; additionally, during the TCA cycle, the two carbons of acetyl-CoA are lost as two molecules of CO2 and are not integrated into the carbon skeletons of TCA cycle intermediates that can be directed into gluconeogenesis.

Vitamin D and calcium

Activated vitamin D acts on the small intestine to stimulate the absorption of calcium into the bloodstream. The inclusion of vitamin D in calcium supplements would ensure that vitamin D is present in the body to help promote this absorption

Adaptive radiation

Adaptive radiation involves the divergence of one species into multiple species over time, which can occur when subgroups of the original species are separated or isolated in different environments so that these subgroups evolve independently of one another.

Reverse Glycolysis (Reduction)

Additionally, the early stages of glycolysis (where phosphate groups are added to glucose) must be bypassed by gluconeogenesis. These are irreversible steps in glycolysis that involve the investment of ATP. Gluconeogenesis cannot simply reverse these steps, because doing so would mean creating ATP, which is the job of ATP synthase in the electron transport chain. Instead, gluconeogenesis bypasses these steps using enzymes that catalyze a simple hydrolysis reaction, splitting off a P i from the carbohydrate.

Mitosis and Meiosis short

After interphase, the cell undergoes division (mitosis in non-sex/germ cells). Mitosis proceeds through prophase (where the nuclear membrane disappears, chromosomes condense, and the mitotic spindle forms), metaphase (where chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate), anaphase (where chromosome are pulled apart), and telophase/cytokinesis (where the nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear and the cell divides). Meiosis occurs in sex/germ cells and turns a diploid (2n) parent cell into 4 haploid (n) daughter cells in a two-stage process, in which crossover between homologous chromosomes and the random allocation of maternal/paternal chromosomes to daughter cells work together to create genetic variability.

Bacterial classifications

Although bacteria do have specific genus and species names, they are commonly described in terms of their shape. Spherical bacteria are known as cocci, rod-shaped bacteria are called bacilli, and spiral-shaped bacteria are known as spirilli. Bacteria are also classified in terms of how they use oxygen in metabolism. Bacteria that do not require oxygen for metabolism are known as anaerobes. For obligate anaerobes, oxygen is toxic. Aerotolerant anaerobes are similar to obligate anaerobes in that they cannot engage in aerobic metabolism, but oxygen is not toxic for them. Facultative anaerobes can engage in either aerobic or anaerobic metabolism, depending on the circumstances. Bacteria that require oxygen for metabolism are known as obligate aerobes.

Natural selection

Although many different types of adaptations may help an individual organism survive, they will not be passed on to the next generation unless the organism produces offspring, passing on the genes that cause the advantageous phenotype

Alveolos

Alveolas has high surface area to volume ratio

Unique features of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by cognitive difficulties, loss of memory, disorientation, and often language problems. It is associated with amyloid plaques (sticky clumps or patches of protein surrounded by the debris of dying nerve cells in the brain) and neurofibrillary tangles (twisted remains of damaged tau proteins, which are required for normal brain function), which cause neuronal death.

Gordon Allport's Trait Theory

American psychologist Gordon Allport. Allport outlined three basic types of traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are those around which people organize their entire lives. For example, Steve Jobs' lifelong passion for bringing creativity and technology together fueled his life's work at Apple and Pixar. In contrast, central traits are defining characteristics of a person that can be easily inferred from that person's behavior. Central traits of Steve Jobs might be that he was short-tempered or brutally honest. Finally, secondary traits are those that only occur sometimes, particularly when a person is in a certain social situation. To continue the same example, Steve Jobs' secondary traits might include a tendency for showmanship when he was talking about an Apple product onstage.

Nitrogen containing group

Amines (R-NH2, R-NHR', or R-NR'R"), imines (R=NH or R=NR'), and enamines (C=C-NH2, C=C-NHR, or C=C-NRR') are nitrogen-containing compounds with medium melting/boiling points that can act as weak bases. Sulfur-containing functional groups contain the root "thio" and generally act similarly to the corresponding oxygen-containing groups.

Amorphous solids info

Amorphous solids are solids that do not have a regular crystal structure. The classic example is glass, a solid typically composed of silica (SiO2).

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a fatal disease process in which nerves that control voluntary muscles degenerate.

EEG

An EEG measures electrical impulses in the brain by covering the scalp with small sensors. Researchers can then present the subject with various stimuli and record which areas of the brain demonstrate increased electrical activity. Instead of measuring electrical activity, scientists can watch the level of blood flow in parts of the brain. By injecting a tracer molecule, scientists are able to image which parts of the brain are more active in response to certain stimuli. More active brain areas will see an increase in blood flow, and thus an increase in the tracer molecule.

Aldosterone deficiency

An aldosterone deficiency would result in lower Na+ reabsorption into the bloodstream. Because H2O passively follows Na+ during reabsorption in the kidney, less Na+ reabsorption would result in less H2O reabsorption into the bloodstream. This would result in decreased blood volume. Blood volume would also be affected by lower blood Na+ levels because there would be less of this ion to osmotically hold water in the extracellular fluid.

Cofactors and coenzymes

An enzyme (a biological catalyst) may require another chemical compound to be present in order for it to carry out its biological functionality. In general, such "helper" molecules are known as cofactors. Cofactors can be either inorganic (with some common examples including metal ions such as Mg2+, Zn2+, and Cu+) or organic, and organic cofactors are sometimes known as coenzymes.

Random error

An error that occurs when the selected sample is an imperfect representation of the overall population. It usually affect precision by increasing range around the same central value

quasi-experiment

An experiment in which investigators make use of control and experimental groups that already exist in the world at large. Also called a mixed design.

Ponzo illusion

An illusion of size in which two objects of equal size that are positioned between two converging lines appear to be different in size. Also called the railroad track illusion.

In-group vs Out-group

An in-group is one to which a person belongs, while an out-group is a group in which one does not feel a sense of belonging. This can, but does not have to, overlap with other group categories such as family, peer, and reference groups

Aldesterone and blood pressure

An increase in aldesterone would increase salt reabsorption via active transport, which would result in an increase in the aqueous blood volume and blood pressure..

Sensitization

An increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus

Independent samples t-test

An independent samples t-test is conducted when researchers wish to compare mean values of two groups

Anchoring junctions

Anchoring junctions include adherens junctions, which are associated with cadherins. The essential idea behind anchoring junctions is that they connect cytoskeletal components of the cell with other cells and/or the extracellular matrix, thereby contributing to the overall structural stability of tissues. Adherens junctions involve cadherin-mediated connections between actin filaments and other cells and the extracellular matrix. Desmosomes also involve cadherin, but in this case cadherin connects intermediate filaments to other cells. Hemidesmosomes are junctions in which integrins connect the intermediate filaments of cells to the extracellular matrix.

7 universal emotions

Anger, disgust, fear, happiness, surprise, jody, and sadness

Anion exchange column

Anion exchange chromatography resins is coated with cations making it positively charged. So the molecules with negaive charge will be attracted to it

Anomie theory

Anomie theory states that individuals who experience weakened social values are less likely to behave in ways that are helpful to that society.

Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms

Another important context of antibiotic use is in genetic engineering techniques in which recombinant DNA is added to plasmids and introduced into bacteria (very commonly E. coli). Not all bacteria in a sample will take up the plasmids, so researchers must isolate those that have done so. For this purpose, plasmids used for genetic engineering generally contain antibiotic resistance genes, such that treatment with an antibiotic can kill off E. coli cells that did not take up any plasmids and select for those that did.

Antigen location on cell

Antigens are carried on the surface of cells, not on the chromosomes, DNA segments, or RNA.

Mental disorder prevalence

Anxiety (~ 18%) and depression (~ 10%) are the most common mental disorders, while schizophrenia is one of the least common, at about 1%.

Two factors blood pressure depend on

Cardiac output and peripheral resistance directly affect blood pressure

Carnitine shuttle

Carnitine is used to transport fatty acids into the mitochondria. Fatty acids are utilized to create acetyl-CoA for the citric acid cycle; without acetyl-CoA, the cycle cannot progress

Catalytic efficiency

Catalytic efficiency = kcat/km

Centrifugation

Centrifugation utilizes a rapidly spinning apparatus to separate particles by density. More dense particles, such as cells, gravitate toward the bottom of the spun tube, while less dense substances remain at the top in a liquid termed the supernatant. This liquid can then be poured off, and further separation or analysis can be conducted.

Centrosomes

Centrosomes are the proteins that form spindle fibers. Before mitosis is complete, the job of centrosomes is to form a north and a south pole across the dividing cell. These poles are connected by spindle fibers that start at one centrosome and reach across to the other side. The spindle fibers help pull DNA apart as the cell divides into two.

Mitochondrial inhibition

Any disruption of mitochondria is likely to decrease ATP production since they are a major cellular source of that molecule. Answer choices C and D can not be right because they propose an increase in ATP production. There is no information in the question to suggest that valinomycin will cause K+ to compete with H+ for an active site on ATP synthetase. Furthermore, one would suspect that ATP or precursor molecules such as phosphate and ADP would occupy the active site on the ATP synthase molecule. Answer choice A, therefore, does not seem plausible. The question does provide the information that valinomycin increases the flow of K+ across the membrane. An influx of another positively charged ion into the compartment would disrupt the electrochemical gradient responsible for the necessary flow of protons.

Aromatic side chain and uv

Aromatic side chains absorb in the near UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum, which has longer wavelengths, and hence higher energy, than peptide bonds. Because the energy of the photon matches the energy gap between the ground and the excited state, this implies that the aromatic side chain has more closely spaced energy levels.

Arousal

Arousal is the degree to which an emotion or experience is activated or deactivated. For example, an intense, acute sense of emotion may be felt when being reunited with a close friend or family member, while seeing your neighbor may evoke a mild to neutral sense of emotion.

vasoconstriction and vasodilation

Arteries carry high-pressure blood and therefore have thick muscular walls. They can also constrict and dilate, depending on the needs of the body. This can be used in thermoregulation, in which vasoconstriction of the arteries near the skin is used to conserve heat in a cold environment while vasodilation of those arteries is used to dissipate excess heat. Vasodilation can also be used to supply more oxygenated blood (and more energy) to specific body tissues in response to neurological control.

Arteries

Arteries do not have the ability to dilate

Gender nuance definition

As a ubiquitous demographic variable and cultural phenomenon, gender is relevant in many contexts in sociology and psychology. Gender inequality refers to the empowerment of one gender over another, either intentionally or not. It is typically accepted that there is still inequality between men and women, with men given more power in society, but this continues to shift as women become more empowered in modern society (at least in the USA). Gender identity refers to how one experiences one's own gender personally, and gender expression describes the many different ways in which gender identity manifests behaviorally in a given cultural context. Gender schema theory describes how cultural constructs of gender are shaped and transmitted.

Cholesterol basics

Cholesterol is a lipid with several crucial cellular functions. Namely, it contributes to the fluidity of the plasma membrane and serves as the precursor for steroid hormones and other biomolecules, such as vitamin D. Cholesterol and its derivatives can be identified by their structures, which include four fused hydrocarbon rings.

Chronic stress and insulin

Chronic stress results in elevated basal blood sugar levels, which over time leads to insulin defficiency

Cilia

Cilia are heavily involved in clearing airways and cycling mucus and particles so that they may be expelled

Ciliary muscles

Ciliary muscles do NOT control the pupil, they control only the curvature of the lens. A separate sphincter muscle controls the diameter of the pupil.

Cis-trans isomerism

Cis-trans isomerism on the MCAT most frequently involves alkene bonds. Rotation about pi bonds is restricted, meaning that two different groups of atoms attached to each carbon of the C=C bond can be arranged in different ways to give different molecules. These atoms or groups can be given priorities, with atoms with higher atomic numbers given higher priorities. If the highest-priority groups for each carbon are on the same side of the molecule, that molecule is denoted as the cis or Z isomer. If they are on opposite sites, the isomer is trans or the E isomer. Cis-trans isomers generally have similar chemical but different physical properties.

Prosthetic group

Coenzymes that are tightly (or even covalently) bonded to their enzyme are known as prosthetic groups. A famous example of an organometallic prosthetic group is heme, which contains an iron ion in the center of a porphyrin ring, and is attached to oxygen-transport proteins such as hemoglobin and myoglobin.

Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). This approach focuses on coping mechanisms and methods of changing unhealthy or unproductive behaviors and cognitions. CBT is used for eating disorders, drug addiction, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and many other conditions.

Cognitive Bias

Cognitive biases are ways in which our perceptions and judgments systematically differ from reality. They are generally thought to be unavoidable features of our cognitive system, and may in some cases be adaptive. The closely related concept of heuristics refers to mental shortcuts or simplified iterations of principles that can help us make decisions, but can also lead to poor judgment.

Crystallization

As solute is added to a solvent, the solution is considered saturated when the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved has been added. Upon heating, more solute can be dissolved in the solution, and then upon slowly cooling the solution, the same concentration of solute will remain dissolved in what is now considered a supersaturated solution. Crystals can form in supersaturated solutions with the addition of a small amount of solute, which creates a nucleation site for solute to precipitate and form a crystal. This process is called crystallization

Friction and work

As the mass slides across the horizontal surface it will slow due to a leftward kinetic friction slowing the mass, as friction opposes the motion. The kinetic friction is given by -μkhNi, where N denotes the normal force of the surface on the bottom of the mass. For a free mass on a flat surface, the upward normal force cancels the downward gravity force, mg, hence N = mg which yields a friction force -μkhmgi.

Collective rationalization

Collective rationalization is the tendency for individuals engaging in groupthink to discount warnings and fail to re-engage their assumptions.

Competitive inhibition

Competitive inhibition is when the inhibitor directly competes with the substrate for the active site on the enzyme. This increases Km since it now takes more substrate to ensure half of the active sites are occupied. If enough substrate is supplied, it will outcompete the inhibitor; therefore, Vmax does not change, although more substrate is needed to reach it.

Acculturation Info

Concept of acculturation refers to developing the ability to interact within a dominant culture while internally preserving facets of one's own culture of origin.

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

Condition that occurs when the frequency of alleles in a particular gene pool remain constant over time. Make sure to know how to calculate genotype and phenotype frequency

Cleavage description

As the zygote travels to the uterus, it undergoes a series of mitotic cell divisions known as cleavage. Once the zygote has cleaved into a mass of 16 cells by three to four days after fertilization, it is known as the morula. By three to five days after fertilization, the morula develops some degree of internal structure and becomes a blastocyst, with a fluid-filled cavity in the middle known as the blastocoel. The blastocyst implants in the uterine endometrium and further differentiates into the gastrula. The gastrula has three layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm.

Cleavage

As the zygote travels to the uterus, it undergoes a series of mitotic cell divisions known as cleavage. Once the zygote has cleaved into a mass of 16 cells by three to four days after fertilization, it is known as the morula. By three to five days after fertilization, the morula develops some degree of internal structure and becomes a blastocyst, with a fluid-filled cavity in the middle known as the blastocoel. The blastocyst implants in the uterine endometrium and further differentiates into the gastrula. The gastrula has three layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm. These layers eventually go on to form specific organs and components in the body.

Mitotic division in zygote

As the zygote travels to the uterus, it undergoes a series of mitotic cell divisions known as cleavage. Once the zygote has cleaved into a mass of 16 cells by three to four days after fertilization, it is known as the morula. By three to five days after fertilization, the morula develops some degree of internal structure and becomes a blastocyst, with a fluid-filled cavity in the middle known as the blastocoel. The blastocyst implants in the uterine endometrium and further differentiates into the gastrula. The gastrula has three layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm. These layers eventually go on to form specific organs and components in the body.

Morula to gastrulation

As the zygote travels to the uterus, it undergoes a series of mitotic cell divisions known as cleavage. Once the zygote has cleaved into a mass of 16 cells by three to four days after fertilization, it is known as the morula. By three to five days after fertilization, the morula develops some degree of internal structure and becomes a blastocyst, with a fluid-filled cavity in the middle known as the blastocoel. The blastocyst implants in the uterine endometrium and further differentiates into the gastrula. The gastrula has three layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm. These layers eventually go on to form specific organs and components in the body.

Morula to gastrulation process

As the zygote travels to the uterus, it undergoes a series of mitotic cell divisions known as cleavage. Once the zygote has cleaved into a mass of 16 cells by three to four days after fertilization, it is known as the morula. By three to five days after fertilization, the morula develops some degree of internal structure and becomes a blastocyst, with a fluid-filled cavity in the middle known as the blastocoel. The blastocyst implants in the uterine endometrium and further differentiates into the gastrula. The gastrula has three layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm. These layers eventually go on to form specific organs and components in the body.

Zygote to Gastrulation

As the zygote travels to the uterus, it undergoes a series of mitotic cell divisions known as cleavage. Once the zygote has cleaved into a mass of 16 cells by three to four days after fertilization, it is known as the morula. By three to five days after fertilization, the morula develops some degree of internal structure and becomes a blastocyst, with a fluid-filled cavity in the middle known as the blastocoel. The blastocyst implants in the uterine endometrium and further differentiates into the gastrula. The gastrula has three layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm. These layers eventually go on to form specific organs and components in the body.

Atrial natriuretic peptide

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP; also known as atrial natriuretic factor [ANF]) is a hormone that the endocrine system uses to deal with the problem of excess blood volume. Essentially, it is the opposite of aldosterone. It is released in response to high blood volume and decreases sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct, as well as increasing the glomerular filtration rate and inhibiting aldosterone release.

Cones inactivation

Cones do not directly synapse on to ganglion cells ; however note that a "sign-conserving" synapse is one in which the polarity of the response is maintained (e.g., depolarization of the presynaptic cell results in depolarization of the post synaptic cell) while a "sign-inverting" synapse reverses the polarity of the response. A decrease in action potential firing rate likely indicates a hyperpolarization of the cell in response to S-cone activation. This could be accomplished several ways, including opening of chloride channels to allow for an influx of chloride (choice D is correct).

Conflict theory info

Conflict theory, a sociological perspective that stresses the competition for resources between different groups of people. Because certain groups can amass more resources than others, they can maintain control of these resources by creating social structures and institutions that keep others from advancing towards positions of power. These structures and institutions in turn maintain a certain social order. With respect to feminist theory, the group with relatively more control of resources is men, while women are kept in positions of less power due to existing social structures and conventions.

Conformity

Conformity is when someone accepts the conventional means to attain culturally acceptable goals

Conjugation

Conjugation can be thought of as the bacterial equivalent of sexual reproduction, and involves the transfer of a plasmid through a bridge that is created when a sex pilus on one bacterium (often known as F+, which refers to the presence of the fertility factor, or as male) attaches to another bacterium (generally known as F−). During this process, the fertility factor itself is duplicated and transferred, turning the F− bacterium into an F+ cell. Conjugation is a major mechanism contributing to the spread of antibiotic resistance.

Conjugation info

Conjugation can be thought of as the bacterial equivalent of sexual reproduction, and involves the transfer of a plasmid through a bridge that is created when a sex pilus on one bacterium (often known as F+, which refers to the presence of the fertility factor, or as male) attaches to another bacterium (generally known as F−). During this process, the fertility factor itself is duplicated and transferred, turning the F− bacterium into an F+ cell. Conjugation is a major mechanism contributing to the spread of antibiotic resistance.

Conjugation process

Conjugation involves the transfer of a plasmid through a bridge that is created when a sex pilus on one bacterium (often known as F+, which refers to the presence of the fertility factor, or as male) attaches to another bacterium (generally known as F−). During this process, the fertility factor itself is duplicated and transferred, converting the F− cell into an F+ cell

Consanguineal

Consanguineal kinship is based on blood - or genetic - relationship.

Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness refers to one's tendency toward self-discipline, dutifulness, competence, thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving.

Conservative point mutations

Conservative point mutations are missense mutations that occur when the mutated codon codes for an amino acid that has similar functional properties (e.g., polarity and size) as the amino acid coded for by the original codon. An example would be GAU [aspartic acid] → GAG [glutamic acid]. Conservative point mutations are expected to have a relatively small effect on the functionality of the protein coded for by the gene.

Conservative point mutations info

Conservative point mutations are missense mutations that occur when the mutated codon codes for an amino acid that has similar functional properties (e.g., polarity and size) as the amino acid coded for by the original codon. An example would be GAU [aspartic acid] → GAG [glutamic acid]. Conservative point mutations are expected to have a relatively small effect on the functionality of the protein coded for by the gene.

Attention and memory

Attention is a key component for encoding memory

Automatic processing

Automatic processing is a cognitive process that requires little or no attention and few if any cognitive resources. These are things you can do "without thinking," and with which you can usually do other tasks simultaneously without much effort.

Aversion therapy

Aversion therapy, is a form of behavior therapy in which an aversive (causing a strong feeling of dislike or disgust) stimulus is paired with an undesirable behavior in order to reduce or eliminate that behavior. This form of therapy might be used to assist with something like alcohol or drug addiction, or to eliminate an undesirable habit such as nail biting,

Missense mutations

Conservative point mutations are missense mutations that occur when the mutated codon codes for an amino acid that has similar functional properties (e.g., polarity and size) as the amino acid coded for by the original codon. An example would be GAU [aspartic acid] → GAG [glutamic acid]. Conservative point mutations are expected to have a relatively small effect on the functionality of the protein coded for by the gene. Non-conservative point mutations are missense mutations that occur when the mutated codon codes for an amino acid with dissimilar functional properties to the amino acid coded for by the original codon. An example would be GCG [alanine] → GAG [glutamic acid]. All things being equal, a non-conservative point mutation could be expected to have a significant impact on the functionality of the protein in question.

constriction of efferent arteriole

Constriction of the efferent arteriole will restrict the flow of blood out of the glomerulus and result in increased pressure within the glomerulus. This would increase GFR. An increase in GFR would result in more filtrate passing through the nephron, and increased loss of sodium

Construct validity

Construct validity refers to how well a given assessment (a survey, a test, etc.) actually measures what it claims to measure— whether it has been properly constructed to measure the relevant thing.

Peroxisomes

Contain oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and other harmful chemicals. It helps cell in oxidation process

Continuous reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement allows a behavior to rapidly be adopted and results in quick, early reinforcement. However maximal reinforcement and the longest delay before extinction is a result of random variable reinforcement. Thus starting with continuous reinforcement and switching to random variable reinforcement will allow the behavior to be adopted quickly and then persist.

Continuous variables

Continuous variables have an infinite number of categories. If the question was something like "how many full-time jobs have you had?" or "how many hours do you work each week?" there would be more than two categories for responses and would be a continuous variable. Since there were only two categories, choice A is incorrect.

Controlled processing

Controlled processing are cognitive tasks that require attention and the use up the limited cognitive resources available, such as the limited number of items that can be stored in working memory.

Phases of Language Development

Cooing, babbling, one-word sentences, and telegraphic speech

Hormones that increase blood glucose?

Cortisol (the main example of a class of hormones known as glucocorticoids) is released by the adrenal cortex. It is associated with long-term responses to stress and increases blood glucose levels. Epinephrine, which is released by the adrenal medulla and plays a major role in the fight-or-flight response to immediate stress, also raises blood glucose levels. In addition, growth hormone can increase blood glucose levels due to its antagonistic effects on insulin.

Function of cortisol

Cortisol helps the body to maintain the continuous supply of blood sugar needed to sustain a stress response by upregulating gluconeogenesis and mobilizing free fatty acids and amino acids from body stores to be metabolized. This makes more glucose available, which is necessary for proper brain function during times of stress because the brain's only energy source is glucose.

Stress Hormone

Cortisol helps the body to maintain the continuous supply of blood sugar needed to sustain a stress response by upregulating gluconeogenesis and mobilizing free fatty acids and amino acids from body stores to be metabolized. This makes more glucose available, which is necessary for proper brain function during times of stress because the brain's only energy source is glucose. If cortisol release continues for too long a period, the healthy functioning of white blood cells can be inhibited, making the immune system weaker and thus the body more susceptible to illness and infection.

Cross-sectional studies

Cross-sectional studies investigate a population at a single point in time, looking for predictive relationships among variables. A limitation of cross-sectional designs is that they can show correlations, but not causation, because looking at changes over time is necessary to assess whether a cause-and-effect relationship is present.

Cross-sectional study

Cross-sectional studies investigate a population at a single point in time, looking for predictive relationships among variables. A limitation of cross-sectional designs is that they can show correlations, but not causation, because looking at changes over time is necessary to assess whether a cause-and-effect relationship is present.

Crystalline solids

Crystalline solids exhibit a regular arrangement of atoms. In solid sodium chloride (NaCl), for example, each Na+ ion is surrounded by six Cl- ions, and each Cl- ion is in turn surrounded by six Na+ ions. This structured arrangement is termed a lattice structure, and is extremely difficult to disrupt. However, it can be broken if the NaCl is dissolved in water, in which case polar H2O molecules will "solvate," or separate and surround, the individual ions. The lattice energy of an ionic solid refers to the amount of energy required to separate the solid into its component cations and anions

Cultural assimilation

Cultural assimilation is the process by which a particular group's culture begins to resemble that of another. Take for example Italian immigrants to New York City: having left Italy and taken up residence in the bustling city, immigrants began to take on qualities of New York culture. Inversely, people already in New York began to incorporate elements of Italian culture, such as eating pizza.

Factors of assimilation

Cultural assimilation is the process by which a particular group's culture begins to resemble that of another. Take for example Italian immigrants to New York City: having left Italy and taken up residence in the bustling city, immigrants began to take on qualities of New York culture. Inversely, people already in New York began to incorporate elements of Italian culture, such as eating pizza. Typically, the four factors that measure completeness of assimilation are geographic distribution, intermarriage, language acquisition, and socioeconomic status. Assimilation can be slowed by the development of cultural or ethnic enclaves, that is, neighborhoods or areas with a high concentration of people from one distinct culture or ethnicity.

Culture of poverty

Culture of poverty is a theory proposed by Oscar Lewis that suggested that social systems helped to perpetuate poverty and people in poverty are often trapped because they have no social systems to give them the training, skills, or education necessary to escape poverty.

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are responsible for promoting proliferation by allowing progression through the cell cycle. Thus, by inhibiting CDKs, p16 puts the brakes on proliferation, so it would be considered a tumor suppressor gene, despite the fact that it is overexpressed in squamous cell carcinoma. It's important to keep in mind that more transcripts do not always equal more protein or a larger effect: translational and post-translational regulation can also affect the level and activity of the final protein that is made from the transcript.

Boiling point and melting point

BP and MP are primarily is a function of inter-molecular forces

Boiling point

BP is a temperature (at a particular point in relation to the external atmospheric pressure). Vapor pressure is a pressure related to the intermolecular forces associated with the fluid. A high boiling point means it's harder to vaporize. A low bp means it's easier to vaporize and overcome the intermolecular forces to get into the gas phase. It's just a relationship. There isn't really an equality associated with them, mostly conceptual.

Bacteria and oxygen requirements

Bacteria that do not require oxygen for metabolism are known as anaerobes. For obligate anaerobes, oxygen is toxic. Aerotolerant anaerobes are similar to obligate anaerobes in that they cannot engage in aerobic metabolism, but oxygen is not toxic for them. Facultative anaerobes can engage in either aerobic or anaerobic metabolism, depending on the circumstances. Bacteria that require oxygen for metabolism are known as obligate aerobes.

Bacteriophages (phages)

Bacteriophages are viruses whose host cells are bacteria. Instead of entering the cell completely, they inject their genetic material into their host through a syringe-like structure known as a tail sheath. Retroviruses are a distinct class of single-stranded RNA viruses, including HIV, that use an enzyme known as reverse transcriptase to synthesize DNA from their RNA genome.

Types of virus cycle

Bacteriophages have two distinct life cycles: lytic and lysogenic. During the lytic cycle, the bacteriophage essentially works to replicate at full speed, making full use of the host cell's machinery. Eventually, the host cell is filled with virions to the point that it bursts or lyses, and a tremendous number of new virions spill out into the environment. Alternately, in the lysogenic cycle, bacteriophages can integrate themselves into the host genome, at which point they are referred to as a prophage or a provirus. In response to environmental signals, the prophage can re-emerge from the host genome and resume a lytic cycle. Non-bacteriophage viruses (e.g., those that infect humans) can exhibit a dormant stage that is similar to the lysogenic cycle. Examples of viruses with a prominent dormant stage include HIV and herpesvirus.

Social cognitive Theory

Bandura's social cognitive theory, individuals acquire knowledge by observing others. Thus, they learn adequate health behaviors through social learning

Basal ganglia

Basal ganglia is related in initiating and controlling volunatry movement

Flow rate and blood pressure

Basic relationship between blood pressure (P), flow rate of blood from the heart (cardiac output or CO), and vascular resistance to the flow of blood (VR): P = CO × VR.

Housekeeping gene

Because GAPDH is a housekeeping gene and is expressed continuously. A gene that is always turned on must be accessible to transcription factors. Only euchromatin is in a loose conformation and readily accessible for transcription

Why is arginine more basic than lysine?

Because it has more resonance forms, it can better stabilize the positive charge on it's guanidinium side chain than the lone amine on lysine. More stable binding to a proton means it's a better base. Arginine also has a secondary amine which can be protonated as well. Secondary amines are more basic than primary amines due to increased electron donation which stabilizes the positive charge.

Inbreeding

Because the breeding group is small, inbreeding, or mating between two genetically related individuals, may occur in later generations. Inbreeding encourages homozygosity, which increases the prevalence of both homozygous dominant and recessive genotypes. Ultimately, genetic drift, the founder effect, and inbreeding cause a reduction in genetic diversity, which is often the reason why a small population may have increased prevalence of certain traits and diseases.

Beta-oxidation basics

Beta-oxidation is a process in which fatty acids are broken down into acetyl-CoA, which can be fed into the citric acid cycle (similarly to the effects of glycolysis and the pyruvate dehydrogenation complex). Beta-oxidation also generates the electron carriers NADH and FADH2, which produce energy in the electron transport chain. This process is known as beta-oxidation because the beta carbon of each fatty acid is oxidized to a carbonyl group (C=O). It occurs in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells.

Bile

Bile is an alkaline solution secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, from which it is released into the small intestine to emulsify fats. It contains amphipathic substances known as bile salts, which contain both polar and nonpolar regions. This feature of bile salts enables them to emulsify, or break up, fats into smaller spherical shapes called micelles (with the hydrophilic heads facing the aqueous solution and the hydrophobic components facing inwards), from which individual lipid molecules are absorbed into small intestine cells.

Biological preparedness

Biological preparedness is the idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses. This concept plays an important role in learning, particularly in understanding the classical conditioning process

Major hormones summary

Blood glucose levels are primarily regulated by insulin and glucagon. Insulin promotes the transport of glucose from the bloodstream into cells, thereby reducing blood glucose levels. Glucagon promotes gluconeogenesis, increasing blood glucose levels when they dip to become too low. Serum calcium concentrations are regulated by parathyroid hormone and vitamin D3, which increase Ca2+ levels, and calcitonin, which decreases Ca2+ levels. Fluids are regulated by aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone, which promote fluid retention, and atrial natriuretic protein, which promotes fluid excretion. The stress response, involving increased blood glucose and sympathetic nervous system activation, is mediated by cortisol for long-term stress and by epinephrine for short-term stress. Thyroid hormone increases the basal metabolic rate, and the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone contribute to the development of secondary sex characteristics.

Blood in the pulmonary artery

Blood in the pulmonary artery is lower in oxygen, higher in CO2 and has a lower pH than arterial blood in the aorta. This is because the blood in the pulmonary artery, unlike blood in other arteries, is essentially the same as venous blood. It has passed through the tissues of the body where it has given up oxygen and taken on CO2. It has been pumped through the right side of the heart from the veins and headed for the lung where it will become oxygenated and will dispose of its CO2 load. Venous blood is lower in pH than arterial blood due primarily to the CO2 it carries.

necrosis and apoptosis

Both necrosis and apoptosis has the property common is the reqruitement of macrophages, which is a type of leucocyte

NADH electron shuttling system

Both shuttles are used to transfer NADH in the cytosol (from glycolysis GAPDH step) to the ETC so that it can be used for oxidative phosphorylation. The gycerol 3-phosphate shuttle is rapid, but it converts NADH to FADH2 and therefore yields one less ATP/NADH. The malate-aspartate shuttle is slower and has more steps but it does not sacrifice the reducing power of NADH and yields 2.5 ATP/NADH. Which shuttle is used depends on the organ.

Long-term potentiation

Brain doesn't grow new cells to store memories - connections between neurons strengthen. Called long-term potentiation (LTP), one example of synaptic plasticity.

What is a group?

Broadly speaking, a group consists of two or more people who identify and interact with one another. These people generally share values, interests, family, social placement, political ideals, or any other number of unifying factors. There are several types of groups that are studied in sociology and group psychology.

Brown adipose tissue (BAT)

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a specialized adipose tissue that contains large numbers of mitochondria that generate heat during thermogenesis

DNA basics

DNA is organized in a double helix of antiparallel strands, with a sugar-phosphate backbone connected by phosphodiester bonds on the outside and nitrogenous bases on the inside. DNA contains four such bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T); RNA contains A, C, and G, but has uracil (U) in place of thymine (T). Of these, adenine and guanine are purines, which indicates that they contain two fused rings in their structures. In contrast, cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines and contain only a single ring. Complementary base pairing dictates that adenine pairs with thymine in DNA, adenine pairs with uracil in mRNA, and cytosine pairs with guanine in both molecules. For the DNA double helix, the interior of the structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between base pairs (two hydrogen bonds for AT pairs and three for CG pairs), as well as hydrophobic interactions between stacked nitrogenous bases.

DNA organization

DNA is organized in a double helix of antiparallel strands, with a sugar-phosphate backbone connected by phosphodiester bonds on the outside and nitrogenous bases on the inside. DNA contains four such bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T); RNA contains A, C, and G, but has uracil (U) in place of thymine (T). Of these, adenine and guanine are purines, which indicates that they contain two fused rings in their structures. In contrast, cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines and contain only a single ring. Complementary base pairing dictates that adenine pairs with thymine in DNA, adenine pairs with uracil in mRNA, and cytosine pairs with guanine in both molecules. For the DNA double helix, the interior of the structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between base pairs (two hydrogen bonds for AT pairs and three for CG pairs), as well as hydrophobic interactions between stacked nitrogenous bases.

DNA palindrome

DNA palindromes read the same from 5'-to-3' on one strand as they do from 5'-to-3' on the complementary strand. For choice A, 5'—GAACGTTC—3'is the reference strand, and the compliment to that strand is 3'—CTTGCAAG—5'. When the complementary sequence is read from 5'-to-3' it is identical,

Smooth muscle contraction

Different control mechanism than striated muscle Ca++ also activates. Actin and myosin come in contact in dense bodies. Smooth muscle contraction is slower than skeletal muscle contraction and lasts longer.

Diffraction

Diffraction is a phenomenon that occurs when a wave encounters an obstacle or (more commonly for the MCAT) an aperture, which can also be thought of as a small opening in a barrier. Diffraction is most noticeable when the aperture is relatively small (i.e., close to the wavelength of the incident wave).

Effect of steroid hormones

Direct gene effects take time to manifest, so steroid hormone responses are generally slower than peptide hormone responses. However, since these changes are at the genetic level, they are much longer-lasting and sometimes permanent (e.g., sex hormones and sexual differentiation). If you encounter an unknown hormone on Test Day, the suffix of the name provides some clues. Generally, steroid hormones end in -ol, -one, or -en (e.g., testosterone, cortisol, and estradiol). Many hormones relating to the reproductive system are steroid hormones. Another important steroid hormone, aldosterone, regulates fluid and salt levels, and cortisol affects blood glucose levels as part of the long-term stress response. These three functions of steroid hormones are sometimes known as the three "S's": sex, salt, and sugar. However, it is important to keep in mind that these functions are not only controlled by steroid hormones.

Dissociative disorders

Dissociative disorders involve the disruption or breakdown of perception, identity, memory, or awareness. Individuals with these conditions feel disconnected from reality. Often, this dissociation serves to provide an unintentional escape from reality or barrier against stress from a life event.

Dissociative disorders basics

Dissociative disorders involve the disruption or breakdown of perception, identity, memory, or awareness. Individuals with these conditions feel disconnected from reality. Often, this dissociation serves to provide an unintentional escape from reality or barrier against stress from a life event.

Distilled water

Distilled water is water that has had many of its impurities removed through distillation. Distillation involves boiling the water and then condensing the steam into a clean container. Distilled water is a pure water, which is a poor conductor of electricity...

Disulfide linkage

Disulfide linkages. The amino acid that forms these bonds is cysteine, which has a thiol (-SH) group in its side chain. Disulfide bonds arise when one cysteine's sulfur atom connects to another, losing the attached hydrogen atoms in the process. These bonds are a key part of protein tertiary structure.

Dopamine and serotonin

Dopamine is used in reward and motor pathways. It is particularly associated with Parkinson's disease and the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Endorphins suppress pain and can produce euphoria. Serotonin regulates mood, appetite, and sleep in the brain, with low levels associated with depressive mood disorders.

Dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine

Dopamine is used in reward and motor pathways. It is particularly associated with Parkinson's disease and the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Endorphins suppress pain and can produce euphoria. Serotonin regulates mood, appetite, and sleep in the brain, with low levels associated with depressive mood disorders.

Double-slit diffraction

Double-slit diffraction involves two apertures. For the MCAT, we assume that the width of each of the two apertures (the variable we called A when analyzing single-slit diffraction) is negligible compared to the distance between them (D), and we also assume that the optical screen is separated from the screen with two slits by a much greater distance than D. Double-slit diffraction is characterized by a much more even distribution of minima and maxima than single-slit diffraction. The formula for the nth maximum is: Dsinθ = nλ.

Drive reduction and incentive theory

Drive reduction theory focuses on internal drives for motivation and incentive theory focuses on external drives

RNA polymerase

EUK and Procaroytes use different RNA polymerase ezymes, which make RNA polymerase a logical target for antimicrobial drugs

NADH and FADH2 protons

Each pair of electrons from NADH result in translocation of 10 protons while FADH2 electrons result in translocation of 6 protons

Epistemic authority

Epistemic authority refers to situations in which only people with certain kinds of experience can claim privileged knowledge about what it is like to have that experience.

Equivalence Point and End Point

Equivalence Point: When the moles of acid you have added equal the number of moles of base in the analyte (moles of titrant and analyte are equivalent). During the titration there is no visual indication of hitting the equivalence point. End Point: When you see color change and stop adding acid (end of the titration). This occurs immediately after the equivalence point. Technically you end up with slightly more acid than base, which is what causes the pH to decrease and the indicator to change color. However, the extra volume of acid that was added after the equivalence point to reach the endpoint is considered to be negligible.

Erythrocyte production conditions?

Erythrocytes are produced in the bone marrow. Under low-oxygen conditions, erythrocyte production increases in response to the secretion of a kidney hormone, erythropoietin (EPO).

Estrogen and progesterone in menstrual cycle

Estrogen and progesterone are actively secreted by the ovaries of pre-menopausal women and act to maintain the uterine cycle. With advancing age the ovary becomes less responsive to pituitary gonadotropins and cyclical changes in the endometrium of the uterus disappear. The menstrual cycle can be re-established by administration of estrogen and progesterone in a regimen that approximates the rise and fall of hormone levels in pre-menopausal women.

Sex hormones

Estrogen and testosterone, which are steroid hormones secreted by the ovaries and testes, respectively, are the two most important hormones involved in reproduction and the development of secondary sex characteristics. Secondary sex characteristics are sex-specific features that are not directly related to the reproductive organs; examples in humans include wider hips in females and facial hair in males. Secondary sex characteristics contribute to sexual dimorphism, or the presence of noticeable morphological differences between the sexes within a species.

Estrogen vs. Testosterone

Estrogen is involved in the regulation of the menstrual cycle and contributes to the development of female secondary sex characteristics, while testosterone contributes to the development of male secondary sex characteristics. Both hormones have other systemic effects, but these go beyond the scope of the MCAT. Another important steroid hormone involved in the reproductive system is progesterone, which prepares the uterus for implantation and maintains it throughout pregnancy.

Flagella

Eukaryotic flagella are composed of microtubules

Eukaryotic vs prokaryotic flagella

Eukaryotic flagella flap back and forth, and their movement is powered by ATP. In contrast, prokaryotic flagella use a rotary motion, are powered by a proton gradient, and are composed of a protein known as flagellin.

Exonuclease

Exonucleases are most important in the context of genetic repair and proofreading. For example, DNA polymerase has a "proofreading" ability to excise mismatched base pairs and reinsert the correct base, a function that is referred to as 3'-5' exonuclease activity. RNA degradation also involves exonuclease activity.

Soloman Asch

Famous for conformity studies

Fatty acids structure

Fatty acids contain a carboxylic acid head group and a hydrocarbon tail.

Feature detection

Feature detection is a type of visual processing by which the visual cortex analyzes information including lines shapes and motion

Female genitalia

Female genitalia is the default state of the development

What is feminist theory?

Feminist theory is a perspective that aims to understand the effects of gender and gender inequality on society. This perspective often focuses on the roles of women, who are perceived to have less power than men. This is often reflected by socioeconomic factors, as with the oft-quoted statistics about women's earning power in relation to men. Feminist perspectives often also include the concept of intersectionality, which is the idea that people can be oppressed due to several characteristics (race, ethnicity, gender, social orientation, etc.) at once, and these characteristics intersect in ways that can impact their experiences and social treatment.

Fertilization

Fertilization takes place in the Fallopian tube, when a sperm cell encounters a secondary oocyte. The sperm cell passes through the corona radiata, a layer of follicular cells surrounding the oocyte, and the zona pellucida, a layer of glycoproteins between the corona radiata and the oocyte. This triggers the acrosome reaction, in which digestive enzymes are released that allow the nucleus of the sperm cell to enter the egg. The secondary oocyte completes meiosis II, creating a second polar body and a mature ovum. Then, the haploid nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum merge, creating a diploid one-cell zygote

How does fertilization occurs?

Fertilization takes place in the Fallopian tube, when a sperm cell encounters a secondary oocyte. The sperm cell passes through the corona radiata, a layer of follicular cells surrounding the oocyte, and the zona pellucida, a layer of glycoproteins between the corona radiata and the oocyte. This triggers the acrosome reaction, in which digestive enzymes are released that allow the nucleus of the sperm cell to enter the egg. The secondary oocyte completes meiosis II, creating a second polar body and a mature ovum. Then, the haploid nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum merge, creating a diploid one-cell zygote

Fertilization

Fertilization takes place in the Fallopian tube, when a sperm cell encounters a secondary oocyte. The sperm cell passes through the corona radiata, a layer of follicular cells surrounding the oocyte, and the zona pellucida, a layer of glycoproteins between the corona radiata and the oocyte. This triggers the acrosome reaction, in which digestive enzymes are released that allow the nucleus of the sperm cell to enter the egg. The secondary oocyte completes meiosis II, creating a second polar body and a mature ovum. Then, the haploid nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum merge, creating a diploid one-cell zygote.

Fertilization basics

Fertilization takes place in the Fallopian tube, when a sperm cell encounters a secondary oocyte. The sperm cell passes through the corona radiata, a layer of follicular cells surrounding the oocyte, and the zona pellucida, a layer of glycoproteins between the corona radiata and the oocyte. This triggers the acrosome reaction, in which digestive enzymes are released that allow the nucleus of the sperm cell to enter the egg. The secondary oocyte completes meiosis II, creating a second polar body and a mature ovum. Then, the haploid nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum merge, creating a diploid one-cell zygote.

How fertilization occurs?

Fertilization takes place in the Fallopian tube, when a sperm cell encounters a secondary oocyte. The sperm cell passes through the corona radiata, a layer of follicular cells surrounding the oocyte, and the zona pellucida, a layer of glycoproteins between the corona radiata and the oocyte. This triggers the acrosome reaction, in which digestive enzymes are released that allow the nucleus of the sperm cell to enter the egg. The secondary oocyte completes meiosis II, creating a second polar body and a mature ovum. Then, the haploid nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum merge, creating a diploid one-cell zygote.

Fluid regulation in the human body

Fluid regulation is crucial for the maintenance of life. There are two basic scenarios that the body can encounter: too little fluid and too much fluid. Having too little fluid in one's system manifests in three important ways: reduced blood volume (because relatively little water is present in the blood plasma), reduced blood pressure (a consequence of reduced blood volume—less liquid is present to exert pressure against the walls of the blood vessels), and increased blood osmolarity (the same solutes are present, but less solvent is available). Correspondingly, increases in the amount of fluid present in the system manifest as increased blood volume (because more water is present in the blood plasma), increased blood pressure (more blood volume means more pressure against the walls of the blood vessels), and decreased blood osmolarity (the same solutes are present, but more solvent is available).

Fluorescence

Fluorescence is the emission of a lower-energy photon from a fluorophore excited by the prior absorption of a higher-energy photon. With this in mind, the Aequorea fluorophore must be excited by the absorption of a photon of higher energy (and frequency) than that associated with green visible light

Standing waves

For a standing wave: T = 2L/nv and f = nv/2L (when both ends closed) and For a standing wave: T= 4L/nv and f = nv/4L (when one end close and other is opened)

Reliability vs. Validity

For a study to be reliable, the significant results must be replicable. In this case, the longitudinal follow-ups demonstrated replication of the results. Validity, on the other hand, includes meeting all aspects of the scientific method, including randomization. The fact that the study used a random selection method and had a high response rate contributed to the validity of the study.

Thermodynamic stability

For a thermodynamic mixture of isomeric products, the relative mole ratio of products is directly related to the relative stability of these products. The relative thermodynamic stability of isomers can be determined based on the amount of heat produced when the compounds are combusted; less heat, greater stability.

Extraction example

For example, imagine we had a flask containing valeric acid (CH3(CH2)3COOH) and aniline (C6H5NH2) suspended in a layer of diethyl ether floating above a layer of water, and wanted to separate out the valeric acid. We could add a strong base (for example, NaOH), which would deprotonate the valeric acid to form CH3(CH2)3COO−. This charged molecule would be much more likely to move to the water layer, which can then be extracted. This process may have to be repeated to ensure that the products are pure.

Lipid stability

For lipids the longer and straighter the chain, the stronger the inter-molecular interactions between the different molecules

Fluorescence and UV light

For the MCAT, you should be aware that molecules showing conjugation have a tendency to absorb ultraviolet (UV) light and emit lower-energy wavelengths of visible light through fluorescence. This means that they can easily be visualized using UV light. Conjugation is associated with alternating single and double bonds in carbon chains, and can be defined more technically as occurring when three or more adjacent p-orbitals are aligned with each other, forming not just a π bond, but a π system through which electrons are delocalized.

Basic amino acids

For the three basic amino acids (histidine, lysine, and arginine), the ionizable side chain group is a basic, nitrogen-containing functional group. Like the backbone amino terminal, these groups become positively-charged when protonated and neutral when deprotonated. As such, basic amino acids contain one group that can become negative (the carboxylic acid terminal) and two groups that can become positive (the terminal amine and nitrogen-containing side chain). Importantly, not all nitrogen-containing functional groups are basic. Asparagine and glutamine both contain nitrogenous side chains (specifically, amides) but are not considered basic because amides are not readily protonated.

The Kübler-Ross model

For these stages, you can remember the acronym Death Always Brings Definite Acceptance. The stages are sequenced in the following order: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

Amino acids charge

Free amino acids contain a minimum of two groups that can become charged. The first is the carboxylic acid terminal, which exists as neutral -COOH when protonated and negatively-charged -COO− when deprotonated. The second is the amino terminal, which becomes the positively-charged -NH3+ when protonated and the neutral -NH2 when deprotonated. Note that "protonated" is not always synonymous with "positive." A protonated position can be either positive or neutral, depending on the group in question. Similarly, a deprotonated position can be either negative or neutral.

Brain lobs function

Frontal lobe: Executive functions voluntary motor initiation Parietal lobe: Proprioception somatosensation Temporal lobe: Learning, memory and auditory processing Cerebellum: motor learning, posture, and coordination

Functional fixedness

Functional fixedness refers to a situation in which an individual cannot imagine using an object in any way other that its traditional use

Gender dysphoria

Gender dysphoria is the feeling of stress or discomfort in which one's sense of one's gender does not align with the gender assigned at birth (overwhelmingly the physiological sex of the person as determined by primary sex characteristics). In the older nomenclature, this was termed gender identity disorder

Gender Identity

Gender identity refers to how one experiences one's own gender personally, and gender expression describes the many different ways in which gender identity manifests behaviorally in a given cultural context. Gender schema theory describes how cultural constructs of gender are shaped and transmitted.

Gender and Sex confusion??

Gender refers to the state of being a particular sex, either male or female, and corresponds not to physical differences (sex organs), but to behavioral, cultural, and psychological traits. Importantly, sex and gender are not synonymous: sex refers to the biologically determined sex chromosomes of a person and the accompanying anatomy (the XX genotype corresponds to females and the XY genotype corresponds to males), while gender is a culturally conditioned phenomenon.

James-Lange theory of emotion

James-Lange theory of emotion suggests that physiological arousal precedes the experiencing of emotions.

Mindguards

Janis described mindguards as members of the group who protect the group and/or its leader from information that is problematic or contradictory to the group's view

Jung's psychoanalytic theory

Jung described three primary conflicts of personality that further define a person: extraversion vs. introversion, sensing vs. intuiting, and thinking vs. feeling. The Myers-Briggs Type Inventory, a commonly used personality test, uses these three contrasts along with another (judging vs. perceiving), to label a person's personality with a four-variable combination. For example, someone labeled an ENFP would tend towards extraversion, intuiting, feeling, and perceiving.

Sex and gender

Gender refers to the state of being a particular sex, either male or female, and corresponds not to physical differences (sex organs), but to behavioral, cultural, and psychological traits. Importantly, sex and gender are not synonymous: sex refers to the biologically determined sex chromosomes of a person and the accompanying anatomy (the XX genotype corresponds to females and the XY genotype corresponds to males), while gender is a culturally conditioned phenomenon.

Genetic drift

Genetic drift refers to the role of chance, in the absence of strong selective pressures, in determining the reproductive fitness of various alleles. When no strong pressure exists for a certain allele, it may randomly happen to be reproduced more or less often. These random effects can add up over the course of evolution.

Genetic leakage

Genetic leakage refers to transfer of genetic information between species. When mutations or genetic leakage occur, new genes are introduced into the gene pool. Genetic variability is essential for the survival of a species because it allows it to evolve to adapt to changing environmental stresses. Certain traits may be more desirable than others and confer a selective advantage that allows for an individual to produce more viable, fertile offspring.

Genetic shift

Genetic shift refers to a large genetic change that results from intermixing of genetic material, such as that which may happen in a cell that is simultaneously infected by two viruses. In this case, genetic material for two different viruses may be packaged together, resulting in genetic shift and a novel virus.

Genital Phallic Stage

Genitals are the most erogenous sex structure in both phase

Telencephalon

Give rise to cerebral cortex

Diencephalon

Give rise to thalamus and hypothalamus

Glial cells

Glial cells provide the neurons with nourishment, physical support, and protection. Glial cells also dispose of the waste generated when neurons die, and accelerate neural conduction by acting as an insulating sheath around certain axons, similar to a rubber coating around an electrical wire. There are three primary glial cells types in the mature human central nervous system.

Glial cells info

Glial cells provide the neurons with nourishment, physical support, and protection. Glial cells also dispose of the waste generated when neurons die, and accelerate neural conduction by acting as an insulating sheath around certain axons, similar to a rubber coating around an electrical wire. There are three primary glial cells types in the mature human central nervous system.

Whats are glial cells?

Glial cells provide the neurons with nourishment, physical support, and protection. Glial cells also dispose of the waste generated when neurons die, and accelerate neural conduction by acting as an insulating sheath around certain axons, similar to a rubber coating around an electrical wire. There are three primary glial cells types in the mature human central nervous system.

Pentose Phosphate Pathway links to

Gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway both share the molecule glucose 6-phosphate, a glycolytic intermediate. The pentose phosphate pathway begins with the production of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, which can be fed into the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain. Lastly, the product ribose 5-phosphate is important in the production of nucleic acids.

Gluconeogenesis basics

Gluconeogenesis is a process that the body uses to create glucose from pyruvate. It occurs primarily in the liver and to some extent in the adrenal cortex, and its goal is to ensure an adequate supply of glucose (which can then be converted into energy, or stored as glycogen) throughout the tissues of the body. In particular, it can be important to replenish the stores of glycogen in muscle cells after they have been depleted by intense activity. It is upregulated by glucagon and by the presence of surplus pyruvate/acetyl-CoA.

Gluconeogenesis info

Gluconeogenesis is a process that the body uses to create glucose from pyruvate. It occurs primarily in the liver and to some extent in the adrenal cortex, and its goal is to ensure an adequate supply of glucose (which can then be converted into energy, or stored as glycogen) throughout the tissues of the body. In particular, it can be important to replenish the stores of glycogen in muscle cells after they have been depleted by intense activity. It is upregulated by glucagon and by the presence of surplus pyruvate/acetyl-CoA.

Glycolipids/Sphingolipids

Glycolipids are phospholipids that contain sugar molecule and sphingolipids are molecule that contain sphingosine in their backbone

Regulation of glycolysis

Glycolysis is upregulated when the cell needs more ATP, as signaled by relatively high concentrations of AMP/ADP or an abundance of inorganic phosphate (Pi). It is downregulated when the cell does not need more ATP, as indicated by a high level of ATP, abundant levels of NADH, or high levels of citrate (the product of the first step in the citric acid cycle). Glycolysis is also subject to negative regulation, in which certain products inhibit previous steps. Most notably, G6P, the first product of glycolysis, inhibits hexokinase, which catalyzes step 1, the conversion of glucose to G6P. Fructokinase is an enzyme found primarily in the liver and intestine that plays a similar role in the first step of how fructose, another six-carbon sugar, is used.

Glycoslysis vs Gluconeogenesis

Glycolysis occurs in all cells, while gluconeogenesis only occurs in the liver and cortex of the kidney.

Glycosidic bonds

Glycosidic bonds are formed when the anomeric carbon of one sugar reacts with a hydroxyl group in another sugar (most commonly at carbon 2, 4, or 6). This is a dehydration reaction, in which an H2O molecule is lost as the two monosaccharides condense to form a disaccharide. The formation of a glycosidic bond transforms the hemiacetal or hemiketal found at the anomeric carbon into an acetal or a ketal, because the -OH group that is characteristic of a hemiacetal/hemiketal is transformed into a second -OR group, which defines an acetal/ketal.

glycosidic bond

Glycosidic bonds are formed when the anomeric carbon of one sugar reacts with a hydroxyl group in another sugar (most commonly at carbon 2, 4, or 6). This is a dehydration reaction, in which an H2O molecule is lost as the two monosaccharides condense to form a disaccharide. The formation of a glycosidic bond transforms the hemiacetal or hemiketal found at the anomeric carbon into an acetal or a ketal, because the -OH group that is characteristic of a hemiacetal/hemiketal is transformed into a second -OR group, which defines an acetal/ketal.

Gordon Allport trait theory

Gordon Allport is known for his studies of personality, where he outlined a form of trait theory that included three basic types of traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are those around which people organize their entire lives. In contrast, central traits are defining characteristics of a person that can be easily inferred from that person's behavior. Finally, secondary traits are those that only occur sometimes, particularly when a person is in a certain social situation.

Group polarization

Group polarization suggests that when people who are in agreement with each other discuss an issue, their views get more extreme.

Groupthink

Groupthink describes a phenomenon in which individuals in a group strive for a harmonious consensus, sometimes leading to poor decisions,

HCl Secretion mechanism

HCL secretion mechanism is as follows: gastrin is released and stimulates parietal cells to release HCl. HCl is needed for pepsinogen activation

HIV-1

HIV-1 is a single stranded RNA virus that uses an RNA-dependent DNA polymerase and follows lysogenic cycle

Habituation

Habituation is a type of learning where the person dcreases or ceases to respond to a stimulus after repeated presentations

Hans Eysenck info

Hans Eysenck studied personality with a strong focus on the biological perspective, which considers personality differences to be the result of biological factors

Hans Eysenck

Hans Eysenck studied personality with a strong focus on the biological perspective, which considers personality differences to be the result of biological factors.

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium premises:

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium requires a certain set of circumstances to be met. The population is very large (no genetic drift). There are no mutations that affect the gene pool. Mating between individuals in the population is random (no sexual selection). There is no net migration of individuals into or out of the population. The genes in the population are all equally successful at reproducing.

Acetal/hemiacetal formation

Hemiacetal formation = -OH attacks carbonyl group = produces ring form. Acetal formation = another -OH attack on the same carbonyl group = produces polysaccharides if the -OH is from another monosaccharide.

hemiacetals/acetals (nucleophilic addition)

Hemiacetals are compounds in which a terminal carbon atom is connected to (1) another carbon atom, (2) an -H atom, (3) an -OH group, and (4) an -OR group. Acetals are derivatives of hemiacetals in which the -OH group is replaced by an -OR' group. Hemiketals and ketals are analogous compounds, in which the carbon is non-terminal and is therefore has two carbon substituents (analogous to the difference between aldehydes and ketones).

Concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11)

Here, children develop an understanding of conservation and begin to understand mathematics. They also become less egocentric and can think logically about concrete events and objects, but they still have not developed a full capacity for abstract thought.

Hexokinase/glucokinase

Hexokinase has a much higher affinity for glucose than its isozyme, glucokinase. Therefore this enzyme will be saturated with glucose at much lower concentrations. Hexokinase mediates the first step in glycolysis by adding a phosphate group to the sixth carbon in order to trap glucose within the cell. Glucokinase is an isozyme of this molecule that is used in the liver. Glucokinase has a much lower affinity for glucose and is used to maintain blood sugar levels.

Hidden curriculum

Hidden curriculum refers to the subtle lessons that are taught in school that reinforce broader social norms. The hidden curriculum can be combined with the concept of latent functions (aspects of a social institution that may serve an unacknowledged purpose), in order to better understand how education functions as an institution

Higher melting temperature

Higher melting temperature is indicative of a more stable protein, as more energy is needed to unfold the protein.

hindbrain (rhombencephalon)

Hindbrain contains the pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum

Histone acetylation

Histone acetylation alters the amount of positive charges on the histone by acetlylating lysine residues, changing lysin's charge from positive to neutral. This modiefies the histone's ability to bind to the negatively charged DNA strand

Histones

Histones are among the most abundant proteins in eukaryotic cells. These small, basic proteins come together with DNA to form nucleosomes, the bead-like, primary structural elements of chromatin. Interactions among histone proteins in separate nucleosomes allow those nucleosomes to form the highly compacted 30-nm chromatin fibers

Kinesthetic sense

Kinesthetic sense refers to our ability to sense linear and rotational acceleration. The organ responsible for this is the ear, which is divided into three major parts: the outer, middle, and inner ear. The inner ear contains the cochlea, which is crucial for hearing, and the vestibule and the semicircular canals, which account for linear and rotational acceleration, respectively.

Acidic and basic pH and pOH

How acidic or basic a solution is can be expressed in terms of pH or pOH, which are defined as follows: pH = −log [H+] and pOH = −log [OH−]. For example, a solution with an H+ concentration of 10−4 M will have a pH of 4, and a solution with an OH− concentration of 10−9 M will have a pOH of 9. pH and pOH values can be estimated given a certain concentration using the following shortcut: p(N × 10−M) = (M−1).(10−N), such that a solution with an H+ concentration of 4 × 10−8 will have a pH = (8−1).(10−4) = 7.6.

Lymph Nodes

Hundreds of lymph nodes dot the lymphatic system. These are organized clusters that can be thought of as filtration points for the lymphatic fluid where reservoirs of B and T cells are stored. Distinct clusters of lymph nodes are located in the head, neck, chest, underarms, abdomen, and groin, and are often palpated as a part of routine physical examinations because swollen lymph nodes may be a sign of conditions such as systemic infections or cancers.

Kinetic vs thermodynamic control

Kinetically controlled products form rapidly, but are less stable. They are favored in reactions that are rapid, irreversible, at lower temperatures, and involve a strong, sterically hindered base. Thermodynamic products on the other hand form much more slowly, but are more stable. They favor higher temperatures, slow, reversible reactions, and weaker, smaller bases.

Km

Km measures the concentration of substrate necessary to achieve 1/2 vmax. The lower the kM the less substrate is required to fully saturate the enzymes in solution.

HIC

Hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC) relies on high salt concentrations to enhance or strengthen hydrophobic interactions.

Advantages of measuring relative poverty compared to absolute??

I. Measuring relative poverty smooths out differences in data caused by historical events, such as recessions and natural disasters. II. Relative poverty is more likely to correspond to the fundamental needs of families.

IC50

IC50 is the amount of drug required to kill half of the cells, therefore a smaller number indicates a more potent drug

Word Systems Theory

Idea that a discernible social system, based on wealth and power differentials, transcends individual countries

Disconfirmation principle

Idea that states that if evidence obtained during testing does not confirm a hypothesis, then the hypothesis is discarded or revised.

Codon anti-codon rule

If CTG is the codon in the coding strand of DNA; then mRNA complementary sequence will be CUG; the complementary anticodon of tRNA must therefore be CAG because, by convention nucleotide sequences are always written from 5 to 3

homogeneous catalysts

If a homogeneous catalyst cannot be separated from the products at the end of a reaction then the products will be contaminated with the catalyst

Recessive genes

If a phenotype skips generations, it must be recessive. Individuals who are heterozygous for a recessive mutation are often referred to as carriers, because they do not manifest the condition but can pass it on to their children, depending on their mate's genotype. X-linked mutations are usually recessive for the purposes of the MCAT, and X-linked recessive conditions affect males more often. This is because females inherit one X chromosome from their mother and one from their father, while males only get their single X chromosome from their mother. Since males only have one X chromosome, having a single mutated allele will suffice to manifest a recessive mutation.

Leptin and Ghrelin

Leptin is a 16 kD protein encoded by the Lep gene and produced by adipocytes. It is involved in regulating body weight, metabolism, and energy balance. Leptin and its opposing hormone, ghrelin, bind to their respective receptors in the hypothalamus to maintain energy homeostasis. While the impairment of the leptin response system is associated with obesity, the Lep gene is intact in the majority of obese cases.

Recessive mutations types

If a phenotype skips generations, it must be recessive. Individuals who are heterozygous for a recessive mutation are often referred to as carriers, because they do not manifest the condition but can pass it on to their children, depending on their mate's genotype. X-linked mutations are usually recessive for the purposes of the MCAT, and X-linked recessive conditions affect males more often. This is because females inherit one X chromosome from their mother and one from their father, while males only get their single X chromosome from their mother. Since males only have one X chromosome, having a single mutated allele will suffice to manifest a recessive mutation.

Enantiomers properties

If all of the chiral centers have different configurations, the isomers are non-superimposable mirror images (similar to your hands), known as enantiomers. Enantiomers have identical chemical and physical properties, but they differ in their rotation of plane-polarized light (opposite directions) as well as the products they yield when reacted with another chiral reagent.

Entropy and solvation layer

If hydrophilic—that is, polar—residues are facing the aqueous solution, then water will be able to hydrogen-bond freely with those residues, meaning that it will have relatively high entropy, which is energetically favorable. In contrast, water molecules will not be able to hydrogen-bond effectively with nonpolar residues, and as a result will form a highly-ordered solvation shell to minimize interactions with those residues. This highly-ordered shell represents a decrease in entropy, which is energetically unfavorable.

RBC diffusion with capillaries

If the RBCs must pass through the capillaries in single file, more of their surface area will be exposed to the diffusing gases, plus they will have to proceed a little more slowly and orderly. This will increase the rate of diffusion to more effectively move the gases in and out of the cell

Diabetic ketoacidosis

If too much gucose accumulate into the blood for long times, cells may accumulate excess acetyl-CoA molecules that cannot be shunted into the citric acid cycle because the intermediaries of the citric acid cycle, especially oxaloacetate, have been siphoned off to gluconeogenesis. This excess acetyl-CoA can be used to produce acetone, D-β-hydroxybutyrate, and acetoacetate, which are known as ketone bodies. The latter two compounds are both acidic, meaning that when present in the blood at an excessively high level, they can cause the blood pH to drop, resulting in a condition known as ketoacidosis.

Chromatic aberration

If transmitted light rays refracted differently depending on their wavelengths, then the effective focal length of the lens would differ for each wavelength of light. As a result, for any light containing rays of multiple wavelengths, the rays would focus at multiple points, resulting in an unfocused image. This is known as a chromatic aberration, in which optical instrument fails to converge light rays from a source to a single point.

Radioimmunoassay (RIA)

Immunoassays operate on the principle that antibodies cultured from antibody-producing cells can bind with great specificity to a protein antigen of interest. A protein in a mixture can be detected using a radioimmunoassay (RIA); in an RIA, the protein concentration can be assessed indirectly by measuring the extent to which the protein competes with a radioactively labeled standard for antibody binding sites.

Implicit bias

Implicit bias, refers to attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner.

Impression management

Impression management involves the control of information about oneself and is characterized by flattery, boasting, and ingratiation

Structural-functional theory

Structural-functional theory sees social stratification as functionally necessary for society and its members by rewarding those who work the hardest or contribute the most to society.

Types of hormones

Structurally, hormones can be divided into peptide, steroid, and amino acid-derived hormones. Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and are lipid-soluble. They diffuse through the plasma membrane and influence gene transcription. Thus, their effects tend to be slow-onset and long-lasting. They can affect sex (estrogen, testosterone, progesterone), salt (aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid), and sugar (cortisol, a glucocorticoid). Amino acid-derived hormones include T3/T4 and (nor)epinephrine. All other high-yield hormones are peptides. Peptide hormones are larger polar molecules that cannot enter cells directly. Therefore, they bind with membrane receptors and trigger secondary messaging cascades, exerting relatively rapid-onset and shorter-lasting effects.

Succinate dehydrogenase

Succinate dehydrogenase utilizes FAD as its oxidizing agent.

Disaccharide examples

Sucrose is a disaccharide made from α-glucose and β-fructose joined at the hydroxyl groups on the anomeric carbons (making acetals). Sucrose is table sugar, the sugar we buy in stores. Lactose is a disaccharide made from β-galactose and α/β-glucose joined by a 1-4 linkage.

Sugar-phosphate backbones

Sugar-phosphate backbones form the exterior of the double helix.

Synaptic pruning

Synaptic pruning is usually reserved for the large-scale pruning of synapses during infancy and childhood.

Tactful blindness

Tactful blindness is a term used by sociologist Erving Goffman to explain how individuals purposefully ignore mistakes or blunders in the interaction process, especially those that would threaten an individual's face. In sociology, the term "face" refers to a mask maintained by individuals that mirrors how they want to be perceived by others in a variety of social spaces. People strive to maintain the face they have created, and are emotionally attached to its maintenance. Thus, they feel good when their faces are maintained and the loss of face causes emotional pain.

Tautomers

Tautomers are structural isomers that interconvert with each other and exist in equilibrium. The most commonly encountered is keto-enol isomerism, in which a ketone interconverts with an enol (a structure with an C-OH group and an adjacent C=C bond, instead of a C=O bond and an adjacent C-C bond, as in a ketone). At room temperature, the keto form is favored, but the enol form contributes significantly to some reaction mechanisms, and the deprotonated intermediate (known as an enolate ion) is also important for some reactions.

Temperature and boiling point

Temperature and vapor pressure are actually directly proportional. Think about it this way, if temperature is the rate at which molecules are moving, if they're hitting the wall of a container more often, they're going to exert more pressure. Second point. Atmospheric pressure drops as you increase in altitude. Since the boiling point of a solution is where vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure, our boiling point as we increase in altitude, will also be decreasing because our vapor pressure needs to match the atmospheric pressure (which is lower at higher altitudes)

Different types of lipids

Terpenes (which are composed of two units of isoprene), serve as the main precursor to steroid synthesis. A phosphoglyceride is a glycerol molecule with three ester linkages to long-chain fatty acids. These serve as the storage form for fats. A phospholipid (or glycerophospholipid) consists of a glycerol molecule with TWO ester linkages to long-chain fatty acids. The other -OH on the glycerol is linked to a head group, which is then attached to a phosphate. This makes is an amphipathic molecule. A sphingophospholipid has a sphingosine backbone (look up the structure if you don't know). The other parts are similar to that of a glycerophospholipid. A glycolipid has a sphingosine backbone, but does not have phosphate attached to one of the head groups. Instead, it has sugar molecules attached to that head group. Cerebrosides have one sugar molecule. Globosides have two sugar molecules or more, and gangliosides have multiple sugar molecules with N-acetylneuraminic acid (NANA).

Tertiary Prevention

Tertiary prevention refers to prevention of a disease or problem behavior from getting significantly worse; for example, if students had significant, non-normative issues with alcohol use or abuse, tertiary prevention might serve to establish a school-wide AA or harm reduction program.

House money effect

Thaler and Johnson have found that individual risk-taking behavior is affected by prior gains and losses. They found that after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk since the new money is not treated as one's own. This is known as the house money effect.

Persuasion techniques

The "foot-in-the-door" technique involves getting a person to agree to a small request, like asking them to purchase a small item, followed by making a much larger request. The opposite approach is often called the "door-in-the-face" technique, wherein the initial request is unreasonably large and is therefore rejected. The initial large request is then followed by a smaller, more reasonable-sounding request that is much more likely to be accepted.

The 3 common monosaccharides

The 3 common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Glucose is our blood sugar and the product of photosynthesis. Fructose is the sugar in fruits, and it is sweeter than glucose. Galactose is one of the monomers that make up lactose, which is the sugar in milk; it is less sweet than glucose. The simplest, smallest carbohydrates are glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone.

Doppler effect applications

The Doppler effect is used in some important applications, including medically relevant technologies like Doppler ultrasonography (US), and less medically relevant applications like the use of radar guns to catch speeders. When a wave-emitting detection device is used, its accuracy is optimized if the waves emitted by the device travel directly parallel to the waves that are being measured (θ = 0). The deviation caused by non-parallel angles is known as the cosine effect, because the measured velocity will equal the true velocity × cos(θ).

The Expectancy-Value Theory

The Expectancy-Value Theory of motivation suggests that motivation is related to the interplay of two primary factors: 1) the individual's perceived likelihood of success and 2) the relative value of the rewards likely to be associated with success.

ATP synthase

The F1 portion, one of the two main "fractions" of ATP synthase, is located inside the mitochondrial matrix. F0 is embedded inside the membrane

Cell checkpoints

The G1/S checkpoint, also known as the restriction point, is when a cell commits to division. The presence of DNA damage or other external factors can cause a cell to fail this checkpoint and not divide. The G2 checkpoint that takes place before cell division similarly checks for DNA damage after DNA replication, and if damage is detected, serves to "pause" cell division until the damage is repaired. Throughout interphase, chromatin is loosely packaged (euchromatin) to allow transcription and replication.

Cells checkpoints G1/S and G2/M

The G1/S checkpoint, also known as the restriction point, is when a cell commits to division. The presence of DNA damage or other external factors can cause a cell to fail this checkpoint and not divide. The G2 checkpoint that takes place before cell division similarly checks for DNA damage after DNA replication, and if damage is detected, serves to "pause" cell division until the damage is repaired. Throughout interphase, chromatin is loosely packaged (euchromatin) to allow transcription and replication.

G1/S checkpoint (restriction point)

The G1/S checkpoint, also known as the restriction point, is when a cell commits to division. The presence of DNA damage or other external factors can cause a cell to fail this checkpoint and not divide. The G2 checkpoint that takes place before cell division similarly checks for DNA damage after DNA replication, and if damage is detected, serves to "pause" cell division until the damage is repaired. Throughout interphase, chromatin is loosely packaged (euchromatin) to allow transcription and replication.

Ultraviolet Light (UV)

The absorption of ultraviolet light by organic molecules always results in electronic excitation

The affect heuristic

The affect heuristic is the process of making a judgment based on emotions that are evoked.

Sn1 reaction characteristics?

Let's begin with SN1 reactions, which - contrary to what you may expect - take place in two distinct steps. In the first step, the leaving group dissociates from the target substrate molecule, leaving behind an unstable carbocation. Since the product is so unstable, this step is slow and thus rate-determining. (This is where the "1" in SN1 comes from; it denotes the fact that only one molecule - the substrate - is involved in this first step.) In the second step, the nucleophile attacks the carbocation to form a more stable product molecule. Since the carbocation intermediate is planar, or lacks stereochemistry, SN1 reactions with chiral substrates produce an even mix of enantiomers termed a racemic mixture. Carbocation stability is the primary factor in SN1 reaction rate. For this reason, SN1 reactions favor tertiary substrates (as tertiary is the most stable carbocation structure) and occur to a negligible extent with primary substrates.

What approximate volume of reaction solution was used in the experiments described in the passage if 0.5 mg of MgCl2 were added to the reaction mixture?

The answer is A because the concentration of MgCl2 was 10 mM, which means there were 10-2 moles of MgCl2 per liter of solution. MgCl2 has a molar mass of 95.3 g/mol (approximately 100 g/mol). If 0.5 mg were added, that equates to 5 × 10-6 moles. And since 10-2 moles were present per liter, the number of liters is 5 × 10-4, or 500 μL.

Which protein has the highest electrophoretic mobility in SDS-PAGE under non-reducing conditions? (Note: There are no disulfide interactions unless stated in the table.)

The answer is C because in an SDS-PAGE gel that is run under non-reducing conditions, proteins 1, 3, and 4 will run as monomers. Protein 2 will run as a dimer because the disulfide bonds between Cys residues are not reduced. The running masses will then be: A = 32, B = 38, C = 25, D = 38. As the smallest one, Protein 3 will have the greatest electrophoretic mobility.

Template strand of DNA

The anti-sense strand is the template strand. If the newly synthesized strand is complementary to the anti-sense strand, then that new strand is equivalent to the sense/coding strand. So, the new strand transcribed off the anti-sense strand is the mRNA, which is identical to the coding/sense strand. except if the coding strand is made from DNA, you switch the Us with Ts. Is the nomenclature of sense/coding/anti-template strand and anti-sense/anti-coding/template strand

Effective nuclear charge (Zeff).

The attractive force of this positively-charged nucleus on the atom's negatively-charged valence electrons is termed the effective nuclear charge (Zeff). As the number of protons in the nucleus increases from left to right across a period (or row) of the table, Zeff also increases, since each additional proton adds positive charge to the nucleus.

The axon hillock

The axon hillock sums the excitatory and inhibitory signals received by a neuron's dendrites and if the summation results in depolarization sufficient to exceed the threshold potential, an action potential will be triggered and transmitted down the axon.

Angular momentum quantum number (l)

The azimuthal, or angular momentum, quantum number (l) describes the subshell of the principal quantum number in which the electron is found, with values ranging from 0 to n − 1, where l = 0 is the s subshell, l = 1 is the p subshell, l = 2 is the d subshell, and l = 3 is the f subshell.

Basal ganglia function

The basal ganglia are involved in several functions, including voluntary movement, habitual behaviors, learning, and emotion.

Basal ganglia (nuclei)

The basal ganglia are located just under the cortex and connect to both the brainstem and the cortical lobes. The basal ganglia are involved in several functions, including voluntary movement, habitual behaviors, learning, and emotion.

What is basal ganglia?

The basal ganglia are located just under the cortex and connect to both the brainstem and the cortical lobes. The basal ganglia are involved in several functions, including voluntary movement, habitual behaviors, learning, and emotion.

Oncogene and tumor suppression gene

The basic difference between them is that oncogenes function to promote abnormal growth and proliferation, leading to cancer, while tumor suppressor genes function to prevent tumorigenic properties. Oncogenes can arise from the mutation of other genes, termed proto-oncogenes. If not mutated, proto-oncogenes do not promote cancer, but certain mutations or inappropriately elevated gene expression can effectively turn them into oncogenes.

Oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes

The basic difference between them is that oncogenes function to promote abnormal growth and proliferation, leading to cancer, while tumor suppressor genes function to prevent tumorigenic properties. Oncogenes can arise from the mutation of other genes, termed proto-oncogenes. If not mutated, proto-oncogenes do not promote cancer, but certain mutations or inappropriately elevated gene expression can effectively turn them into oncogenes.

Coordinate Covalent Bonding

Lewis acid-base interaction between a metal cation and an electron pair donor is known as a coordinate covalent bond.

Light pathway in brain

Light activates photoreceptors in the retina, which subsequently transmit information through the optic nerve. The lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus receives visual input from the retina and then sends that information on to the primary visual cortex, also known as the striate cortex.

Lineweaver-Burk plots

Lineweaver-Burk plots may also be used. When the experimental data are examined in the form of double reciprocal Lineweaver-Burk plots, the x- and y-axes are 1/[S] and 1/V, respectively. Since these plots are a straight line, the slope of each line is Km/Vmax. The y-intercept on a Lineweaver-Burk plot represents 1/Vmax, while the x-intercept is −1/Km. These double-reciprocal plots are especially useful for distinguishing between competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors.

Long term potentiation

Long term potentiation is initiated by a process that begins when ca2+ enters a cell after the NMDA receptors activated

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles that contain a diverse range of enzymes that hydrolyze various polymers. These enzymes operate best at acidic pH levels, and the lysosomes are therefore kept at a pH of 4.5-5.0. In general, lysosomes can be thought of as the garbage disposal system of the cell; material from outside the cell enters the lysosomes through endocytosis, while material from inside the cells enters through autophagy.

MHC I and II

MHC I molecules present antigen to CD8+ cell whearas MHC II present antigen to CD4+ cells. These are antigen presenting cells

Basics of TCA cycle

The basic logic of the citric acid cycle is that the two-carbon molecule acetyl-CoA joins with the four-carbon molecule oxaloacetate to form a six-carbon molecule known as citrate. Citrate then undergoes a series of redox and decarboxylation reactions to generate the products of the citric acid cycle. The final product is the four-carbon compound oxaloacetate, which joins with acetyl-CoA to start the process again. Each turn of the citric acid cycle generates 1 GTP (which you can think of as functionally equivalent to ATP), 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 2 CO2. NADH and FADH2 are electron transporters that ultimately produce energy through the electron transport chain.

Mead I and Me

Mead proposed two versions of the self: the "me" and the "I." The "me" is the attitudes, roles, meanings, pressures, and values of society and others around the individual that are organized into one's social self through role-taking. The "I" is the part of the self that can be identified with desires, freedom, and creativity. Essentially, the "me" is the social self and the "I" is one's response to the "me." Through socialization, individuals learn to look at the world through others' perspectives.

Meiosis

Meiosis: The individual cell starts out with 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes or 46 chromosomes - one copy from the mother and one copy from the father in each pair. The 46 chromosomes first duplicate and then genetic information is exchanged within homologous pairs. The 23 homologous pairs (each pair with 4 total DNA molecules / sister chromatids) line up at the metaphase plate and are split. Each daughter cell will have only 1 of the chromosome, which still contains 2 sister chromatids, from each homologous pair. You have 46 total DNA molecules, but only half of the # of chromosomes. Another split occurs and you have 23 total DNA molecules. Each cell will have 23 chromosomes.

Meissner's corpuscles

Meissner's corpuscles neurons are responsible for touch, which is the purpose of mechanoreceptors

Mesolimbic pathway

Mesolimbic pathway is located in the midbrain and plays a role in addiction.

Meta-cognition

Meta-cognition involves being able to think about thinking, and enables an individual to observe his own processes and learn from them.

Metal coordinate bond

Metal coordination complexes form coordinate covalent bonds wherein the ligand acts as a Lewis base (electron donor) and the central metal ion acts as a Lewis acid (electron acceptor).

MicroRNA (miRNA

MicroRNA (miRNA) strands are single-nucleotide strands incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop, while small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules are short and double-stranded. Both tend to be approximately 22 nucleotides in length, and silence genes by interrupting expression between transcription and translation.

Microglia

Microglial cells are small cells with a similar function to macrophages; however, microglia are limited to the nervous system. Microglial cells are scroungers that remove cellular debris from sites of injury or normal cell turnover. Following neural injury, a rapid increase in the number of microglia in the region is seen, either by proliferation of microglia already in the area, or by the transport of microglia via macrophages that migrate to the injured area from the circulation.

Microglial cells

Microglial cells are small cells with a similar function to macrophages; however, microglia are limited to the nervous system. Microglial cells are scroungers that remove cellular debris from sites of injury or normal cell turnover. Following neural injury, a rapid increase in the number of microglia in the region is seen, either by proliferation of microglia already in the area, or by the transport of microglia via macrophages that migrate to the injured area from the circulation.

What is Microglial cell?

Microglial cells are small cells with a similar function to macrophages; however, microglia are limited to the nervous system. Microglial cells are scroungers that remove cellular debris from sites of injury or normal cell turnover. Following neural injury, a rapid increase in the number of microglia in the region is seen, either by proliferation of microglia already in the area, or by the transport of microglia via macrophages that migrate to the injured area from the circulation.

Tollens agent

Mild oxidation is more selective. Tollens agent (the test for aldoses, silver reagent) selectively oxidizes the aldehyde to carboxylic acid. Nitric acid oxidizes both the aldehyde and the terminal hydroxyl to carboxylic acids, but leaves the other hydroxyls alone.

Milgram's electric shock

Milgram's electric shock experiment also relates to authority. This experiment indicated that participants were willing to administer painful stimuli to others if instructed to do so by an authority figure. In reality, the "others" in the study were actors who were simply pretending to be shocked.

Endosymbiotic theory

Mitochondria are also unique in that they are self-replicating organelles. They contain their own DNA (mitochondrial DNA, or mtDNA), which is circular in structure and inherited maternally, and undergo binary fission. This remarkable fact has been explained through the endosymbiotic origin hypothesis, according to which mitochondria derive from an original prokaryotic cell capable of aerobic metabolism that became engulfed in another cell, resulting in an endosymbiotic lineage.

Unique about mitochondria

Mitochondria are also unique in that they are self-replicating organelles. They contain their own DNA (mitochondrial DNA, or mtDNA), which is circular in structure and inherited maternally, and undergo binary fission. This remarkable fact has been explained through the endosymbiotic origin hypothesis, according to which mitochondria derive from an original prokaryotic cell capable of aerobic metabolism that became engulfed in another cell, resulting in an endosymbiotic lineage.

Uniqueness of Mitochondria

Mitochondria are also unique in that they are self-replicating organelles. They contain their own DNA (mitochondrial DNA, or mtDNA), which is circular in structure and inherited maternally, and undergo binary fission. This remarkable fact has been explained through the endosymbiotic origin hypothesis, according to which mitochondria derive from an original prokaryotic cell capable of aerobic metabolism that became engulfed in another cell, resulting in an endosymbiotic lineage.

Premise of Crebs cycle?

The basic logic of the citric acid cycle is that the two-carbon molecule acetyl-CoA joins with the four-carbon molecule oxaloacetate to form a six-carbon molecule known as citrate. Citrate then undergoes a series of redox and decarboxylation reactions to generate the products of the citric acid cycle. The final product is the four-carbon compound oxaloacetate, which joins with acetyl-CoA to start the process again. Each turn of the citric acid cycle generates 1 GTP (which you can think of as functionally equivalent to ATP), 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 2 CO2. NADH and FADH2 are electron transporters that ultimately produce energy through the electron transport chain.

NADPH

NADPH is the molecule that is necessary for the synthesis of acetyl-CoA, which, in turn, is responsible for fatty acid synthesis. NADPH is most often used for anabolic reactions and is a key part of fatty acid synthesis. Acetyl-CoA is combined with malonyl-CoA to form fatty acids.

The blood-brain barrier

The blood-brain barrier is imposed by tight junctions in brain capillaries that are regulated by astrocytes.

What type of cell junction in BBB?

The blood-brain barrier is primarily composed of endothelial cells with tight junctions (shown below) that prevent the movement of most solutes.

Bainstem

The brainstem consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata, and provides the connection from the brain to the spinal cord. It regulates crucial functions basic to the survival of the organism, such as heart rate, respiration, sleep, and overall activation of the rest of the CNS.

Unicellular organism genome

Nearly 95% of the human genome does not code for proteins or RNA. In contrast, the genomes of both prokaryotes and unicellular eukaryotes largely lack introns. In these organisms, most genetic material does code for protein products.

The brainstem

The brainstem consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata, and provides the connection from the brain to the spinal cord. It regulates crucial functions basic to the survival of the organism, such as heart rate, respiration, sleep, and overall activation of the rest of the CNS. The cerebellum, found just underneath the occipital lobe, serves to direct complex coordinated movement, such as walking or playing the piano.

Resting phase of cells, G0

The cell cycle can be divided into a resting phase (interphase) and cell division (mitosis or meiosis). Resting phase is also known as Gap 0 (G0). During this period, the cell just goes about its business; in fact, many fully-differentiated cells in the body remain in G0 for long periods of time. Because it can last for an essentially indefinite period of time, resting phase is often considered not to be a proper part of the cell cycle itself.

Penetrance

The concept of penetrance refers to the likelihood that the carrier of a given genotype (most often associated with a dominant allele) will manifest the corresponding phenotype. An example is the presence of certain mutations in the BRCA1 gene; a woman with this mutation has an 80% risk of developing breast cancer over the course of her lifetime. This means that the BRCA1 mutation has 80% penetrance

Penetrance concept

The concept of penetrance refers to the likelihood that the carrier of a given genotype (most often associated with a dominant allele) will manifest the corresponding phenotype. An example is the presence of certain mutations in the BRCA1 gene; a woman with this mutation has an 80% risk of developing breast cancer over the course of her lifetime. This means that the BRCA1 mutation has 80% penetrance. Environmental factors and other genes may also affect the penetrance of a mutation, meaning that the overall pattern is polygenic

Neuron cells characteristics??

Neurons are like most cells in that they have a nucleus, cell body, cell membrane, and so on. However, they have two highly specialized extensions that distinguish them from other cells and help them carry out their function of transmitting information. Dendrites, which have tree-like branching structures, gather information and relay it to each neuron's cell body. Axons are long, thin structures that carry the action potential away from the neuron's cell body toward other neurons or target tissues (muscle, gland, organ), with which the neuron connects via structures called synapses.

Neurons

Neurons are like most cells in that they have a nucleus, cell body, cell membrane, and so on. However, they have two highly specialized extensions that distinguish them from other cells and help them carry out their function of transmitting information. Dendrites, which have tree-like branching structures, gather information and relay it to each neuron's cell body. Axons are long, thin structures that carry the action potential away from the neuron's cell body toward other neurons or target tissues (muscle, gland, organ), with which the neuron connects via structures called synapses.

What is penetrance?

The concept of penetrance refers to the likelihood that the carrier of a given genotype (most often associated with a dominant allele) will manifest the corresponding phenotype. An example is the presence of certain mutations in the BRCA1 gene; a woman with this mutation has an 80% risk of developing breast cancer over the course of her lifetime. This means that the BRCA1 mutation has 80% penetrance. Environmental factors and other genes may also affect the penetrance of a mutation, meaning that the overall pattern is polygenic

The contact hypothesis

The contact hypothesis is a sociological theory that holds that contact between members of different social groups will help reduce prejudice

Work and friction

The definition of the work of a force is W = Fdcosθ, where F is the magnitude of the force, d is the distance traveled, and θ is the angle between the force and the displacement. Kinetic friction F acts up the ramp and d is down the ramp, so θ= 180°, hence W = −Fd. The kinetic friction force F is the product of the normal force N that the ramp exerts on the mass and the coefficient of kinetic friction μkh. Thus W = − μkhNd. Increasing the tilt of the ramp has no effect on d or μkh, but it does decrease normal force N. For a very steep ramp, the mass is nearly in free fall and pushes down on the ramp very little, hence N is small. Therefore, W decreases when the ramp's tilt is increased.

Expressivity

The degree to which a genotype is expressed in an individual. It refers to the intensity or extent of variation in the phenotype. Another way of thinking about this is that penetrance is a yes/no question (does an organism express a certain phenotype or not?), while expressivity is a shades-of-gray question (how much of an effect does a mutation have on the phenotype?).

Diaphragm (inspiration)

The diaphragm is a muscular partition between the abdominal and thoracic cavities. It is dome-shaped at rest curving up toward the lungs and heart. It flattens when it contracts during inspiration. Because it is anchored around its edges to the ribs and spine, when the diaphragm contracts the volume of the thoracic cavity increases. This decreases the pressure (IPP) in the pleural cavity between the thoracic wall and the lung. Fresh air flows in to equalize the pressure inflating the lung.

ATP production in pro and eukaryotes

The difference in ATP yield between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is 2, with prokaryotes producing 32 ATP and eukaryotes producing 30 ATP. In prokaryotes, the 2 NADH produced in glycolysis have direct access to the cell membrane where the electron transport chain occurs. However in eukaryotes, the electrons from glycolytic NADH must be transported into the mitochondria before they can enter the electron transport chain; furthermore they do not begin their interaction with the ETC until its second protein

What is NADH?

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in an oxidized form (NAD+) and a reduced form (NADH), allowing it to donate or accept electrons during redox reactions, depending on the state in which it is found. In reactions involving NAD+, two electrons are removed from two hydrogen atoms present in a reactant, producing a hydride ion (H-) and a proton (H+). The proton is released into solution, the reactant is oxidized, and the electrons from the hydride are transferred to NAD+, reducing it to NADH. During the reduction, one electron from the hydride is transferred to the positively charged nitrogen of the nicotinamide ring of NAD+, while a second is transferred to a ring carbon. The reduction of NAD+ can be readily reversed, when NADH reduces another molecule and is returned to its oxidized state, NAD+, allowing the compound to be recycled during electron transfer.

Non-coding RNA

Non-coding RNA plays a role in gene expression. MicroRNA (miRNA) strands are single-nucleotide strands incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop, while small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules are short and double-stranded. Both tend to be approximately 22 nucleotides in length, and silence genes by interrupting expression between transcription and translation.

Non-coding RNA info

Non-coding RNA plays a role in gene expression. MicroRNA (miRNA) strands are single-nucleotide strands incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop, while small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules are short and double-stranded. Both tend to be approximately 22 nucleotides in length, and silence genes by interrupting expression between transcription and translation.

Non-coding RNA role (Long RNAs)

Non-coding RNA plays a role in gene expression. MicroRNA (miRNA) strands are single-nucleotide strands incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop, while small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules are short and double-stranded. Both tend to be approximately 22 nucleotides in length, and silence genes by interrupting expression between transcription and translation.

RNA roles in gene expression

Non-coding RNA plays a role in gene expression. MicroRNA (miRNA) strands are single-nucleotide strands incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop, while small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules are short and double-stranded. Both tend to be approximately 22 nucleotides in length, and silence genes by interrupting expression between transcription and translation.

Non-conservative point mutation

Non-conservative point mutations are missense mutations that occur when the mutated codon codes for an amino acid with dissimilar functional properties to the amino acid coded for by the original codon. An example would be GCG [alanine] → GAG [glutamic acid]. All things being equal, a non-conservative point mutation could be expected to have a significant impact on the functionality of the protein in question.

Demographic Transition Model

In Stage 1, a society is preindustrial and has high fertility and mortality rates. In Stage 2, a society sees significant enough improvements in healthcare, sanitation, nutrition, and wages that the mortality rate drops. However, the fertility rate remains high, meaning that the population rapidly expands. In Stage 3, a society sees a decrease in the fertility rate due to a move from an agricultural to an industrial economy, as well as improvements in contraception and women's rights. In Stage 3, in order for children to be productive in society, they must go to school for many years. Furthermore, they may need to be supported by their parents for longer than they formerly were, which encourages families to have fewer children. In Stage 4, a society becomes fully industrialized and both fertility and mortality rates are low.

Non-conservative point mutations

Non-conservative point mutations are missense mutations that occur when the mutated codon codes for an amino acid with dissimilar functional properties to the amino acid coded for by the original codon. An example would be GCG [alanine] → GAG [glutamic acid]. All things being equal, a non-conservative point mutation could be expected to have a significant impact on the functionality of the protein in question.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

In eukaryotes, the citric acid cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix, while in aerobic prokaryotes it is carried out in the cytosol. Before entering the citric cycle, pyruvate (a three-carbon molecule) must be converted into acetyl-CoA, a molecule that consists of a short two-carbon chain (the "acetyl" group) connected to CoA. This takes place in the mitochondria, in a special area called the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC), and results in 1 NADH and 1 CO2.

Confounding variables

In experimental design, it is important to account for confounding variables, which are external variables affecting both the independent and dependent variable. For instance, if a study analyzes the effects of stereotype bias on math performance by race, but fails to account for socioeconomic status (SES), its results may be suspect, because SES may predict math performance and be correlated with race. Moderating variables attenuate or strengthen a given relationship, and mediating variables provide an important logical link between an independent variable and a dependent variable, or outcome.

Gas Chromatography (GC) condition

In gas chromatography, samples are heated and vaporized before they are introduced into the separating column. Therefore, they must be able to be vaporized without being broken down or combusting so they can be analyzed properly in the gaseous phase.

Magnification of concave mirror

In general as long as the object is within the radius of curvature (2f), the image will be larger than the object. So the magnification will be larger than 1.

Beneficence and non-maleficence

In healthcare, beneficence is doing something for the good of your patient, while non-maleficence is the act of avoiding harm toward your patient

Crebs cycle and ETC

In human metabolism, the electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation are aerobic processes, since oxygen is the final electron acceptor in the ETC. Therefore, oxygen is required to produce the proton gradient that leads to the formation of ATP via ATP synthase. The Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle) is also considered aerobic, even though it does not use oxygen directly, since this cycle requires the reduction of NAD+ to NADH. The opposite process (NADH to NAD+) happens in the ETC. When the ETC ceases to function in the absence of oxygen, then, NADH builds up and NAD+ becomes depleted, and the Krebs cycle eventually stops.

Solubility rules for gases and solids

In most cases, the solubility of ionic substances in water increases with temperature, while the opposite pattern is observed for gases. This is because higher temperatures provide gases with more kinetic energy that they can use to escape the solution. Additionally, pressure favors the solubility of gases.

Long-term potentiation

In order to retrieve a stored memory from days or weeks previous, the memory must have been encoded via long-term potentiation.

Secondary active transport

In primary active transport, energy is used directly to move a solute against its gradient through a transmembrane channel. Secondary active transport is a more complicated system in which the energy stored in an electrochemical gradient established via primary active transport is used to facilitate the movement of a solute. An example is the sodium-calcium exchanger, which allows three Na+ ions to flow down their concentration gradient, which was previously established by a primary active transport mechanism, into the cell, while transporting one Ca2+ ion out.

Translation and transcription location

In prokaryotic the translation and transcription both occurs in the cytoplasm

Noncompetitive inhibition

Noncompetitive inhibition is when the inhibitor does not compete with the substrate for the active site, but reduces enzyme activity by binding to another site (the allosteric site) on the enzyme. In noncompetitive inhibition, the inhibitor can combine with either the enzyme or the enzyme-substrate complex. In pure noncompetitive inhibition, the value of Vmax is decreased. Since these inhibitors do not compete with the substrate, their activity is unaffected by substrate concentration. Since the inhibitor always affects a consistent proportion of the available enzyme, Vmax is reduced. However, Km remains the same since if Vmax, is reduced, Vmax/2 is reduced proportionally, and the amount of substrate required to reach this new, reduced Vmax/2 is the same as the original Km.

Noncompetitive inhibition info

Noncompetitive inhibition is when the inhibitor does not compete with the substrate for the active site, but reduces enzyme activity by binding to another site (the allosteric site) on the enzyme. In noncompetitive inhibition, the inhibitor can combine with either the enzyme or the enzyme-substrate complex. In pure noncompetitive inhibition, the value of Vmax is decreased. Since these inhibitors do not compete with the substrate, their activity is unaffected by substrate concentration. Since the inhibitor always affects a consistent proportion of the available enzyme, Vmax is reduced. However, Km remains the same since if Vmax, is reduced, Vmax/2 is reduced proportionally, and the amount of substrate required to reach this new, reduced Vmax/2 is the same as the original Km.

Nondisjunction

Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosomes to separate properly during anaphase I of meiosis or the failure of sister chromatids to separate properly during anaphase II of meiosis.

Nondisjunction in what phase?

Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during anaphase I of meiosis or the failure of sister chromosomes to separate during anaphase II of meiosis.

Rate limiting step of glycolysis

Of the 10 steps of glycolysis, step 3 is the most carefully regulated. In step 3, fructose 6-phosphate (formed in step 2) is transformed into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate by phosphofructokinase-1. This is the committed and rate-limiting step, and the major target for regulation. It involves the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP, and is the second of two steps where ATP is invested in the initial phase (step 1, where glucose → glucose 6-phosphate [G6P], is the first). Of note, step 3 takes place before the six-carbon carbohydrate chain is broken down into two three-carbon compounds.

Oligodendrocytes

Oligodendrocytes (CNS only) and Schwann cells (PNS only) lay down the lipid-rich myelin that wraps around some, but not all, axons. Myelin significantly improves the velocity of action potential conduction.

Left ventricle and presure

The difference in size between the thin wall of the right ventricle and the thick wall of the left ventricle is dramatic when viewed in cross section. The peak pressure in the left ventricle is 120 mmHg while the peak pressure in the right ventricle is only 25 mmHg. The right ventricle pumps blood through the lungs. The left ventricle pumps blood through the entire rest of the body. The difference in the size of the lung compared to the rest of the body suggests that the left ventricle develops more pressure and has a thicker wall than the right. The organs through which the left ventricle pumps blood are farther away from the heart than the lungs and resistance in a tube is inversely proportional to the length of the tube. This would also suggest a thicker wall for the left ventricle and greater pressure.

KM and Vmax

The difference is in the affinity, which directly impacts Km. The way I think of it is Km is dictated by how well the enzyme binds the substrate, and Vm is dictated by the turnover rate to product. Let's use this idea to explain mixed inhibition. In all cases of mixed inhibition, the inhibitor is going to prevent turnover from substrate to product, therefore the Vm must decrease. However, this is not the same for Km. If the inhibitor binds to the ES complex, Km will go down. If the inhibitor binds to E, the Km will go up. Think of it this way: If the inhibitor binds E, there is no way ES is going to form, so Km must go up (inefficient) and Vm must go down (inefficient). However, if the inhibitor binds ES, the enzyme will certainly bind S but there will be no turnover, so Km must go down (efficient) and Vm must go down (inefficient).

The dominant hemisphere

The dominant hemisphere (usually the left) is primarily analytic in function, making it well-suited for managing details. For instance, language, logic, and math skills are all located in the dominant hemisphere. Again, language production (Broca's area) and language comprehension (Wernicke's area) are primarily driven by the dominant hemisphere.

Second shift

The double burden- work outside the home followed by child care and housework- that many women face and few men share equitably

Ectoderm

The ectoderm primarily gives rise to the nervous system and epidermis (skin), as well as related structures like hair, nails, and sweat glands, and the linings of the mouth, anus, and nostrils. The process through which the nervous system is formed from the ectoderm is known as neurulation

Germ layers

The ectoderm primarily gives rise to the nervous system and epidermis (skin), as well as related structures like hair, nails, and sweat glands, and the linings of the mouth, anus, and nostrils. The process through which the nervous system is formed from the ectoderm is known as neurulation. The mesoderm generates many of the structures present within the body, including the musculature, connective tissue (including blood, bone, and cartilage), the gonads, the kidneys, and the adrenal cortex. The endoderm is basically responsible for the interior linings of the body, including the linings of the gastrointestinal system, the pancreas and part of the liver, the urinary bladder and part of the urethra, and the lungs.

Three germs layers

The ectoderm primarily gives rise to the nervous system and epidermis (skin), as well as related structures like hair, nails, and sweat glands, and the linings of the mouth, anus, and nostrils. The process through which the nervous system is formed from the ectoderm is known as neurulation. The mesoderm generates many of the structures present within the body, including the musculature, connective tissue (including blood, bone, and cartilage), the gonads, the kidneys, and the adrenal cortex. The endoderm is basically responsible for the interior linings of the body, including the linings of the gastrointestinal system, the pancreas and part of the liver, the urinary bladder and part of the urethra, and the lungs.

Melting point and impurity

The effect of an impurity is always to depress the melting poit and broaden the temperature range across which melting occurs

Mutations effect

The effects of most point mutations can be expected to be negative, but occasionally mutations result in more functional proteins. This is a major driver of evolution. Additionally, it is important to differentiate between somatic and germline mutations. Germline mutations take place in eggs and sperm (or their progenitor cells), and therefore are passed down to other generations. Somatic mutations take place in other body cells and are not passed down to other generations.

Meiosis stages

In prophase I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes (i.e., the maternal and paternal copies of a given chromosome) pair up with each other in a process known as synapsis, forming tetrads. While paired up, homologous chromosomes may exchange genetic information in a process known as crossing over. The crossing-over points are known as chiasmata. This process results in recombinant DNA that is another source of variation in sexual reproduction, in addition to the variability inherent to the process. In metaphase I, homologous pairs, which take the form of tetrads, line up at the metaphase plate. The orientation of the homologous pairs is random in terms of which side of the metaphase plate the maternal or paternal copy of a given chromosome in a homologous pair winds up. In anaphase I, the homologous pairs are separated, and one member of each pair is pulled to each side of the cell. In meiosis II, which operates similarly to mitosis, the sister chromatids are split up into two haploid daughter cells.

What is personality?

In psychology, personality refers to the patterns and personal qualities, from our thoughts and feelings to our behaviors, that define us. Personality is thought to develop as a result of both biological factors and life experience.

Splicing

In splicing, noncoding sequences (introns) are removed and coding sequences (exons) are ligated together. (Remember that exons are expressed). Each gene normally has multiple distinct exons that can be ligated in different combinations; that is, if a gene had a set of four exons named A, B, C, and D, possible alternate splicing combinations could include ABCD, ABC, ACD, ABD, BCD, and so on. This dramatically increases the amount of different, but related proteins that can be expressed from a single gene. Splicing explains why there are over 200,000 proteins in the human body, but only approximately 20,000 genes. Splicing is carried out by the spliceosome, a combination of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and protein complexes.

Splicing exons and introns

In splicing, noncoding sequences (introns) are removed and coding sequences (exons) are ligated together. (Remember that exons are expressed). Each gene normally has multiple distinct exons that can be ligated in different combinations; that is, if a gene had a set of four exons named A, B, C, and D, possible alternate splicing combinations could include ABCD, ABC, ACD, ABD, BCD, and so on. This dramatically increases the amount of different, but related proteins that can be expressed from a single gene. Splicing explains why there are over 200,000 proteins in the human body, but only approximately 20,000 genes. Splicing is carried out by the spliceosome, a combination of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and protein complexes.

The process of splicing

In splicing, noncoding sequences (introns) are removed and coding sequences (exons) are ligated together. (Remember that exons are expressed). Each gene normally has multiple distinct exons that can be ligated in different combinations; that is, if a gene had a set of four exons named A, B, C, and D, possible alternate splicing combinations could include ABCD, ABC, ACD, ABD, BCD, and so on. This dramatically increases the amount of different, but related proteins that can be expressed from a single gene. Splicing explains why there are over 200,000 proteins in the human body, but only approximately 20,000 genes. Splicing is carried out by the spliceosome, a combination of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and protein complexes.

ATP synthesis in ETC

In the ETC, the energy released from the series of electron transfers is used to pump H+ across the membrane. The unequal concentrations of H+ ions across the membrane establishes an electrochemical gradient, leading to chemiosmosis, or the passive diffusion of the protons down their concentration gradient, which is coupled to ATP synthase. This proton movement generates 90% of the ATP synthesized during oxidative phosphorylation. The electrons passing through the electron transport chain gradually lose energy until eventually they are donated to O2, which accepts two H+ ions and is transformed into water.

BF3

In the Lewis structure of BF3, boron only has access to 6 electrons instead of the 8 necessary to make a desired octet, therefore it is a Lewis Acid very prone to accept electrons from an electron pair donator

The electron transport chain (ETC)

The electron transport chain (ETC) uses free oxygen as the final electron acceptor of the electrons removed from NADH and FADH2 formed in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle). The ETC is composed of four large protein complexes (Complexes I-IV) embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane and two small electron carriers shuttling electrons between them. Complex I is known as NADH dehydrogenase, II is known as succinate dehydrogenase, III is known as cytochrome bc or c, and IV is known as cytochrome c oxidase. Electrons are released from NADH and FADH2 through a series of reactions.

Plasma Membrane and fatty acids

In the context of plasma membranes, unsaturated fatty acids tend to make the membrane more fluid. Small amounts of trans fatty acids are produced in nature, but they are mostly present in the human diet as a result of the industrial processing of vegetable oils. Partial hydrogenation of unsaturated vegetable oils results in trans fats, which are more stackable than cis fatty acids and therefore are more likely to be solids at room temperature. Trans fats have been consistently linked to heart disease and have been banned in many countries. In the United States, they are expected to be phased out by 2018.

Sensorimotor stage

In the first stage, termed the sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), the individual experiences the world exclusively through sensing and moving through their environment. A key event in this stage is the development of object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even though we are not looking at them.

SN1 reactions

In the first step, the leaving group dissociates from the target substrate molecule, leaving behind an unstable carbocation. Since the product is so unstable, this step is slow and thus rate-determining. (This is where the "1" in SN1 comes from; it denotes the fact that only one molecule - the substrate - is involved in this first step.) In the second step, the nucleophile attacks the carbocation to form a more stable product molecule. Since the carbocation intermediate is planar, or lacks stereochemistry, SN1 reactions with chiral substrates produce an even mix of enantiomers termed a racemic mixture. Carbocation stability is the primary factor in SN1 reaction rate. For this reason, SN1 reactions favor tertiary substrates (as tertiary is the most stable carbocation structure) and occur to a negligible extent with primary substrates.

Lac operon

In the lac operon, when glucose is present but lactose is not, there is no need for the bacterium to express the genes needed for lactose metabolism. Therefore, the repressor is bound to the operator, transcription does not happen, and no lactose metabolism takes place. When lactose is present, its metabolite allolactose releases the repressor from the operator, allowing transcription to happen and some degree of lactose metabolism to take place. However, intense lactose metabolism does not take place unless lactose is present in the relative absence of glucose, meaning that the bacterium really needs to metabolize lactose. In that case, cAMP causes the catabolite activator protein (CAP) to bind to the upstream CAP binding sequence. CAP promotes more intense expression of the genes on the lac operon.

Gluconeogenesis

In times of high ATP, pyruvate kinase is inactivated, which stops glycolysis. Pyruvate is then shuttled into the gluconeogenic pathway. Low levels of ADP activate enzymes that function in gluconeogenesis, further promoting this process. High levels of acetyl-CoA indicate high energy production in the cell.

Psychoticism

In trait theory, the measure of nonconformity or social deviance of an individual

Alpha and beta linkages

In α-linkages the oxygen on the anomeric carbon is in the anti- position relative to the -CH2OH group (i.e., on the opposite side of the ring). By contrast, in β-linkages this same anomeric oxygen is on the same side of the ring as the -CH2OH group.

Stereo blindness

Inability to use retinal disparity as a cue for seeing depth; these persons must rely instead on pictorial or monocular cues

Inappropriate affect

Inappropriate affect is an emotional expression that is not appropriate for the given situation

Cholesterol and membrane fluidity

Increased at low temperatures, decreases at high temperature (so it provides buffering for the cell overall)

Increased Income

Increased income is the single change that has the greatest impact on health outcomes in developing countries.

Bond order and strength

Increasing bond order decreases the distance between the nuclei and increases bond strength

Tension and frequency

Increasing the tension in a string increase the frequency and vice versa. If the tension in the basilar membrane is decreased, the frequency at which it vibrates will also decrease

Histrionic Personality Disorder (Cluster B)

Individuals with histrionic personality disorder tend to be overly dramatic and expressive with a heightened need to be the center of attention,

Schizoid Personality Disorder (Cluster A)

Individuals with schizoid personality disorder are indifferent, aloof, withdrawn, and often preoccupied with fantasy and/or excessive daydreaming

Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning uses a very small set of observations as the basis for forming a statement about a larger set of premises or conclusions.

Industry vs. inferiority

Industry vs. inferiority, which corresponds to ages 5 to 12. Resolution of this crisis would result in the virtue of competency, and failure to resolve this crisis would result in feelings of inferiority.

Strange Situation test

Infant attachment is tested using the Strange Situation test in which an infant is observed with their primary caregiver in the presence of a stranger, when left alone with the stranger, and when the caregiver returns.

secure attachment

Infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened

informational social influence/Social proof

Informational social influence, is a psychological phenomenon where people assume the actions of others in an attempt to reflect correct behavior for a given situation. Informational social influence occurs most often when the situation is ambiguous. We have choices, but do not know which to select; there is a crisis and we have no time to think or experiment, as a decision is required now; others are experts. If we accept the authority of others, they must know better than us.

IR spectroscopy

Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is a method used to identify specific functional groups present on an unknown molecule. Group frequencies are vibrations that are associated with certain functional groups. A molecule can be identified when its vibrational frequencies on an IR spectrum are compared to known spectra values. Alcohol in gas stage does not have typical OH broad spectrum

Michaelis Menten assumptions

Initial state assumption - reaction rates are monitored at the beginning of the reaction, making the product concentration negligible. Steady state assumption - The concentration of the enzyme substrate complex is kept constant, meaning the rate of formation and the sum of the two rates of consumption are equal. The rate of consumptions being ES -> E+P and ES -> E+S. There is this third assumption as well, which states that [S]>>>>>>[E] such that the equilibrium drives to the formation of the enzyme substrate complex

Institutional memory

Institutional memory is the collective memory of the individuals in an organization about its history, situations the organization has confronted, and what was necessary to deal with them.

Insulin functions

Insulin is a peptide hormone released by the beta cells of the pancreas in response to high blood glucose levels. Its basic function is to reduce blood glucose levels by promoting the transport of glucose into cells via insulin receptors, which activate membrane-bound glucose transporters. The glucose transported into the cell can be used immediately through glycolysis; alternatively, muscle and liver cells can store the glucose as glycogen, and adipocytes (fat cells) can mobilize fatty acids to store downstream byproducts of glucose metabolism in the form of triglycerides. Insulin upregulates all those processes, as well as protein synthesis.

Integrins

Integrins are transmembrane receptors that modulate cell-to-extracellular matrix interactions. Specifically, these proteins often attach the cell to collagen and fibronectin fibers.

Interference effect

Interference refers to irrelevant information interfering with recall.

Internal validity

Internal validity describes how well an experiment establishes a relationship between the dependent and independent variables. It increased when the experiment is tightly controlled, takes into account potential confounding factors, and tests what it intends to test.

Internalization

Internalization is the process of consolidating and embedding one's own beliefs, attitudes, and values when it comes to moral behavior. Internalization of norms might take place following religious conversion and is often associated with learning skills and making use of what has been learned from then on.

Internaliztion vs identification

Internalization occurs when an individual genuinely agrees with the values/behaviors/attitudes that he or she is conforming with and finds the behavior to be inherently rewarding. Identification refers to the acceptance of other people's ideas without thinking critically about them. The related behavior of compliance occurs when an individual yields to social pressure (typically in response to a direct request) because he or she wishes to get a positive reaction from another individual or group, or to avoid social disapproval by others.

Internalization

Internalization refers to the type of conformity in which an individual changes her outward opinion to match the group and also personally agrees with those ideas.

Emotional response of stress

Irritability, moodiness, tenseness, and feelings of helplessness are some of the emotional responses that result from elevated stress. When paired with a perception that the stressor cannot be controlled, learned helplessness, an overwhelming sense that a goal cannot be accomplished, can develop.

What is Isoelectric focusing?

Isoelectric focusing requires the use of a gel that has a stable pH gradient. A protein that is in a region of the gel where the pH is below its pI will be positively charged and will migrate towards the negatively-charged plate (the cathode). The protein will cease to migrate when it reaches the region of the gel where the pH of the gel equals the pI of the protein. At this point, the protein will stop migrating because the net charge of the protein will be 0, so it will not experience any electric force. The proteins analyzed using isoelectric focusing will be separated based on the relative number of acidic and basic residues that they contai

Isoelectric focusing

Isoelectric focusing requires the use of a gel that has a stable pH gradient. A protein that is in a region of the gel where the pH is below its pI will be positively charged and will migrate towards the negatively-charged plate (the cathode). The protein will cease to migrate when it reaches the region of the gel where the pH of the gel equals the pI of the protein. At this point, the protein will stop migrating because the net charge of the protein will be 0, so it will not experience any electric force. The proteins analyzed using isoelectric focusing will be separated based on the relative number of acidic and basic residues that they contain.

Isoelectric focusing info

Isoelectric focusing requires the use of a gel that has a stable pH gradient. A protein that is in a region of the gel where the pH is below its pI will be positively charged and will migrate towards the negatively-charged plate (the cathode). The protein will cease to migrate when it reaches the region of the gel where the pH of the gel equals the pI of the protein. At this point, the protein will stop migrating because the net charge of the protein will be 0, so it will not experience any electric force. The proteins analyzed using isoelectric focusing will be separated based on the relative number of acidic and basic residues that they contain.

Isotope

Isotopes are often used in radiolabeling techniques in the biological sciences (for example, using 2H, or deuterium (D), to track amino acid uptake in protein translation).

Focal distance of the eye

It increases when the ciliary muscle relaxes and decreases when ciliary muscle contract

Progesterone

It inhibits the uterine contraction

N2 hybridization in amide bond

It is Sp2 because of the participation of resonance

cytochrome C cytoplasmic

It is a marker for apoptosis

Written convention of Proteins

It is important to note that by convention peptides and proteins are written with the N-terminus on the left and the C-terminus on the right. This is analogous to the conventions used for nucleotides (Recall that nucleotide polymers are: written 5'→3', read 3'→5' by enzymes, synthesized 5'→3', EXCEPT that ribosomes read mRNA 5'→3' during translation

Amine and Amide acidity

It is very difficult for neutral amines to lose a proton. An amide, however, can lose a proton much more easily. This is because the carbonyl group next to the nitrogen contributes to a resonance structure that places the negative charge on the oxygen. Thus, the negative charge of the conjugate base is distributed over both nitrogen and oxygen.

The endosymbiotic theory

The endosymbiotic theory described in the passage is widely accepted today, so there must be some way of using the theory to reconcile the fact that mitochondrial proteins are made in the cytoplasm. We know, for example, that lateral transfer of genes from one genome to another is widespread among living organisms. It would have been an easy matter for mitochondrial genes to be acquired by the host cell nucleus and to disappear from the mitochondrial genome. It is likely that this exchange would have resulted in a net gain in efficiency for the composite organism.

Energy and voltage in magnetic field

The energy imparted to the ion when it accelerates by moving down a voltage of magnitude V is E=Vq. This energy will then be equal to the kinetic energy of the ion while it travels through the magnetic field

Enthalpy

The enthalpy (H) of a reaction is the heat energy it contains. The most important law when looking at enthalpy is Hess's law: ΔHrxn = Σ∆Hproducts - ΣΔHreactants. This equation illustrates that enthalpy, like entropy, is a state function. This means that the ∆H accompanying a chemical reaction is independent of the mechanism by which the reaction occurs. That is, when reactants are converted into products, the overall enthalpy change is the same whether it is done as one step or multiple steps.

Entropy

The enthalpy of a substance can only be calculated relative to other substances, and therefore enthalpy does not approach 0 as temperature approaches 0 K (known as "absolute zero"). The change in entropy (∆S) of a system is commonly understood as the change in the degree of randomness or disorder the system contains. Entropy, like enthalpy, increases with temperature and as a material changes phase from solid to liquid to gas.

The facial feedback hypothesis

The facial feedback hypothesis is the theory suggests that the physical expression of an emotion also activates the experience of that emotion.

Microtubules structure

The fibers that attach to the chromosomes in mitosis and form the mitotic spindle (the spindle fibers) are microtubules. They are assemblies of tubulin proteins. Disruption of the mitotic spindle by drugs prevents the proper segregation of chromosomes into the daughter cells and usually results in unequal numbers being distributed to the two daughter cells. Many of the resulting plant cells would have more than two sets of chromosomes

Operon

Operons are relatively simple and mechanistic systems that allow a bacterium to respond to changes in its environment by increasing or decreasing the expression of certain genes as appropriate. Operons can be under positive or negative control. In negative control, a repressor prevents transcription by binding to the operator (a sequence upstream of the first protein-coding region), while in positive control, an activator stimulates transcription. The classic examples for the MCAT, the lac operon and the trp operon, both involve negative control, but differ in that the lac operon is inducible and the trp operon is repressible. In a negative inducible operon, the repressor is normally present and the genes are not expressed except under specific conditions. In a negative repressible operon, the genes are usually transcribed, but transcription can be halted by binding of the repressor in appropriate conditions.

Oral and anal Freud

Oral: Smoking Anal: Extreme neatness and rigidness

Ordinal variables

Ordinal variables can be ranked to allow for comparisons. For example, if you were asked about highest level of education achieved, you could respond with high school degree, college degree, medical degree, etc. College degrees are at a higher level than high school degrees, and medical degrees are at a higher level than college degrees.

Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis involves two factors, decreased formation and increased breakdown of bone. Osteoblasts mediate the former process and osteoclasts the latter.

Overgeneralization

Overgeneralization occurs when an individual comes to a conclusion based on one episode or bit of evidence. In this scenario, the subject has recently experienced a single episode of insomnia and consequently believes he or she is prone to suffering from it in the future

First level of protein structure

The first level, referred to as the primary structure, is the amino acid sequence that codes the protein. Each amino acid is coded for by a three-nucleotide sequence known as a codon.

principal quantum number (n)

The first quantum number is the principal quantum number (n). It denotes the energy level of the electron, and can take any integer value (≥1). Higher principal quantum numbers (for example, n = 2 rather than n = 1) have greater energy and are farther from the nucleus. The principal quantum number relates to the row of the periodic table in which the element in question is found.

Oncogenesis/carcinogenesis

The first step in oncogenesis, tumor initiation, involves changes that allow a single cell to proliferate abnormally. This means that the cell must develop the ability to bypass regulatory steps of the cell cycle that normally help to limit mitotic proliferation. Tumor progression occurs as a cell develops the ability to proliferate even more aggressively, such that its descendants are selected for and come to predominate the growing tumor. In addition, malignant cells often undergo mutations that promote their own growth and the development of blood vessels to feed them (angiogenesis).

primary auditory pathway

The first stop of the primary auditory pathway occurs in the cochlear nuclei in the brain stem, which receive type I spiral ganglion axons of the auditory nerve. At this level, the basic signal is decoded, and the duration, intensity, and frequency of the sound waves are identified. The second stop in the brain stem is in the superior olivary complex, where the majority of the auditory fibers synapse after crossing the midline.

4 primary medical tenets

The four primary tenets of medical ethics are beneficence (which states that healthcare professionals have a responsibility to act in the best interests of the patient), justice (which posits that professionals have a responsibility to give healthcare service fairly and justly, or in other words, not to give one patient worse care than another), non-maleficence (the responsibility to not harm the patient), and respect for autonomy (the responsibility to respect the wishes of the patient). It's important to note that this final tenet - respect for autonomy - does have some exceptions, like when a patient has a psychiatric illness or disorder that obscures rational thinking.

Oxygen-containing organic compounds

Oxygen-containing organic compounds exist on a spectrum of oxidation from alcohols (most reduced/least oxidized) to aldehydes/ketones (intermediate reduction/oxidation) to carboxylic acids (least reduced/most oxidized). A primary alcohol can be oxidized to an aldehyde by a mild oxidizing agent (such as PCC) or to a carboxylic acid by a strong oxidizing agent like NaCr2O7. A secondary alcohol will be oxidized to a ketone by either a mild or a strong oxidizing agent. A strong oxidizing agent will likewise oxidize an aldehyde to a carboxylic acid. A strong reducing agent, such as LiAlH4, can reduce a carboxylic acid directly to an alcohol, while weak reducing agents such as NaBH4 will not reduce carboxylic acids at all. A special agent, DIBAL, can reduce a carboxylic acid to an aldehyde when applied at a precise 1:1 ratio. Both mild and strong reducing agents can reduce aldehydes and ketones to primary and secondary alcohols, respectively.

Oxytocin

Oxytocin is a hormone that is known to be involved in the social and romantic bonding that occurs between individuals.

Parallel play

Parallel play is a normal part of the behavior of preschool children, in which they will play by themselves but when observe another child playing and adjust their behavior in response.

Parental social class

Parental social class is the social class into which an individual is born

DNA primers are replaced with RNA

Pay close attention to polarity (5' vs 3' ends). First, we need to recognize that the sequence given is the coding (sense) strand, not the template (antisense) strand. That means the mRNA that would be produced has the same sequence as the coding strand, except for the thymines which become uracils. So your mRNA will look like 5' AGC CUU etc. Now this mRNA is going to be reverse-transcribed into cDNA for use in PCR, so your cDNA will be 3' TCG GAA etc. Remember, the primer will be complementary to this sequence: so it's (surprise!) going to be 5' AGC CTT...

Penetrance define

Penetrance is a population measure defined as the proportion of individuals in the population carrying the allele who actually express the phenotype. In other words, it is the probability that, given a particular genotype, a person will express the phenotype.

Self-defeating or self-destructive behaviors

People are more likely to behave in a self-defeating or destructive manner either when they perceive a threat or when they have low self-esteem. These people are more likely to be susceptible to having anxiety and emotional distress, which are problems that are usually directly related to a less favorable self-appraisal. Self-defeating or self-destructive behaviors often manifest due to an inability to handle either anxiety or stress which results from a lack of self-confidence. Thus engaging in these behaviors offers an immediate relief from anxiety which then reinforces that behavior.

Person perception

Person perception refers to the mental processes by which we categorize and form impressions of other people

Macrophages Functions

Phagocytes Microbicidal activity Antigen Presentation Cytokine production Tissue remodeling Inflammation and Fever Tumoricidal activity Lymphocyte regulation

Phagocytosis

Phagocytosis requires that the cell change shape dramatically as it surrounds and engulfs large extracellular particles. Microtubules are one of the cytoskeletal elements that help determine cell shape. This function relies on the ability of the microtubules to disassemble and reorganize.

Why ATP is effective source of energy

Phosphoanhydride bonds can be hydrolyzed using an amount of energy similar to that required to break a hydrogen bond

Stress reducing effect

Physical exercise can effectively reduce the physiological symptoms of stress as well as reduce the negative emotions, such as depression and anxiety, that are often felt in response to stress.

Place theory vs basilar tuning

Place theory just describes the IDEA that there's a specific location along basilar membrane where a frequency will stimulate hair cells. Basilar tuning is the PROCESS by which this occurs. A little out of scope, but it sounds like each group of hair cells will receive a small range of frequencies, and then a "tuning" process will occur which will stimulate the given hair cell in slightly different ways depending upon where in that frequency or intensity range the incoming sound falls.

Point mutations?

Point mutations are genetic mutations of a single nucleotide, which may be deleted, inserted, or replaced by another nucleotide. These mutations commonly occur when DNA polymerase incorrectly carries out base-pair matching, meaning that the corresponding mRNA codon synthesized from that DNA sequence will be off by one base, such as CAG instead of CGG. The effect of this varies depending on the specific location and outcome of the point mutation.

Manic depression

Poor judgment, inappropriate social behavior, and insomnia are signs of manic depression

Preventive medicine

Preventive medicine is the treatment of health conditions prior to the development of chronic disease. Sociologists, who regularly examine global influences on health, have long supported a more forward-focused preventative approach to population health and disease eradication.

temporal lobe

Primary hearing/auditory cortex

Primase

Primase makes RNA primers

Proactive interference

Proactive interference involves the interference of information from long term memory with new information.

proactive interference retroactive interference

Proactive interference occurs when, in any given context, past memories inhibit an individual's full potential to retain new memories. Retroactive interference is a phenomenon that occurs when newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information.

Procedural bias

Procedural bias refers to how information is obtained and may occur when researchers put some sort of pressure on subjects to provide responses. By offering monetary compensation of any amount to subjects, researchers used incentive to obtain results

Inhibition of citric acid cycle

Products of the TCA cycle will act to inhibit it. These include ATP, citrate, and NADH. In contrast, high levels of low-energy molecules such as AMP, ADP, and NAD+ stimulate the TCA cycle. therefore stimulated in times of high acetyl-CoA.

Promoters enhancer

Promoters are regions of DNA that lie upstream to a given gene and initiate transcription by binding specific transcription factors that contribute to the binding of RNA polymerase. Additionally, expression is upregulated by enhancers, which are DNA sequences that can be located further from the gene of interest, and work by binding transcription factors that twist DNA into a hairpin loop, bringing distant regions into close proximity for transcription to begin. Silencers are the opposite of enhancers in eukaryotic cells; they are regions of DNA to which transcription factors known as repressors bind.

Gene expression and promoters

Promoters are regions of DNA that lie upstream to a given gene and initiate transcription by binding specific transcription factors that contribute to the binding of RNA polymerase. Additionally, expression is upregulated by enhancers, which are DNA sequences that can be located further from the gene of interest, and work by binding transcription factors that twist DNA into a hairpin loop, bringing distant regions into close proximity for transcription to begin. Silencers are the opposite of enhancers in eukaryotic cells; they are regions of DNA to which transcription factors known as repressors bind. Additionally, the methylation of C and A residues can reduce transcription. Methylation is associated with epigenetics, which refers to inheritable phenotypic changes involving mechanisms other than the alteration of the genome itself.

Major players of transcription

Promoters are regions of DNA that lie upstream to a given gene and initiate transcription by binding specific transcription factors that contribute to the binding of RNA polymerase. Additionally, expression is upregulated by enhancers, which are DNA sequences that can be located further from the gene of interest, and work by binding transcription factors that twist DNA into a hairpin loop, bringing distant regions into close proximity for transcription to begin. Silencers are the opposite of enhancers in eukaryotic cells; they are regions of DNA to which transcription factors known as repressors bind. Additionally, the methylation of C and A residues can reduce transcription. Methylation is associated with epigenetics, which refers to inheritable phenotypic changes involving mechanisms other than the alteration of the genome itself.

Why promoters region has more A-T region?

Promoters contain many A-T base pairs because A-T pairs have only two hydrogen bonds, while C-G pairs have three. This means if there are many A-Ts, as opposed to C-Gs, the bond between strands will be relatively weaker. It will be easier to separate the two strands, and so the transcription machinery can more easily access the coding strand for transcription.

Prophase of mitosis

Prophase prepares the cell for mitosis: the DNA condenses such that distinct chromosomes become visible, as sister chromatids (or copies of a given chromosome) join at a region known as the centromere. The kinetochore assembles on the centromere, and is the site where microtubule fibers that extend from the centrosome and form the mitotic spindle attach to pull the sister chromatids apart in later stages of mitosis. Other microtubules known as asters extend from the centrosome to anchor it to the cell membrane. Additionally, the nuclear envelope and the nucleolus disappear, and the mitotic spindle forms.

Protein denaturation

Protein denaturation process disrupts and unfolds proteins by breaking hydrogen bonds or disrupting electrostatic and van del Walls interactions. While it disrupted secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structurs, it doe not change the primary amino acid sequence

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychoanalytic theories of personality are based upon the idea that our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories determine our personalities and motivate our choices and actions. The most famous proponent of psychoanalytic theory was Freud, who developed a structural model for studying the three major components of personality.

Psychologist Gordon Allport

Psychologist Gordon Allport is known for his studies of personality, where he outlined a form of trait theory that included three basic types of traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are those around which people organize their entire lives. In contrast, central traits are defining characteristics of a person that can be easily inferred from that person's behavior. Finally, secondary traits are those that only occur sometimes, particularly when a person is in a certain social situation.

Sensorimotor stage basic info

Psychologist Jean Piaget proposed that cognitive development occurs in four discrete stages. In the first stage, termed the sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), the individual experiences the world exclusively through sensing and moving through their environment. A key event in this stage is the development of object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even though we are not looking at them.

Amino acids category

Purely ketogenic: Leucine and Lysine Can be BOTH glucogenic and ketogenic: FITTT (Phenylalanine, Isoleucine, Threonine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan) Purely glucogenic: the rest (Arg, Glu, Gln, His, Pro, Val, Met, Asp, Asn, Ala, Ser, Cys, and Gly)

Pyruvate carboxylase inhibition

Pyruvate carboxylase is the first enzyme used in gluconeogenesis to bypass pyruvate kinase. If this enzyme is inhibited, the liver will be unable to convert pyruvate to glucose and will therefore be unable to increase blood sugar. Thus, this patient will be expected to have lower-than-normal blood glucose levels,

Protein quarternary structure

Quaternary structure is due to hydrophobic interactions and bonds between side chains of amino acids on the protein.

RNA polymerase II

RNA polymerase is the enzyme responsible for RNA synthesis. In eukaryotes, it binds to a promoter region upstream of the start codon with the assistance of transcription factors, the most important of which is the TATA box. RNA polymerase travels along the template strand in the 3'-5' direction, synthesizing an antiparallel complement in the 5'-3' direction. The template strand is known as the antisense strand, and the opposite strand is known as the sense strand, because it corresponds to the codons on the mRNA that is eventually exported to the cytosol for translation.

RNA polymerase and transcription

RNA polymerase is the enzyme responsible for RNA synthesis. In eukaryotes, it binds to a promoter region upstream of the start codon with the assistance of transcription factors, the most important of which is the TATA box. RNA polymerase travels along the template strand in the 3'-5' direction, synthesizing an antiparallel complement in the 5'-3' direction. The template strand is known as the antisense strand, and the opposite strand is known as the sense strand, because it corresponds to the codons on the mRNA that is eventually exported to the cytosol for translation.

RNA info

RNA tends to exist in single-stranded form, rather than as a double-stranded double helix. Additionally, the sugar in RNA is ribose, which contains a hydroxyl (-OH) group on its 2′ carbon. (DNA contains deoxyribose, which lacks this 2′ hydroxyl group.) In addition to mRNA, which codes for protein production, several forms of non-coding RNA exist. These include transfer RNA (tRNA), which assists in translation, and small interfering RNA (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA). siRNA and miRNA differ in their structure: miRNA strands are single-nucleotide strands incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop, while siRNA molecules are short and double-stranded.

Rapid eye movement (REM)

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, also called paradoxical sleep, is a period of sleep during which the skeletal muscles demonstrate apparent paralysis even though respiration rate increases and the brain's activity is similar to that of a person in an awake state.

Reciprocal determinism

Reciprocal determinism is the theory set forth by Albert Bandura that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the environment.

Recrystallization

Recrystallization is used to purify a solid product that contains impurities. This process involves the dissolution of the solid in a solvent and subsequent heating. The solid then dissolves and is cooled, causing it to solidify (crystallize) again. As the lattice structures of solids tend to exclude impurities, each subsequent recrystallization results in a progressively purer compound.

Recrystallization details

Recrystallization is used to purify a solid product that contains impurities. This process involves the dissolution of the solid in a solvent and subsequent heating. The solid then dissolves and is cooled, causing it to solidify (crystallize) again. As the lattice structures of solids tend to exclude impurities, each subsequent recrystallization results in a progressively purer compound.

Reflected and absorbed

Reflected color is what is seen and absorbed color is every color except what is seen

Removal of parathyroid gland

Removal of the parathyroid gland would lead to hypocalcemia, a condition of low blood calcium, resulting from the lack of parathyroid hormone. This would cause increased neuromuscular excitability because of the change in membrane potential, which under normal physiological conditions, is partially kept in balance with extracellular calcium.

Repression

Repression occurs when uncomfortable thoughts are pushed outside of conscious awareness

Observer-expectancy bias

Researcher's belief in the efficacy of a treatment changes the outcome of that treatment

Residual poverty

Residual poverty is chronic, multigenerational poverty

Retreatism deviance

Retreatism is when someone rejects both the conventional means as well as the cultural goals and drops out of society.

Reward pathway

Reward pathway is located in the midbrain and plays a role in addiction.

Ribozymes

Ribozymes are RNA molecules that can catalyze reactions, similarly to how enzymes are proteins that are biological catalysts. Ribozymes in the ribosomes are involved in various reactions that contribute to the translation process, and ribozymes can also catalyze reactions involved in various forms of RNA processing.

Ritualism (strain theory)

Ritualism is when someone accepts the conventional means but rejects the cultural goals (for example getting rich).

Innovation deviance

Robert Merton argued that not everyone has the means to achieve cultural goals in a legitimate way. The extent and type of an individual's deviance is related to this access. When someone resorts to dealing drugs in order to buy a house and a car, they are rejecting the conventional means to attain what is otherwise a culturally acceptable goal. This is known as innovation.

Rumination

Rumination refers to continuously thinking about or replaying in one's mind aspects of a situation that are upsetting. It thought to maintain negative emotions and lead to depressive symptoms

SDS-PAGE (sodium dodecyl sulfate)

SDS-PAGE uses a strong anionic detergent: sodium dodecyl sulfate. The "sulfate" portion of this name denotes the negatively-charged head of the molecule, while the "dodecyl" refers to a long hydrocarbon chain that forms the molecule's tail. The SDS molecule denatures native proteins into their unfolded polypeptide states, which prevents protein shape from impacting the separation. To address charge differences and ensure that the proteins actually travel down the gel, SDS coats the proteins with an even distribution of charge per unit mass. Specifically, when the highly anionic SDS associates with the polypeptide backbone, the intrinsic charge of the polypeptide becomes negligible in comparison to the negative charges due to SDS. Since the protein is now highly negative, it will travel toward the positive end of the gel apparatus.

SN2 reactions

SN2 reactions are even simpler, as they take place in a single step. In this mechanism, the strong nucleophile displaces the leaving group by attacking from the rear, often described as a "backside attack." This reverse attack inverts the relative stereochemistry of the molecule. (The absolute stereochemistry - namely R vs. S configuration - is inverted as well, provided that the priority of the nucleophile matches the priority of the leaving group, which is nearly always the case.) For a brief instant before the leaving group fully dissociates, the central carbon of the substrate is at least partially bound to five substituents. This high-energy state is known as a pentavalent transition state. With everything happening at once, steric hindrance is a major limiting factor of SN2 reactions, with primary substrates reacting the most rapidly

SN2 reaction mechanism

SN2 reactions are even simpler, as they take place in a single step. In this mechanism, the strong nucleophile displaces the leaving group by attacking from the rear, often described as a "backside attack." This reverse attack inverts the relative stereochemistry of the molecule. (The absolute stereochemistry - namely R vs. S configuration - is inverted as well, provided that the priority of the nucleophile matches the priority of the leaving group, which is nearly always the case.) For a brief instant before the leaving group fully dissociates, the central carbon of the substrate is at least partially bound to five substituents. This high-energy state is known as a pentavalent transition state. With everything happening at once, steric hindrance is a major limiting factor of SN2 reactions, with primary substrates reacting the most rapidly.

saturated vs unsaturated fatty acids

Saturated: all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds. High melting points because solid at room temperature. Fats, like butter. Unsaturated: contain one or more double carbon-carbon bonds. Have kinks in chain, weak intermolecular force therefore lower melting points. Liquids at room temp. Oils.

Schizophrenia and Parkinson

Schizophrenia is associated with high levels of dopamine, or high sensitivity to dopamine. Parkinson's disease is associated with destruction of the dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia.

Secondary active transport example

Secondary active transport is a more complicated system in which the energy stored in an electrochemical gradient established via primary active transport is used to facilitate the movement of a solute. An example is the sodium-calcium exchanger, which allows three Na+ ions to flow down their concentration gradient, which was previously established by a primary active transport mechanism, into the cell, while transporting one Ca2+ ion out.

Secondary prevention

Secondary prevention is seen when there is an established risk factor present or when a disease/problem behavior has already begun to develop. In this case, the target behavior is alcohol use and abuse in teenagers and the risk behavior (which is already present and established) is peer pressure.

Selection bias

Selection bias arises when the sample is not representative of the population.

Self-awareness

Self-awareness is the "peak" level of consciousness, which signifies perception of the autobiographical character of a person's life experience.

Self-awareness info

Self-awareness is the "peak" level of consciousness, which signifies perception of the autobiographical character of a person's life experience.

Self-concept

Self-concept is an individual's mental model of his or her abilities and attributes.

Self-concept idea

Self-concept is an individual's mental model of his or her abilities and attributes.

Self-handicapping

Self-handicapping is the process of developing (anticipating failure) behavioral reactions and explanations that minimize personal responsibility for the failure.

Self-perception

Self-perception theory posits that people observe themselves in order to figure out the reasons they act as they do.

Self-perception theory

Self-perception theory posits that people observe themselves in order to figure out the reasons they act as they do.

Self-verification

Self-verification refers to the tendency to seek out (and agree with) information that is consistent with one's self-concept.

Sensation vs perception

Sensation refers to the process by which auditory, electromagnetic, physical, and other kinds of information from the environment are converted into electrical signals within the human nervous system. Sensation provides the raw signal, communicating information, entering the nervous system through receptors in the peripheral nervous systems. Perception, as exemplified by the Gestalt laws, is the processing of this raw information. Therefore, it is sensation that gives us information from the world around us and perception that allows us to make sense of it.

Sertoli Cells function

Sertoli cells support and nourish the spermatocytes and promote the process of spermatogenesis. Spermatogenesis would not occur without Sertoli cells. The two hormones that directly stimulate Sertoli cells are FSH and testosterone.

What is Sexual dimorphism?

Sexual dimorphism refers to the degree to which males and females resemble each other. A species with low sexual dimorphism contains males and females that look mostly identical. High sexual dimorphism signals intense competition for mates, while animals from species with low sexual dimorphism typically form pair bonds and mate for life.

siRNA

Short single-stranded RNA molecules termed small interfering RNA (siRNA) can hybridize with mRNA in a process that induces gene silencing. The siRNA-mRNA hybrid is recognized as an abnormal double-stranded RNA and is enzymatically cleaved, preventing its translation.

Signal detection theory (SDT) info

Signal detection theory is a framework for explaining how the mind transforms sensory stimuli into perceptions. This theoretical framework points out that the perception of stimuli can be affected not only by the stimuli themselves, but also by nonsensory considerations like expectations, experiences, and motives. In this way, psychological and environmental context can alter our perception of stimuli. Signal detection theory accounts for response bias, which is the tendency of people to habitually respond to a certain stimulus in a certain way because of nonsensory factors.

Social proof

Social proof refers to a phenomenon in which an individual adopts the behaviors of others—typically without a direct request being made—on the assumption that others' behavior must be correct under the circumstances at hand.

Social reproduction

Social reproduction is the process of perpetuating values and norms through socialization and social institutions.

Social stratification

Social stratification refers to the objective hierarchy in a society, and often more specifically addresses the class-based hierarchy.

Socialization

Socialization is the process through which people learn things that prepare them to participate in social systems in a socially acceptable way

Sociobiology info

Sociobiology holds that some social differences are actually rooted in biology. This theory applies evolutionary biology to help explain social behaviors. An example of a linkage between biology and behavior is that FEV knockout mice show much more aggressive and violent behavior compared with wild-type mice, suggesting that the FEV transcription factor plays a role in regulating aggression and aggressive behavior.

Sociobiology

Sociobiology holds that some social differences are actually rooted in biology. This theory applies evolutionary biology to help explain social behaviors. An example of a linkage between biology and behavior is that FEV knockout mice show much more aggressive and violent behavior compared with wild-type mice, suggesting that the FEV transcription factor plays a role in regulating aggression and aggressive behavior. Theories have also emerged to describe deviance, or behavior that does not fit social norms

Socioeconomic status (SES)

Socioeconomic status (SES) is a term that is familiar, but often misunderstood. SES reflects an individual's position in the social hierarchy, as understood in terms of how that hierarchy is structured. SES attempts to quantify an individual's access to resources, such as material goods, money, power, social networks, healthcare, and education. It is access to these resources that enables individuals and/or groups to prosper in the social world.

SDS-PAGE electrophoresis

Sodium dodecyl sulfide separates based on mass SDS binds to proteins and creates large chains with net negative charges, thereby neutralizing the protein's original charge and denaturing the protein SDS page can not reduce disulfide bonds (covalent bonds) requires a stronger reducing agent REDUCING: using DDT, it reduces disulfide bonds and breaks quaternary structure NONREDUCING: disulfide bonds intact, breaks quaternary structure NATIVE: disulfide bonds intact, quaternary structure intact, separates proteins by mass, charge and polarity

Morula stage

Solid ball of 16 cells that resembles a mulberry

Solomon Asch

Solomon Asch's conformity experiment demonstrated that individuals often conform to a group view, even when the group view differs from a clearly correct answer.

Soloman Asch Experiment

Solomon Asch's conformity experiment demonstrated that individuals often conform to a group view, even when the group view differs from a clearly correct answer. Asch used a task in which a participant, along with several of Asch's confederates, were told to judge the relative lengths of drawn lines. The confederates would give a clearly-incorrect opinion regarding which line was shorter or longer, causing the participant (who did not know that the others in the room were "in on it") to conform to this incorrect view in some cases.

Ksp

Solubility product constant....The higher it is the more saturated the compound is..

Solvents effect in SN1 vs SN2

Solvents have a notable effect on the rates of these reactions. Polar protic solvents (such as water and ethanol) tend to stabilize ions in solution. Since they can stabilize the carbocation, these protic solvents are best used for SN1 reactions. However, SN2 reactions rely not on a carbocation, but on a strong nucleophile displacing the leaving group. Protic solvents tend to stabilize (weaken) this nucleophile, so they should not be used for SN2 procedures. Instead, polar aprotic solvents, such as acetone, are a better choice.

Somatic disorders

Somatic disorders are unified by somatic (bodily) symptoms that can cause stress and impairment to the sufferer. These symptoms generally lack an identifiable physical cause. Alternatively, the individual may be impaired by irrational fears of developing or having a disease, as in illness anxiety disorder.

Somatic symptom disorder

Somatic symptom disorder is a condition in which a patient experiences verifiable physical symptoms that cannot be explained by a medical condition or any other mental disorder. The patient usually expresses extreme anxiety or distress over their undiagnosed condition

Somatosensation

Somatosensation is responsible for touch, which includes the feeling of vibrations. Somatosensation is often reduced to "touch" when listed as a sense, but is actually quite complex. It is usually described as having four modalities: pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature. There are at least five different types of receptors that receive tactile information. Pacinian corpuscles respond to deep pressure and vibration.

Specific gravity

Specific density refers to how dense a substance is compared to water. While technically, specific gravity can be defined relative to other reference fluids, on the MCAT you can assume that it refers to water unless the question or passage tells you otherwise. Specific gravity is a dimensionless constant, defined as ρ/ρwater. If a substance has a specific gravity greater than 1, it will sink in water. If the substance has a specific gravity less than or equal to 1, it will float, and the percentage of the object that will be submerged will equal its specific gravity × 100.

Specific gravity of water

Specific density refers to how dense a substance is compared to water. While technically, specific gravity can be defined relative to other reference fluids, on the MCAT you can assume that it refers to water unless the question or passage tells you otherwise. Specific gravity is a dimensionless constant, defined as ρ/ρwater. If a substance has a specific gravity greater than 1, it will sink in water. If the substance has a specific gravity less than or equal to 1, it will float, and the percentage of the object that will be submerged will equal its specific gravity × 100.

Delta G and spontaneity

Spontaneity can also be defined in terms of other chemical concepts. By definition, a spontaneous reaction will lead to more products being present than reactants. This means that the equilibrium constant (Keq), which is broadly defined as [products]/[reactants], will be greater than 1 for a spontaneous reaction. This relationship is encoded in the equation ∆G°rxn = −RTlnKeq. Additionally, in the context of electrochemical cells, spontaneous reactions are associated with positive cell potentials (E° > 0). On Test Day, it is important to automatically recognize that spontaneity is equivalent to ∆G < 0, Keq > 1, and E° > 0.

Sleep stage 3

Stage 3 sleep marks the transition into slow-wave sleep, which includes both Stage 3 and Stage 4. In this stage, delta waves (high amplitude, low frequency) predominate. As Stage 3 progresses, higher-frequency waves disappear and Stage 4 sleep begins. During Stage 4, digestion and heart rate slow and growth hormones are released.

Stage 4 sleep

Stage 4 is referred to as Delta sleep because of the delta waves that occur during this stage. Stage 4 is a deep sleep that typically lasts about 30 minutes. Sleepwalking and bed-wetting typically occur at the end of Stage 4. During this "deep sleep," there is no eye movement or muscle activity. This is when some children may also experience sleepwalking, or night terrors.

Polysaccharides

Starch = glucose molecules joined by α1-4 linkage = energy storage in plants Glycogen = same as starch, but with additional α1-6 linkages for branching = energy storage in animals (stored in the liver

Statistical significance

Statistical significance is expressed using p-values, which express the likelihood of a certain result being due to chance given a certain null hypothesis, which usually refers to the absence of a relationship between the variables of interest. A p-value <0.05 indicates that there is a <5% chance of the observed relationship being due to chance, and this is the most commonly used threshold for deeming a result statistically significant.

Stem cells

Stem cells can be classified along a scale of potency, which refers to the range of cell types that they can differentiate into. Totipotent cells are able to differentiate into any type of cell; in humans, this applies only to the zygote through the stage of the morula. Pluripotent cells are able to differentiate into any of the germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm), and can be obtained from the internal cell mass of the blastocyst. Adult stem cells are multipotent, meaning that they can differentiate into several types of cells within a relatively limited functional scope.

Stigma extension

Stigma extension refers to a tendency to impute limitations to a person's abilities beyond those of the disability itself. In this scenario, it would refer to the boss's apparent belief that the speaker needs to be told when they are not performing their job correctly, but that praise would be wasted as the speaker cannot be expected to exceed the limitations of their disability.

Functions of CCK

Stimulating pancreatic acinar cells to release digestive enzymes, stimulating feelings of satiety (fullness) to suppress hunger, inhibiting stomach emptying, and lowering gastric acid secretion

Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system can be thought of as being part of both the circulatory and immune systems. In a nutshell, it is a parallel circulatory system that drains interstitial fluid from the space surrounding the cells of the tissue. At any given moment, an adult human has about 10 liters of such fluid, which moves from the capillary beds into the extracellular space in the issues. In order to regulate fluid balance throughout the body, some of this fluid must always be in the process of being recycled through the circulatory system. Lymph capillaries collect this fluid and empty into lymph vessels, which converge into the right and left lymphatic ducts. These ducts in turn empty into the circulatory system at the intersection of the internal jugular veins and the right and left subclavian veins, respectively. The lymphatic system also has a connection with the digestive system because it is used to transport lipids, in the form of chylomicrons, to the circulatory system.

The magnetic quantum number (ml

The magnetic quantum number (ml) describes the spatial orientation of the orbital in question within its subshell. Potential values of ml range from −l to +l. Since each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, this means that an s subshell can contain up to two electrons, a p subshell can hold up to six electrons, a d subshell can contain up to 10, and an f subshell can hold up to 14.

Mature ovum and spermatozoa

The mature ovum is the female gamete that has completed meiosis and contains the haploid number of maternally derived chromosomes. This makes it most analogous to spermatozoa, the mature male gametes that contain the haploid number of paternally derived chromosomes.

Enzymes variables

The maximum rate of a reaction is known as Vmax. The other crucial variable is the Michaelis constant, Km, which is defined as the concentration of substrate that corresponds to half of Vmax. Km is important because it can be used as a rough measure of the affinity that an enzyme has for its substrate - that is, the phenomenon that some enzymes interact more readily with their substrates than others. Km is not affected if you change the concentration of the substrate or enzyme, although it can be affected by inhibitors. However, Km is not the only way to measure enzyme affinity. The association constant (Ka) can also be defined, using the mathematical formalism of equilibrium constants, as [ES]/[E][S], where [ES] is the concentration of the enzyme-substrate complex, [E] is the concentration of the enzyme, and [S] is the concentration of the substrate. The dissociation constant (Kd) is then the inverse of Ka, and can be defined as [E][S]/[ES].

Mesoderm and ENdoderm

The mesoderm generates many of the structures present within the body, including the musculature, connective tissue (including blood, bone, and cartilage), the gonads, the kidneys, and the adrenal cortex. The endoderm is basically responsible for the interior linings of the body, including the linings of the gastrointestinal system, the pancreas and part of the liver, the urinary bladder and part of the urethra, and the lungs.

Midbrain colliculi

The midbrain contains the inferior and superior colliculi, which receive information from the auditory system and visual sensory input, respectively.

Mitochondria structure

The mitochondria are separated from the rest of the cytoplasm by two membranes (an outer membrane and an inner membrane), both of which are composed of a phospholipid bilayer. The structure of mitochondria can therefore be subdivided into the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the mitochondrial matrix, which is the innermost part of each mitochondrion. The mitochondrial matrix is the site of the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation takes place via the action of protein complexes embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.

Structure of mitochondria

The mitochondria are separated from the rest of the cytoplasm by two membranes (an outer membrane and an inner membrane), both of which are composed of a phospholipid bilayer. The structure of mitochondria can therefore be subdivided into the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the mitochondrial matrix, which is the innermost part of each mitochondrion. The mitochondrial matrix is the site of the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation takes place via the action of protein complexes embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. As part of oxidative phosphorylation, the electron transport chain causes a buildup of protons in the intermembrane space, and the resulting proton gradient is used to power the activity of ATP synthase.

Structural proteins

The most common function of proteins in the body is not enzymatic, but structural. Structural proteins are fibrous proteins that have an elongated shape and provide structural support for cells and organ tissues. The first type of fibrous proteins are keratins, which form the skin, hair, and nails. Keratins are classified as soft or hard according to their sulfur content (i.e. the relative number of cysteine residues in their polypeptide chains). The low-sulfur keratins of the skin are much more flexible than the high-S, hard keratins.

Five factor theory

The most widely recognized trait theory of personality is the five-factor model, which includes the Big Five factors: openness to change, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (O.C.E.A.N). Each Big Five trait also has an opposite trait, and a person is thought to fall somewhere between those two poles.

Net force and dipole

The net force on the dipole is zero

The neuromuscular junction

The neuromuscular junction, or NMJ, is the synapse that separates a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. This synapse is pictured below. Inside the motor neuron are vesicles that contain neurotransmitter (specifically, acetylcholine) molecules. These vesicles can fuse with the axonal membrane in a calcium-dependent manner to release acetylcholine into the synapse. Binding of acetylcholine to receptors on the muscle fiber membrane initiates the contraction process.

Preoperational stage

The next stage is the preoperational stage (ages 2-7). Here, the individual develops symbolic thinking, or the idea that things and ideas can be represented through symbols such as words or gestures. During this stage, children tend to focus on a single aspect of a thing or experience, a phenomenon called centration, and they also display an inability to comprehend conservation, or the idea that a quantity remains the same despite a change in shape. Children in this stage are egocentric, meaning they do not understand that other people have thoughts or perspectives different from their own

Piaget's preoperational stage

The next stage is the preoperational stage (ages 2-7). Here, the individual develops symbolic thinking, or the idea that things and ideas can be represented through symbols such as words or gestures. During this stage, children tend to focus on a single aspect of a thing or experience, a phenomenon called centration, and they also display an inability to comprehend conservation, or the idea that a quantity remains the same despite a change in shape. Children in this stage are egocentric, meaning they do not understand that other people have thoughts or perspectives different from their own.

Preoperational stage

The next stage is the preoperational stage (ages 2-7). Here, the individual develops symbolic thinking, or the idea that things and ideas can be represented through symbols such as words or gestures. During this stage, children tend to focus on a single aspect of a thing or experience, a phenomenon called centration, and they also display an inability to comprehend conservation, or the idea that a quantity remains the same despite a change in shape. Children in this stage are egocentric, meaning they do not understand that other people have thoughts or perspectives different from their own.

Non-oxidative phase of PPP

The non-oxidative phase allows cells that do not specifically need ribulose 5-phosphate, which can easily be converted into ribose 5-phosphate, to process it in a way that feeds back into the glycolysis pathway and allows the oxidative phase to continue. More specifically, it involves multiple steps, through which the carbon skeleton of ribose 5-phosphate is rearranged, resulting in a net conversion of six five-carbon sugars (ribose 5-phosphate) to five six-carbon sugars (fructose 6-phosphate). Fructose 6-phosphate can be easily converted back into glucose 6-phosphate, which can re-enter glycolysis; additionally, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, which is another product of the non-oxidative phase, can also be shunted back into glycolysis.

The nondominant hemisphere

The nondominant hemisphere (usually the right) is associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing. The nondominant hemisphere simultaneously processes the pieces of a stimulus and assembles them into a holistic image. The nondominant hemisphere serves a less prominent role in language. It is more sensitive to the emotional tone of spoken language, and permits us to recognize others' moods based on visual and auditory cues, which adds to communication. The dominant hemisphere thus screens incoming language to analyze its content, and the nondominant hemisphere interprets it according to its emotional tone.

G1 checkpoint

The only pace in the cell cycle that growth factors influence cell cycle progression is within the G1 checkpoint

Balancing organs

The organ of Corti is housed in the middle scala. Scala are parts of the cochlea. The organ of Corti is the actual hearing apparatus. The utricle and saccule are part of the vestibule. They are sensitive to linear acceleration, and thus used as part of the balancing apparatus to determine orientation in three dimensional space. Otoliths are modified hair cells that cover the utricle and saccule. They resist motion, with subsequent bends sending signals to the brain. Semicircular canals are sensitive to rotational acceleration.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system is the "rest and digest" system that increases blood flow to the digestive system, slows the heart rate, constricts the pupils, and generally exerts actions opposite to those of the sympathetic nervous system.

Parietal lobe function

The parietal lobe is associated with integrating various sensory input, and both the parietal and temporal lobes are important for language.

Saturated vs unsaturated fats

The presence of one or more double bonds in a fatty acid has a significant effect on its physical properties. Naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids generally have cis bonds, which introduce a degree of bending into the chain. This is especially true for polyunsaturated fatty acids with cis bonds. Such acids do not stack readily on top of each other, meaning that they tend to have lower melting and boiling points than the corresponding saturated fatty acids. In the context of plasma membranes, unsaturated fatty acids tend to make the membrane more fluid.

Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)

The primary function of the pentose phosphate pathway is to produce NADPH. Thus, low levels of NADPH will most likely stimulate the pathway. Additionally, glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) is the first molecule involved in this process; therefore, high levels of G6P must promote these reactions much more than low levels.

Function of colon

The primary process that takes place in the colon is absorption of water

Prisoner's Dilemma

The prisoner's dilemma is a standard example from psychological game theory that shows why two completely "rational" individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so.

Morphogenesis

The process by which an organism takes shape and the differentiated cells occupy their appropriate locations.

Normalization

The process of applying rules to a database design to ensure that information is divided into the appropriate tables.

Transcription

The process of going from DNA to RNA—more specifically, messenger RNA (mRNA)—is called transcription. Transcription takes place in the nucleus, and it results in the creation of an mRNA copy of a gene that can then be transported to the cytosol for translation into a protein. The DNA helix must be unzipped for transcription to take place, which means that some of the same machinery used for DNA replication has to be engaged, especially enzymes like helicase and topoisomerase. RNA polymerase is the enzyme responsible for RNA synthesis. In eukaryotes, it binds to a promoter region upstream of the start codon with the assistance of transcription factors, the most important of which is the TATA box. RNA polymerase travels along the template strand in the 3'-5' direction, synthesizing an antiparallel complement in the 5'-3' direction. The template strand is known as the antisense strand, and the opposite strand is known as the sense strand, because it corresponds to the codons on the mRNA that is eventually exported to the cytosol for translation.

Anti-inflammatory drugs

The proliferation of inflammatory cells, including T cells, B Cells, and other leukocytes, helps in fighting infections. Therefore, giving an infected patient anti-inflammatory drugs has the potential of reducing their ability to fight an infection.

"Me" and "I"

The psychologist George Mead theorized that one's identity is developed through social interaction. In order to develop a self, an individual has to be able to view his- or herself through the eyes of others, which is a skill that must be learned. Mead proposed two versions of the self: the "me" and the "I." The "me" is the attitudes, roles, meanings, pressures, and values of society and others around the individual that are organized into one's social self through role-taking. The "I" is the part of the self that can be identified with desires, freedom, and creativity. Essentially, the "me" is the social self and the "I" is one's response to the "me." Through socialization, individuals learn to look at the world through others' perspectives.

Michaelis Menten kinetics, reaction orders

The reaction is first order during the beginning of the reaction before the enzyme active sites are completely saturated. when you have added enough substrate you will move into zero-order kinetics and that is demonstrated by the velocity curve flat-lining. This is because all of the active sites are occupied so the enzyme is saturated. Adding more substrate won't make the reaction go faster because at this point, there is nothing free to react with the substrate. The enzyme is metaphorically "backed up". Enzyme level is kept constant throughout the reaction, and you are manipulating substrate concentration or inhibitor concentration.

Solvation layer and entropy

The reduction in the solvation layer is associated with a significant positive entropy which overcomes the entropic penalty associated with increased order in the folded state

Menstruation

The release of estrogen and testosterone is stimulated by luteinizing hormone (LH), which is a peptide hormone secreted in response to low levels of these hormones. LH also stimulates estrogen release during the luteal surge of the menstrual cycle, leading to ovulation, and in response to the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Another peptide hormone released in response to GnRH that plays an important role in reproduction is follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which promotes the growth of ovarian follicles in females. It also has the effect of promoting spermatogenesis in males. During pregnancy, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) maintains the corpus luteum and induces it to secrete progesterone during the first trimester.

Heart rate of newborns

The resting heart rate of newborns is 100-160 beats per minute and decreases consistently with age. The increase in heart rate among this group would cause blood to flow in and out of the lungs at a higher rate, increasing the opportunity for diffusion of blood gases.

Bilayer of membrane facts

The resulting bilayer membrane is permeable to very small uncharged molecules (such as common blood gases) and to lipid-soluble molecules (such as steroid hormones), which can freely diffuse through the cell membrane. However, the membrane is not permeable to larger, hydrophilic molecules, such as glucose. Such molecules require specialized transporters, which can be regulated to a much greater extent than diffusion processes. This means that the lipid bilayer structure that results from entropically-favorable interactions between phospholipids ultimately allows the body to perform the physiologically essential task of closely regulating what goes into and out of the cell.

2nd level protein structure

The second level of protein structure refers to its two-dimensional arrangement (secondary structure). This folding is due to hydrogen bonds between groups along the peptide backbone that link different segments of the polypeptide chain to each other. These segments do not necessarily follow each other in the primary sequence and may be located in very distant regions of the polypeptide chain. There are two important types of secondary structure: the alpha-helix and the beta-sheet. In the alpha-helix, there are 3.6 residues per turn, which means that there is one residue every 100 degrees of rotation of the molecule. In beta-sheets, the protein is arranged into several β-strands, which are stretched segments of the polypeptide chain that are also kept together by hydrogen bonds. Beta-sheets may be parallel (the strands point in the same direction) or anti-parallel (the strands point in opposite directions).

Actin and myosin

The second type of fibrous proteins you must know are the actin and myosin proteins of muscle tissue. Actin and myosin interact to form cross-linkages that allow the sliding of the filaments over each other in muscle contraction, which takes place through the contraction and relaxation of the sarcomere, the fundamental unit of all muscle fibers. When muscle contracts, the actin and myosin filaments slide over each other and the H-zone (myosin-only region), Z-lines (sarcomere boundaries), and I-band (actin-only region) all shrink, while the A-band (the entire myosin region) remains the same size. The opposite occurs upon muscle relaxation.

The sliding filament model

The sliding filament model describes the interaction of actin and myosin during muscle contraction. According to this model, neuronal impulses cause the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum within muscle cells. The calcium then binds to troponin, a molecule that along with tropomyosin, blocks the binding sites for myosin on actin molecules. Calcium binding to troponin causes a shift in the troponin/tropomyosin complex, revealing the binding site for myosin. Myosin then binds to actin, causing a conformational change in myosin that "cocks" the head of the myosin molecule and slides the actin filament relative to myosin. ATP binds to myosin, causing it to detach from actin and "recharge" (rebend again). If another binding site is available on actin, myosin will bind again, and slide the actin filament even further.

The specific activity

The specific activity represents a measure of solution purity, the activity units themselves provide the best measurement of yield. The total number of activity units in the initial culture was 3000 mg × 0.1 units/mg = 300 units. After the final step, the activity units that remain are 3 mg × 20 units/mg = 60 units. This represents a 60/300 = 0.2 or 20% yield.

Wave speed

The speed of a wave is largely determined by the medium in which it travels

Stability of both DNA and RNA

The stability of both DNA and RNA is largely dependent on the number of GC base pairs contained with the folded structure. Therefore, any change that converts and existing AU base pair to a GC base pair is most likely to increase the stability of the folded mRNA molecule.

Transtheoretical Model of Change

The stage of change model, also known as the transtheoretical model of change, describes 5 stages (precontemplation → contemplation → preparation → action → maintenance) that a person may go through to make a change to their behavior. Contemplation describes the second stage of change, in which a person recognizes that there is a problem and is beginning to think about fixing it.

Correlation strength

The strength of a correlation is usually expressed as r, which can range from −1 to 1. An r value of 0 expresses no correlation whatsoever, while r values of −1 and 1 correspond to perfect negative and positive correlations, respectively. The strength of intermediate r values must be interpreted in context; an r value of 0.5 would be considered fairly strong for social sciences research, with many potential confounding variables, but fairly weak for the physical sciences. The related value of R2 expresses how well the regression line (the line of best fit) captures the data point, with 1 indicating a perfect correspondence between the regression line and the data and 0 indicating no correspondence.

Strength of correlation coefficient

The strength of a correlation is usually expressed as r, which can range from −1 to 1. An r value of 0 expresses no correlation whatsoever, while r values of −1 and 1 correspond to perfect negative and positive correlations, respectively. The strength of intermediate r values must be interpreted in context; an r value of 0.5 would be considered fairly strong for social sciences research, with many potential confounding variables, but fairly weak for the physical sciences. The related value of R2 expresses how well the regression line (the line of best fit) captures the data point, with 1 indicating a perfect correspondence between the regression line and the data and 0 indicating no correspondence.

Structure of antibody

The structure of an antibody provides a bridge between these two functions. Antibodies have a Y-shaped structure consisting of two heavy chains and two light chains that are linked by disulfide bonds. Five classes of antibodies exist, classified according to the details of their heavy chains: immunoglobulin (Ig) A, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. The "top" ends of the Y-shaped structure (that is, the part with both the heavy and the light chains) have a hypervariable antigen-recognizing area, and the rest of the antibody structure can be recognized by other cells of the immune system. The specific site on an antigen that is recognized by an antibody is known as the epitope. Extensive random recombination of the antigen-recognizing area of the antibody (also known as the paratope) allows the generation of antibodies that recognize potentially infinitely many types of antigens. Antibodies are used in the adaptive immune system, most notably by B cells.

Ribose and deoxyribose

The sugar that make up RNA is ribose, and for DNA it is deoxyribose (More precisely it's 2'-deoxyribose because the difference is at the 2 carbon).

The sweat glands and skins

The sweat glands secrete onto the surface of the skin through channels continuous with the most superficial layer of the skin, the epidermis. These channels prevent water loss by isolating the water-permeable, sweat-secreting cells from dry surface air. The openings of the sweat glands on to the surface of the epidermis are pores.

Second shift

The term "second shift" is a concept used within the conflict theory perspective to explain the unequal division of labor in the household between women and men.

Tumor and cancer

The term "tumor" describes any abnormal proliferation of cells. Benign tumors remain localized, whereas malignant tumors (which are what the term "cancer" properly refers to) can invade other organs and tissues in the body in a process called metastasis. The first step in oncogenesis, tumor initiation, involves changes that allow a single cell to proliferate abnormally. This means that the cell must develop the ability to bypass regulatory steps of the cell cycle that normally help to limit mitotic proliferation. Tumor progression occurs as a cell develops the ability to proliferate even more aggressively, such that its descendants are selected for and come to predominate the growing tumor. In addition, malignant cells often undergo mutations that promote their own growth and the development of blood vessels to feed them (angiogenesis).

Role conflict: Role strain

The term role conflict refers to a difficulty in fulfilling the expectations of two or more roles at once. For example, imagine a father who is also a youth league baseball coach. As a father, he wants his son to be pitching, but as a coach, he knows another kid deserves to be on the mound more than his son. In contrast, role strain refers to a difficulty in fulfilling multiple expectations within the same role. For example, imagine a babysitter who is struggling to keep up with three young children, the youngest of whom is in diapers. Within one five-minute span she is trying to change the diaper, make lunch, and keep the older two from hurting each other. The role performance of each role suffers as she undergoes role strain.

3rd level of protein structure

The third level of protein structure, known as tertiary structure, refers to the actual three-dimensional shape of the native protein. These folds are caused and maintained primarily by hydrophobic/hydrophilic interactions and hydrogen bonds between the side chains of amino acids and between the amino acids and the protein's environment. Disulfide linkages between cysteine residues also contribute to tertiary structure by stabilizing the three-dimensional shape of the protein. Independent folding units of the protein structure are called domains. Some proteins contain a single domain, while others may contain several domains. The third level of structure is what gives proteins their biological activity and is the highest level of structure shared by all proteins.

Concrete operational stage

The third stage is the concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11). Here, children develop an understanding of conservation and begin to understand mathematics. They also become less egocentric and can think logically about concrete events and objects, but they still have not developed a full capacity for abstract thought. Finally, the fourth stage is the formal operational stage (age 12+). Here, people develop the abilities of abstract and moral reasoning

Concrete and formal operational stages

The third stage is the concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11). Here, children develop an understanding of conservation and begin to understand mathematics. They also become less egocentric and can think logically about concrete events and objects, but they still have not developed a full capacity for abstract thought. Finally, the fourth stage is the formal operational stage (age 12+). Here, people develop the abilities of abstract and moral reasoning.

Three types of enzymes inhibition

The three primary types of inhibition you should know for Test Day are competitive, noncompetitive, and uncompetitive inhibition. These three types of inhibition are considered reversible, because the inhibitor can dissociate from the enzyme or enzyme-substrate complex. If that is not the case, irreversible (or "suicide") inhibition occurs. The way to determine the exact type of inhibition is through enzyme kinetic measurements of Vmax and Km. Vmax is the maximum velocity reached by the reaction, and Km is the substrate concentration required to reach Vmax/2.

Three types of temperament

The three recognizes types of temperament are: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up.

Standard Potential of a Cell

The total standard potential generated by a cell, Ecell, can be calculated from the standard reduction potentials of the half-reactions. The simplest way of defining Ecell is presented below: Ecell = E°cathode − E°anode

Unfolding protein graph

The unfolding of proteins is a cooperative process. Cooperative processes are marked by sigmoidal curves.

IR of C-H bonds

The various C-H stretches are typically observed slightly below 3000 cm-1

Urticle, succule, vestibule

The vestibule, which contains the utricle and saccule, is responsible for sensing linear acceleration, which helps us balance and determine our orientation in space. The utricle and saccule contain specialized hair cells, otoliths, that resist motion as the body accelerates, and send information to the brain. The semicircular canals sense rotational acceleration. Each canal ends in an ampulla, which houses hair cells. Endolymph in the ampullas resists motion when the head rotates, stimulating hair cells to send information to the brain.

4th level of protein structure

The fourth level of protein structure, which is not present in all proteins, is quaternary structure. Quaternary structure exists when a single protein consists of two or more polypeptide chains (called subunits). For example, hemoglobin is made up of four identical heme subunits joined together. The number of subunits will be reflected in the name given to its structure (dimer, trimer, pentamer). If the subunits are identical, the prefix "homo" is used, and if they differ, the term "hetero" is used. Thus, a protein with two identical subunits would be a homodimer, while a heterotetramer would be a protein with four subunits, at least some of which are different. These subunits can interact with each other, contribute to an active site or to the dynamics of the complex, or interact with some target molecules. The most common way the MCAT hints at the quaternary structure of a protein is to show that disulfide bond cleavage splits the protein into two or more pieces on a gel.

Frequency of a wave

The frequency of a wave travelling through the medium increases with increasing tension and decreases with increasing linear mass or thickness.

Frontal lobe

The frontal lobes are most closely associated with executive functions, which include both working memory and attention.

The frustration-aggression hypothesis

The frustration-aggression hypothesis assumes that people will be more aggressive when they are frustrated. It is also assumed that being hindered from a desired goal (e.g., playing with an attractive toy) is frustrating.

Structure of sarcomere

The fundamental unit of contraction is the sarcomere, which is defined as consisting of a band of thick myosin fibers and half of each of the two adjacent bands of thin fibers. Sarcomeres are divided into the I-band, A-band, H-zone, Z-line, and M-line. The M-line defines the middle of the sarcomere, running through the middle of the thick filaments, while the Z-lines define the edges, running through the middle of the thin filaments. The I-band refers to the region where only thin actin filaments are present, and the A-band is everything else, that is, the entire region where thick filaments are present, including areas of overlap with the thin filaments. The H-zone refers to the region where only thick filaments are present, making it analogous to the I-band. During contraction, the M-lines and Z-lines come closer together, the A-band stays the same, and the I-band and H-zone become shorter.

Gallbladder

The gall bladder is an organ that stores bile produced by the liver. The major dissolved components of bile are breakdown products of hemoglobin such as bilirubin and bile salts. The bile salts are amphipathic; that is, they have a hydophobic portion that is soluble only in fats and oils and a hydrophilic portion that is soluble in water. Bile salts allow dietary fats (and oils), which do not dissolve in the watery digestive juices, to form an emulsion of tiny droplets dispersed in the digestive juices. One end of a bile salt molecule associates with the fats and the other with the aqueous solution in the gut. The dispersion of fats in the aqueous digestive juices and aids digestion by making them available to digestive enzymes. Since triglycerides are hydrophobic fats, bile would aid in their digestion

Oncogenes

The genes involved in oncogenesis can be divided into two groups: oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. The basic difference between them is that oncogenes function to promote abnormal growth and proliferation, leading to cancer, while tumor suppressor genes function to prevent tumorigenic properties. Oncogenes can arise from the mutation of other genes, termed proto-oncogenes. If not mutated, proto-oncogenes do not promote cancer, but certain mutations or inappropriately elevated gene expression can effectively turn them into oncogenes.

Genetic material of Virus

The genetic material of viruses can be in the form of either single-stranded or double-stranded DNA or RNA. Single-stranded RNA viruses are further subdivided into positive-sense and negative-sense viruses. Positive-sense RNA viruses contain mRNA that can immediately be translated by the cell. In contrast, negative-sense RNA viruses contain RNA that is complementary to mRNA, meaning that mRNA must be synthesized by an enzyme known as RNA replicase that is carried in the virion.

The glass escalator

The glass escalator desribes the ability of men to ascend quickly to higher levels of pay and responsibility in female-dominated professions

The glomerular filtration rate

The glomerular filtration rate is proportional to the glomerular capillary blood pressure minus the sum of the plasma osmotic pressure and the Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure. An increase to the systemic blood pressure would initially increase the glomerular capillary blood pressure, which would increase the glomerular filtration rate.

hindbrain basics

The hindbrain is located where the brain meets the spinal cord, and controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes such as sleeping and waking. In short, the hindbrain manages vital functioning necessary for survival. The hindbrain contains the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum. The medulla oblongata is a structure responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. The pons lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla. At the top of the hindbrain, the cerebellum is a structure that helps maintain posture and balance and coordinates body movements.

trans vs cis fatty acids

The hydrocarbon tails of trans fats stack more densely than those of comparable cis fats, making them less likely to be liquids at room temperature. Small amounts of trans fatty acids are produced in nature, but they are mostly present in the human diet as a result of the industrial processing of vegetable oils. Partial hydrogenation of unsaturated vegetable oils results in trans fats, which are more stackable than cis fatty acids and therefore are more likely to be solids at room temperature. Trans fats have been consistently linked to heart disease and have been banned in many countries.

Hydrogen bond acceptors and bases

The hydrogen bond acceptors are N and O. Adenine contains 1 donor and 1 acceptor, thymine contains 1 donor and 1 acceptor, guanine contains 2 donors and 1 acceptor, and cytosine contains 1 donor and 2 acceptors.

Post-transcriptional processing

The immediate product of transcription in eukaryotes is not mRNA, but heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA). hnRNA must undergo a set of post-transcriptional modifications to become mRNA. Examples commonly tested on the MCAT include the 3' poly-A tail, the 5' cap, and splicing. The 3' poly-A tail is a string of approximately 250 adenine (A) nucleotides added to the 3' end of an hnRNA transcript to protect the eventual mRNA transcript against rapid degradation in the cytosol. The 5' cap refers to a 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap placed on the 5' end of an hnRNA transcript. Similarly to the 3' poly-A tail, it helps prevent the transcript from being degraded too quickly in the cytosol, but it also prepares the RNA complex for export from the nucleus.

hRNA important

The immediate product of transcription in eukaryotes is not mRNA, but heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA). hnRNA must undergo a set of post-transcriptional modifications to become mRNA. Examples commonly tested on the MCAT include the 3' poly-A tail, the 5' cap, and splicing. The 3' poly-A tail is a string of approximately 250 adenine (A) nucleotides added to the 3' end of an hnRNA transcript to protect the eventual mRNA transcript against rapid degradation in the cytosol. The 5' cap refers to a 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap placed on the 5' end of an hnRNA transcript. Similarly to the 3' poly-A tail, it helps prevent the transcript from being degraded too quickly in the cytosol, but it also prepares the RNA complex for export from the nucleus.

hnRNA (heterogeneous nuclear RNA)

The immediate product of transcription in eukaryotes is not mRNA, but heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA). hnRNA must undergo a set of post-transcriptional modifications to become mRNA. Examples commonly tested on the MCAT include the 3' poly-A tail, the 5' cap, and splicing. The 3' poly-A tail is a string of approximately 250 adenine (A) nucleotides added to the 3' end of an hnRNA transcript to protect the eventual mRNA transcript against rapid degradation in the cytosol. The 5' cap refers to a 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap placed on the 5' end of an hnRNA transcript. Similarly to the 3' poly-A tail, it helps prevent the transcript from being degraded too quickly in the cytosol, but it also prepares the RNA complex for export from the nucleus.

Immune system and autoimmunity

The immune system is designed to attack foreign material in the body. It avoids attacking tissues of its own body because it suppresses cells that are specific to its own body's antigens (surface molecules that would otherwise initiate an immune response).

Inner Ear functions and structure details

The inner ear is protected by a thick layer of bone called the bony labyrinth. Together, the structures of the inner ear form a mass called the membranous labyrinth, which is filled with endolymph, a potassium-rich fluid. Outside of the membranous labyrinth, between it and the bony labyrinth, is a thin layer of another fluid called perilymph. Perilymph transmits vibrations from the stapes, but also protects the membranous labyrinth.

The inner hair cells of cochlea

The inner hair cells of the cochlea are the sensory receptors for the human auditory system

Intensity

The intensity of sound is a measure of the power delivered by sound over a given area, or as watts divided by meters squared. Intensity is not exactly the same as "loudness," because loudness has to do with how the intensity of sound is perceived. Intensity and loudness are closely related to amplitude, as intensity is proportional to the amplitude squared. Intensity is commonly measured in terms of decibels (dB). The decibel scale is a logarithmic scale expressing the intensity of a sound as its ratio to that of the smallest detectable sound intensity I0). The intensity ratio of sound in decibels is defined as dB = 10log(I/I0), where I0 is 1 × 10−12 W/m2.

Functions of lymphatic system

The job of the lymphatic system is to exchange fluids between the tissues and circulatory system. Lymphatic obstruction would not lead swelling of the lymph nodes themselves, but would cause noticeable swelling of the tissue supplied by those lymph nodes.

Pyruvate keto form

The keto form of pyruvate is CH3COCOO-. The term "enol" indicates that both a C=C bond and an OH group are present

Proprioreception sense

The kinesthetic sense is also linked to proprioception, which occurs due to receptors found mostly in the muscles and joints. Proprioception allows us to perceive where our bodies are in space. For example, even with your eyes and ears covered, you can know where your foot is in space.

Enzyme kinetic parameter's

The kinetic parameters Vmax and Km are reported via Michaelis-Menten plots. However, Lineweaver-Burk plots may also be used. When the experimental data are examined in the form of double reciprocal Lineweaver-Burk plots, the x- and y-axes are 1/[S] and 1/V, respectively. Since these plots are a straight line, the slope of each line is Km/Vmax. The y-intercept on a Lineweaver-Burk plot represents 1/Vmax, while the x-intercept is −1/Km. These double-reciprocal plots are especially useful for distinguishing between competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors.

Kinetochore

The kinetochore is a protein complex assembled at each centromere that serves as the attachment site for spindle microtubules. It is the site at which motors generate forces to power chromosome movement during mitosis

The lateral geniculate nucleus

The lateral geniculate nucleus is a visual information relay center in the thalamus. The LGN detects and interprets information from the retina and passes it on to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe.

Lateral and ventraomedial Hypothalamus

The lateral hypothalamus (LH) is referred to as the hunger center because it has special receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluids. In other words, the LH triggers eating and drinking. If the LH is destroyed, one Lacks Hunger. The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is identified as the "satiety center," and provides signals to stop eating. When the VMH is destroyed, one is Very Much Hungry.

Recombinant Frequency

The likelihood that two alleles are separated from each other during crossing over, called the recombination frequency (θ), is roughly proportional to the distance between the genes on the chromosome. Recombination can introduce genetic abnormalities such as inversions or deletions, but linkage itself does not impact genetic fitness.

What is limbic system?

The limbic system includes the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and several other structures, and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and motivation. It is distinct from the mesolimbic pathway (or reward pathway), which is located in the midbrain and plays a role in addiction.

Process of distillation

The liquids are initially held in the same round-bottom flask, termed the distilling flask. This flask is positioned above a heat source, typically a Bunsen burner. The top of the flask is connected to a column, which leads to a downward-sloping glass condenser over a receiving flask. The condenser is held within a glass casing through which cold water is pumped. As the round-bottom flask is heated, the liquid with the lower boiling point will begin to vaporize, and its vapor will travel up the column and re-condense to fall into the receiving flask. The eventual result is a receiving flask that is rich in the lower-BP liquid, while the distilling flask will still contain the liquid(s) with the higher BP. If boiling points are very high, a vacuum may also be used to lower atmospheric pressure, which lowers the boiling points of all substances involved.

Retention time and GC temperature

The longer retention time that results from conducting the GC at a lower temperature will result in better resolution between peaks. The entire process is slowed down, so if there is a stretch of zero-intensity baseline between peaks at the original higher temperature, there will be a longer stretch at the new lower temperature.

Melting point of unsaturated fatty acids

The lower melting point of oils is related to the higher degree of unsaturation. The presence of carbon to carbon double bonds in the oil molecules distorts the long fatty acid chains and the molecule's shape. As a result the molecules cannot pack closely together.

Hemophilia, a disease in which the time required for blood to clot is greatly prolonged, is determined by a sex-linked gene. Suppose a man with normal blood clotting marries a woman with normal blood clotting whose father was a hemophiliac. If this couple has three sons, what is the probability that hemophilia will be transmitted to all three of them?

The woman inherited one X chromosome from her father and one from her mother. The father only had one X chromosome to contribute and that X chromosome contained the hemophilia gene. The mother will pass on one X chromosome to her sons, either the X chromosome containing the normal (wild type) gene, or the X chromosome containing the hemophilia gene. The probability of a son receiving the hemophilia gene and being a hemophiliac is 1/2, because there is a 50-50 chance that this son received an X chromosome carrying the defective gene from his carrier mother. The cumulative probability of all three sons inheriting the hemophilia gene would be the product of the individual probabilities, or 1/2 × 1/2 × 1/2.

Electron carriers in ETC

There are 5 electron carriers involved in the ETC: NADH-Q reductase, ubiquinone, cytochrome reductase, cytochrome c, and cytochrome oxidase. Each carrier in the electron transport chain is only capable of carrying one or two electrons at a time.

Fives stages of behavioral cange

There are five stages of behavioral change: precontemplation (before the individual is considering the change), contemplation (the individual's initial act of considering that they may want or need to change), preparation for action, action, and maintenance (the act of ensuring that the behavioral change "sticks"). When the behavioral change relates to addictive or harmful behaviors (as in an addict who decides to stop abusing drugs), maintenance often consists of relapse prevention, or methods designed to keep the individual from returning to that harmful set of actions.

Oxygen-containing group

There are several important oxygen-containing functional groups: alcohols (RC-OH), aldehydes (RC(=O)H), ketones (RC(=O)R'), and carboxylic acids (R(C=O)OH). Due to hydrogen bonding, alcohols and carboxylic acids have higher melting/boiling points than aldehydes and ketones, and can function as organic weak acids. Carbonyl (C=O) carbons have a significant partial positive charge and therefore often act as electrophiles. The -OH group of carboxylic acids can be replaced by other functional groups to form carboxylic acid derivatives, the most notable are amides (R(C=O)NR'R''), esters (R(C=O)OR'), acid anhydrides (R(C=O)O(C=O)R'), and acid halides (R(C=O)X), in increasing order of reactivity.

Superior and inferior colliculus

There are several prominent nuclei in the midbrain, two of which are collectively called colliculi. The superior colliculus receives visual sensory input, and the inferior colliculus receives sensory information from the auditory system. The inferior colliculus has a role in reflexive reactions to sudden loud noises.

Ritualism

This describes those who pursue the legitimate means of attaining goals, but who set more humble and achievable goals for themselves.

Oxidative phase of PPP

This pathway is broken up into two stages: the oxidative phase and the non-oxidative phase. In the oxidative phase, glucose 6-phosphate is first converted to 6-phosphoglucono-δ-lactone by glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase. This step produces 1 NADPH and is the rate-limiting step of the process. Multiple additional steps, including the loss of a carbon atom as CO2, result in the generation of ribulose 5-phosphate.

Organogenesis

Throughout the first trimester of pregnancy, the major organs develop in a process known as organogenesis, and then in the second and third trimesters, the fetus grows larger and develops further. Throughout pregnancy, the fetus obtains nutrients via the placenta, which is an organ that allows nutrient and gas exchange between the mother and the fetus. Maternal blood and fetal blood do not co-mingle,

Entropy and micelles

Thus, the three-dimensional structure of globular proteins in aqueous solution will minimize interactions between hydrophobic amino acid residues and water by incorporating them into the interior of the protein. A similar outcome occurs in the formation of micelles or bilayer membranes by amphipathic phospholipids, with the hydrophobic alkyl tails clustered together and the polar phosphate heads facing the aqueous solution.

Tight Junction example

Tight junctions are formed by epithelial cells. As the name suggests, the cells in tight junctions are linked very closely to each other, preventing solutes from being able to move freely from one tissue into another. A classic example is the blood-brain barrier, where the epithelial cells in blood vessels in the brain form very tight junctions that allow the very close regulation of which substances from the bloodstream can enter the central nervous system.

Tight Junction and function

Tight junctions are found in epithelial cells. As the name suggests, the cells in tight junctions are linked very closely to each other, preventing solutes from being able to move freely from one tissue into another. A classic example is the blood-brain barrier, where the epithelial cells in blood vessels in the brain form very tight junctions that allow the close regulation of which substances from the bloodstream can enter the central nervous system. Some types of epithelial tissue have relatively few tight junctions; these are known as leaky epithelia. Examples include some parts of the kidney.

Compensate of increased body temp

To compensate for the increased body temperature in a fever, skin capillaries dilate to dissipate heat through the skin.

DNA methylation and proofreading

To determine which strand in a double stranded molecule has errors, the enzyme looks at the level of methylation: the template strand has existed in the cell for a longer period of time, and therefore is more heavily methylated. This system is very efficient, correcting most of the errors put into the sequence during replication rather than requiring cell death for any errors found. The correct time to do this is when the DNA is being synthesized, which is during the S phase of the cell cycle of either mitosis or meiosis.

orbital hybridization basics

To identifying the orbital hybridization of a molecule is to determine the number of regions of electron density around the atom. A region of electron density is defined as either a bond (single, double, or triple) or a lone pair of electrons. Two regions yield a hybridization of sp (common in cases of triple bonds or central atoms with two double bonds). Having three regions of electron density is associated with sp2 hybridization, and having four regions yields sp3 hybridization.

Collagen info

collagen, which is found in tendons, forms connective ligaments within the body, and gives extra support to the skin. Collagen is a triple helix formed by three proteins that wrap around one another. Many collagen molecules are cross-linked together in the extracellular space to form collagen fibrils to provide structural support for the cell. Elastin polypeptide chains are cross-linked together to form flexible, elastic fibers that give stretched tissues flexibility and the ability to recoil spontaneously as soon as the stretching force is relaxed.

high culture

cultural patterns that distinguish a society's elite

psychomotor stimulants

drugs such as amphetamine and cocaine that produce their effect by stimulating the effects of certain neurotransmitters, specifically norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin

glycosydic linkage

glycoside + H2O + catalyst → hydrolysis.

quasi-independent variable

in a non-experimental study, the "independent variable" that is used to create the different groups of scores

Transduction

Transduction is virus-mediated gene transfer. The lack of nuclei in bacteria makes it relatively easy for viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophages) to incorporate part of the bacterial genome during their assembly. Bacteriophages can then infect another bacterial cell, taking the genetic material from a previous cell along for the ride, because it can become integrated into the genome of the new cell after infection. Transduction has been widely applied in biotechnology.

Transformation

Transformation refers to the ability of some bacteria to absorb genetic material directly from the environment. Early experiments in bacterial genetics revealed that harmless strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae could be made virulent by exposing them to virulent bacteria that had been lysed with heat.

Transformation and transduction

Transformation refers to the ability of some bacteria to absorb genetic material directly from the environment. Early experiments in bacterial genetics revealed that harmless strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae could be made virulent by exposing them to virulent bacteria that had been lysed with heat. Transduction is virus-mediated gene transfer. The lack of nuclei in bacteria makes it relatively easy for viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophages) to incorporate part of the bacterial genome during their assembly. Bacteriophages can then infect another bacterial cell, taking the genetic material from a previous cell along for the ride, because it can become integrated into the genome of the new cell after infection. Transduction has been widely applied in biotechnology.

Initiation of translation

Translation has three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation occurs when the mRNA sequence binds to the small ribosomal subunit, either at a region in the 5' untranslated region known as the Shine-Dalgarno sequence (in prokaryotes) or to the 5' cap in eukaryotes. The first tRNA is known as the initiator tRNA, and it binds to the start codon (AUG). The initial amino acid is methionine in eukaryotes, but N-formylmethionine in prokaryotes. Once this happens, initiation factors facilitate the binding of the small ribosomal subunit to the large ribosomal subunit, forming the initiation complex.

Translation steps

Translation has three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation occurs when the mRNA sequence binds to the small ribosomal subunit, either at a region in the 5' untranslated region known as the Shine-Dalgarno sequence (in prokaryotes) or to the 5' cap in eukaryotes. The first tRNA is known as the initiator tRNA, and it binds to the start codon (AUG). The initial amino acid is methionine in eukaryotes, but N-formylmethionine in prokaryotes. Once this happens, initiation factors facilitate the binding of the small ribosomal subunit to the large ribosomal subunit, forming the initiation complex.

Process of translation

Translation is the process in which an mRNA sequence is translated into a protein, with each codon corresponding to an amino acid. Transfer RNA, or tRNA, is a relatively small RNA molecule characterized by a hairpin structure that is responsible for "translating" between codons and amino acids. The other structure needed for translation is the ribosome, which is primarily made up of ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomes contain multiple rRNA strands with associated proteins, and have two major components: the large subunit (50S in prokaryotes and 60S in eukaryotes) and the small subunit (30S in prokaryotes, 40S in eukaryotes), with overall sizes of 70S for the prokaryotic ribosome and 80S for the eukaryotic ribosome. The large subunit catalyzes the formation of the polypeptide chain, while the small unit reads the RNA.

Transmembrane proteins

Transmembrane proteins are an important class of plasma membrane-spanning proteins with (1) a hydrophilic cytosolic domain that interacts with the interior of the cell; (2) a hydrophobic membrane-spanning domain that anchors the protein to the cell membrane; and (3) a hydrophilic extracellular domain that interacts with the extracellular environment. Well-known examples include proton pumps, ion channels, and G protein-coupled receptors. Due to the lipid bilayer structure of the plasma membrane, the hydrophobic membrane-spanning domains tend to be richer in hydrophobic amino acid residues, whereas the intracellular/extracellular domains tend to be richer in hydrophilic residues, because they face aqueous environments.

Triacylglycerols

Triacylglycerols are neutral storage lipids. They consist of three fatty acids ester-linked to a single glycerol.

Tubulin

Tubulin is a globular protein that is assembled to form microtubules

Uncompetitive inhibition

Uncompetitive inhibition is when the inhibitor binds to only the enzyme-substrate complex, and inactivates it. This causes the number of active enzyme-substrate complexes to decrease, thereby decreasing Vmax. Km also decreases to exactly the same degree as Vmax. Since both kinetic factors decrease to the same extent, the slope of the Lineweaver-Burk plot of enzyme activity will be the same as for the uninhibited enzyme. The effects of an uncompetitive inhibitor cannot be overcome by increasing substrate concentration.

Uncompetitive inhibition basics

Uncompetitive inhibition is when the inhibitor binds to only the enzyme-substrate complex, and inactivates it. This causes the number of active enzyme-substrate complexes to decrease, thereby decreasing Vmax. Km also decreases to exactly the same degree as Vmax. Since both kinetic factors decrease to the same extent, the slope of the Lineweaver-Burk plot of enzyme activity will be the same as for the uninhibited enzyme. The effects of an uncompetitive inhibitor cannot be overcome by increasing substrate concentration.

RNA basics

Unlike DNA, RNA tends to exist in single-stranded form, rather than as a double-stranded double helix. Additionally, the sugar in RNA is ribose, which contains a hydroxyl (-OH) group on its 2′ carbon. (DNA contains deoxyribose, which lacks this 2′ hydroxyl group.) In addition to mRNA, which codes for protein production, several forms of non-coding RNA exist. These include transfer RNA (tRNA), which assists in translation, and small interfering RNA (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA). siRNA and miRNA differ in their structure: miRNA strands are single-nucleotide strands incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop, while siRNA molecules are short and double-stranded. Both tend to be approximately 22 nucleotides in length, and both silence genes by interrupting expression between transcription and translation.

RNA structure and types

Unlike DNA, RNA tends to exist in single-stranded form, rather than as a double-stranded double helix. Additionally, the sugar in RNA is ribose, which contains a hydroxyl (-OH) group on its 2′ carbon. (DNA contains deoxyribose, which lacks this 2′ hydroxyl group.) In addition to mRNA, which codes for protein production, several forms of non-coding RNA exist. These include transfer RNA (tRNA), which assists in translation, and small interfering RNA (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA). siRNA and miRNA differ in their structure: miRNA strands are single-nucleotide strands incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop, while siRNA molecules are short and double-stranded. Both tend to be approximately 22 nucleotides in length, and both silence genes by interrupting expression between transcription and translation.

IR spectroscopy vs UV

Unlike UV-Vis spectroscopy, which use larger energy absorbance from electronic transitions, IR spectroscopy relies on the much smaller energy absorbance that occurs between various vibrational and rotational states. Only molecules that undergo a net change in the dipole moment during vibrational and rotational motion can absorb IR radiation. Diatomic molecules (e.g. O2, N2, and Br2) do not return IR signals because no net change in the dipole moment occurs.

Unsaturated fatty acids

Unsaturated fatty acids have unknown double bonds making natural kinks in the entire backbone of the lipid, therefore increasing membrane fluidity and decreasing melting point. Cholesterol insertion into a membrane is known to lower melting point and increasing membrane fluidity. These fats help reduce the risk of high blood cholesterol levels and have other health benefits when they replace saturated fats in the diet. Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature, unlike saturated fats that are solid at room temperature

Upcoupling agents

Upcoupling agents are usually recognized by the fact that they disrupt mitochondrial function and ATP production while actualy increasing oxygen consumption

Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation

Vasoconstriction, the narrowing of a vessel, restricts blood flow to an organ and can increase blood pressure, whereas vasodilation has the opposite effect. Increased vasoconstriction is important in maintaining blood pressure during a hemorrhage. Vasodilation increases blood flow to both the muscle during exercise and the skin during blushing.

Valve in veins

Veins, in contrast, carry low-pressure blood and therefore have much thinner walls. However, they have an interesting anatomical quirk of their own, due to the fact that they need to get blood back to the heart without the heart being able to provide a push. This is especially difficult in the lower limbs, where the veins must counteract the downward-pulling effects of gravity. This problem is solved by the presence of valves that allow blood to flow in only one direction.

Integrase

Viral integrase is involved in inserting the viral DNA sequence into the host genome

Types of viruses

Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, which means that they must hijack host cells to replicate. The genetic material of viruses can be in the form of either single-stranded or double-stranded DNA or RNA. Single-stranded RNA viruses are further subdivided into positive-sense and negative-sense viruses. Positive-sense RNA viruses contain mRNA that can immediately be translated by the cell. In contrast, negative-sense RNA viruses contain RNA that is complementary to mRNA, meaning that mRNA must be synthesized by an enzyme known as RNA replicase that is carried in the virion.

Vitamin C

Vitamin C acts as a cofactor in collagen synthesis. It is required for the hydroxylation of the collagen precursor, procollagen, a step needed for the later formation of the collagen triple helix structure. A deficiency of Vitamin C can result in impaired collagen synthesis and the development of the disease known as scurvy.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D aids in the absorption of calcium in the intestines

Vitamin D basics

Vitamin D plays a crucial role in the regulation of serum calcium and phosphate levels. Vitamin D exists in multiple forms, not all of which are relevant for calcium regulation. Cholecalciferol is the inactive form of vitamin D3, which is processed to form calcitriol, the biologically active form that affects calcium and phosphate levels. Calcitriol has a similar function to PTH in that it increases serum calcium levels, but it does so primarily through a different mechanism: it promotes the absorption of Ca2+ from the gastrointestinal tract.

Transesterification reaction and methanol

Water hinders esterification reactions by bonding to the carbonyl where the alcohol should. A dehydrated alcohol will purely bond to carbonyls to perform esterification without water. Among alcohol only methanol can be used efficiently

Km/Vmx

What is the slope of a line weaver burke plot?

Pupil constriction/dilation

When a bright light is incident on the human eye, the pupil will constrict to reduce the amount of light entering the eye. Under dim conditions, the pupil will relax to allow in more light

ADH amd dehydration

When a person becomes dehydrated, the brain secretes antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which increases water reabsorption at the collecting ducts. Reabsorption occurs through pores (aquaporin proteins) that are opened up in the collecting ducts, allowing water to pass into the medulla. As a result, there will be more water in the medulla. A more dilute medulla shifts the equilibrium between the filtrate in the ascending limb and the medulla, driving more ions out of the ascending limb (Note: recall that the ascending limb is impermeable to water, but highly permeable to ions). This increased removal of ions decreases the osmolarity of the filtrate in the ascending limb

Restriction Enzyme process

When a restriction enzyme cleaves a DNA sequence vertically across the recognition site, the resulting fragments have "blunt" ends, whereas "sticky" ends result from restriction enzymes that cleave a DNA sequence in a zig-zag fashion. Restriction enzymes can cleave DNA either within the recognition site or at some distance from it. This generates fragments that can be "tied" back together by DNA ligase without necessarily respecting the original location of the sequences. In other words, if you put a sequence of human DNA and a sequence of pig DNA in a Petri dish, digest the sequences with a restriction enzyme, and then treat the fragments with DNA ligase, you will get sequences of human + human DNA, pig + pig DNA, and human + pig DNA. This process is known as recombination.

Restriction endonuclease

When a restriction enzyme cleaves a DNA sequence vertically across the recognition site, the resulting fragments have "blunt" ends, whereas "sticky" ends result from restriction enzymes that cleave a DNA sequence in a zig-zag fashion. Restriction enzymes can cleave DNA either within the recognition site or at some distance from it. This generates fragments that can be "tied" back together by DNA ligase without necessarily respecting the original location of the sequences. In other words, if you put a sequence of human DNA and a sequence of pig DNA in a Petri dish, digest the sequences with a restriction enzyme, and then treat the fragments with DNA ligase, you will get sequences of human + human DNA, pig + pig DNA, and human + pig DNA. This process is known as recombination.

Buoyant Force

When an object floats in a fluid, that fluid exerts an upward force on the object known as the buoyant force. For an object to float, the magnitude of the buoyant force must exceed the weight of the object. The magnitude of the buoyant force can be expressed as Fb = ρliquidVliquidg. The fact that the buoyant force is directly proportional to the volume of the liquid is known as Archimedes' principle.

Degree of unsaturation

When counting degrees of unsaturation, one must count all double bonds and rings in a structure. Any triple bonds will count as two degress of unsturation

Reinforcement and Punishment

When describing punishment and reward (reinforcement), when a stimulus is added (i.e. the addition of unpleasant spanking) it is referred to as positive. The nature of the stimulus added can be either pleasant (reinforcing) or unpleasant (punishing). Conversely, anytime a stimulus is removed it is considered negative (i.e., removal of unpleasant spanking). Removal of something pleasurable is negative punishment, and removal of something aversive is negative reinforcement. It is also helpful to consider the effect on behavior. Reinforcers increase the frequency of the behavior, while punishers decrease the frequency of the behavior.

Glycogen basics

When glucose levels are sufficient or in excess, glycogen synthesis is upregulated by shunting glucose 6-phosphate from glycolysis through the enzyme glycogen synthase. If glucose levels are low or energy demands are high, glycogen synthase is downregulated, and glycogen is increasingly broken down by de-branching enzymes and glycogen phosphorylase, generating glucose 6-phosphate monomers that can be used in glycolysis. In the liver, glucose 6-phosphate is dephosphorylated by glucose 6-phosphatase and then released into the circulation. However, muscle cells use glycogen for their own energy needs, so glucose 6-phosphate is usually funneled straight into glycolysis in muscle.

lac operon

When lactose is present, it binds the lac repressor, causing the repressor to dissociate from the lac operon, and thereby allowing transcription of the proteins required to metabolize lactose

Within-subjects measurement

When multiple measurements are taken from the same participants over a period of time, we call this a within-subjects (or repeated measures) design. With this type of design, each subject essentially serves as his/her own control which can dramatically reduce variability in measurement and increase the power of a statistical test.

Retreatism

When people both reject the culturally valued goals of a society and the legitimate means of attaining them and live their lives in a way that evades participation in both, they can be described as retreating from society.

Action potential

When the plasma membrane is at its resting potential, the voltage-gated K+ channels and the voltage-gated Na+ channels are closed. As triggering events bring the membrane up to its threshold potential, the voltage-gated Na+ channels open and cause further depolarization of the membrane by allowing Na+ to flow into the cell. The voltage-gated K+ channels are closed during the depolarization phase of an action potential. After the membrane reaches its peak potential, the voltage-gated K+ channels open, allowing K+ to flow out of the cell and repolarize the membrane by returning the membrane to near its resting potential. During the repolarization stage of the action potential, the voltage-gated Na+ channels are closed.

Heat and vasodilation

When vasodilation occurs, the walls of blood vessels relax, allowing more blood to enter the area. The presence of increased blood within dilated vasculature in cutaneous tissue allows heat to escape from the surface of the body into the environment

Sense strand and HIV

Whenever a question asks about the strand that encoded the mRNA, the coding strand has the exact same sequence as the mRNA, except you swap out the Us in the mRNA with Ts since the coding strand is DNA. However, the question asked for the original genetic viral code. Since HIV is a retrovirus, this means that it's genome is based off of RNA. So, the coding strand still has the exact same sequence as the mRNA. However, since HIV's genome is RNA-based, we don't swap out the Us, we keep them. Also, I believe negative-sense RNA viruses are never reverse transcription viruses. With a negative-sense RNA virus, you HAVE TO synthesize the positive sense strand first with an RNA-Dependent RNA Pol.

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

Mediating variable

a variable that helps explain the relationship between two other variables

Dichotic listening

presenting two different auditory messages, one to each ear.

parietal lobe

primary somatosensory cortex

Sensory interaction

sensory interaction is the idea that one sensory modality (e.g., vision) may influence another (e.g., balance)

Mental set (rigidity)

tendency for people to fall into established thought patterns or ways of solving problems. Using methods that worked in the past. Older people may drive to the library and spend 45 mins. to look up information that could have been googled on the internet)

Emotion the James-Lange theory

the James-Lange theory, hypothesized that a stimulus triggers a physiological response, which then leads to the subjective, conscious experience of emotion. For example, if you are watching a scary movie, your heart rate may become elevated, and that leads to the perception of fear. However, this theory is limited, since certain physiological states may be experienced as different emotions depending on context (such as either fear or excitement).

Schachter-Singer theory of emotion

the Schachter-Singer theory, thus stated that a stimulus first leads to physiological arousal, then a cognitive interpretation of the circumstances, and finally a perception of emotion. This resembles the James-Lange theory, but adds the element of cognitive appraisal, which helps explain how (for example) an elevated breathing rate can be interpreted as multiple different emotions based on context.

culture of poverty

the assumption that the values and behaviors of the poor make them fundamentally different from other people, that these factors are largely responsible for their poverty, and that parents perpetuate poverty across generations by passing these characteristics to their children

Overconfidence bias

the bias in which people's subjective confidence in their decision making is greater than their objective accuracy

institutional discrimination

the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society It is rarely a conscious, explicit effect

Racilization

the formation of a new racial identity by drawing ideological boundaries of difference around a formerly unnoticed group of people

negative afterimage

the image seen after a portion of the retina is exposed to an intense visual stimulus; consists of colors complementary to those of the physical stimulus

Glass ceiling

the mostly invisible barrier that keeps women from advancing to the top levels at work

optic disk and nerve

the optic nerve leaves the eye at the optic disk

Glass escalator effect

the tendency for men seeking or working in traditionally female occupations to benefit from their minority status

Opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

Expectancy Theory

the theory that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards

Attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

Half-life (t1/2)

the time it takes for half of all the radioactive nuclei to decay into their daughter nuclei.

Primary aging

the universal and irreversible physical changes that occur to all living creatures as they grow older

Social identity theory

theory in which the formation of a person's identity within a particular social group is explained by social categorization, social identity, and social comparison

control theory

theory that compliance with social norms requires strong bonds between individuals and society

primary drives

those drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst. It is biological in nature

Example of positive feedback

when a blood vessel is damaged (by a cut, for example), platelets adhere to the site of the injury to begin plugging the laceration. These platelets release clotting factors that attract more platelets to the site, and these release more factors, which attract even more platelets. The result is the ability to rapidly form clots and stem bleeding. Note that processes must exist to end positive loops, as they otherwise might continue in an ever-increasing fashion.

split-brain patient's visual field

when a stimulus is presented to the left half of a split-brain patient's visual field, the information will be sent out to the right hemisphere. The right hemisphere of a split-brain patient has no access to the left hemisphere, where linguistic abilities are lateralized. Thus, presenting the target colors to the left half of a split-brain patient's visual field would allow the researchers to determine whether categorical perception occurs even in absence of linguistic information.

Validity

when two independent measures of the same variable converge, it supports the validity of both measures

Liver Functions

(1) detoxifying compounds, either absorbed from the external environment or produced by metabolic processes, (2) metabolizing medications and drugs, (3) storing excess carbohydrates as glycogen or excess fatty acids as triglycerides, and (4) mobilizing lipids into circulation in the form of lipoproteins and breaking down glycogen to release more glucose if necessary. The liver also produces bile, which is then transferred to and stored in the gall bladder, from which it is released into the small intestine. The liver is also noteworthy because it is the main site of gluconeogenesis in the body, and it also possesses a remarkable ability to regenerate after being damaged.

Reduction

(1) gain of an electron, (2) decreased oxidation state, (3) formation of a C-H bond (e.g. alkene → alkane), and (4) loss of a C-O or C-N bond (or any bond between carbon and an electronegative atom).

Oxidation

(1) loss of an electron, (2) increased oxidation state, (3) loss of a C-H bond (e.g. alkane → alkene), and (4) gain of a C-O or C-N bond (or any bond between carbon and a highly electronegative atom).

Dicothomy

(n.) Split; branching into two parts (especially contradictory ones) "Willie did not know how to resolve the dichotomy between his ambition to go to college and his childhood longing to run away and join the circus."

glycosylase

Enzyme to nucleotide hydrolysis

Ependymal Cells

Ependymal cells produce cerebrospinal fluid.

Dichotomous variables

Dichotomous variables only have two categories. Since the question was posed in a way that required one of two responses, it is a dichotomous variable.

Social mobility

Social mobility is the movement of groups or individuals between different social class positions.

Shapes of bacteria

Although bacteria do have specific genus and species names, they are commonly described in terms of their shape. Spherical bacteria are known as cocci, rod-shaped bacteria are called bacilli, and spiral-shaped bacteria are known as spirilli.

Muscle hypertrophy

After you exercise, your body repairs or replaces damaged muscle fibers by fusing muscle fibers together to form new muscle protein strands (myofibrils). These repaired myofibrils increase in thickness and number to create muscle hypertrophy. These larger muscles require additional blood vessels.

Ageism

Ageism refers to prejudice or discrimination based on age, and it's a two-way street: a young person may be considered inadequate for a job opening even if they have the skills necessary, while older employees can sometimes be considered to be frail, weak, and less intelligent. Considering the growing age gap, ageism may become more common and prevalent.

Agreeableness

Agreeableness is a personality trait characterized by a person who is warm, willing, cooperative, and sympathetic.

Aldesterone

Aldosterone is a hormone released by the adrenal glands. Physiologically normal kidneys respond to aldosterone by increasing the reabsorption of both sodium and water. This leads to an increase in blood volume and therefore blood pressure

Steroid hormones

All steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol, which means they share a four-ring lipid structure and are permeable to the cell membrane. Since steroid hormones are hydrophobic, they are typically transported throughout the body using plasma proteins in the blood. Steroid hormones are synthesized by the adrenal cortex and the gonads, in the mitochondria and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Because they are lipophilic (i.e., hydrophobic), they cannot be stored in vesicles (since they would diffuse out easily), and are only synthesized when needed as precursors.

Allport Three traits theory

Allport outlined three basic types of traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are those around which people organize their entire lives. For example, Steve Jobs' lifelong passion for bringing creativity and technology together fueled his life's work at Apple and Pixar. In contrast, central traits are defining characteristics of a person that can be easily inferred from that person's behavior. Central traits of Steve Jobs might be that he was short-tempered or brutally honest. Finally, secondary traits are those that only occur sometimes, particularly when a person is in a certain social situation. To continue the same example, Steve Jobs' secondary traits might include a tendency for showmanship when he was talking about an Apple product onstage.

Asperger's syndrome

Asperger's Syndrome is a form of autism along the autism spectrum disorder (Note: Until the DSM-V it was a separate diagnosis from Autism). Asperger's is generally considered to be the least severe or "highest-functioning" form of autism.

Assimilation/Separation/Marginalization/Integration

Assimilation is a strategy in which the individual seeks to interact with the new culture and reject the native culture. Separation is rejecting the new culture and maintaining the native culture. Marginalization involves the rejection of both cultures. Integration involves identifying with both cultures.

Asters

Asters are radial microtubule arrays found in animal cells. These star-shaped structures form around each pair of centrioles during mitosis. Asters help to manipulate chromosomes during cell division to ensure that each daughter cell has the appropriate complement of chromosomes.

Astrocytes

Astrocytes are star-shaped cells found only in the central nervous system. The primary function of astrocytes is to maintain the proper chemical environment for action potential conduction and neuron signaling.

Astrocytes info

Astrocytes are star-shaped cells found only in the central nervous system. The primary function of astrocytes is to maintain the proper chemical environment for action potential conduction and neuron signaling.

What is astrocyte?

Astrocytes are star-shaped cells found only in the central nervous system. The primary function of astrocytes is to maintain the proper chemical environment for action potential conduction and neuron signaling.

Equilibrium and entropy

At equilibrium, ∆G = 0. With no free energy change, the system is unable to perform work. At equilibrium, there are no energy gradients within the isolated system, so energy is maximally dispersed, resulting in maximal entropy.

CO2 production in glycolysis

CO2 is a product of both anaerobic and aerobic respiration through glycolysis. Aerobically, 2 pyruvates and 2 molecules of CO2 will be generated, whereas aerobically, 2 molecules of methanol and two molecules of CO2 will be generated.

Cadherins

Cadherins are transmembrane proteins which play a primary role in cell-to-cell adhesion (remember that C stands for cell-to-cell), forming adherens junctions to bind cells within tissues together. They would not play a role in the cell-to-extracellular matrix interactions required to bind the macrophages to collagen or fibronectin.

Most common psychoactive drugs

Caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine are the most common psychoactive drugs used in the United States

Roles of calcium in human

Calcium plays a key role in multiple physiological functions, most notably in bones, neurotransmitter release, muscle contractions, and as a second messenger within the cell. The body must maintain serum Ca2+ levels within very tight ranges, and the primary hormones that do so are parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin.

Deindividuation basics

Deindividuation describes how people lose their sense of self-awareness in a large group setting, which provides a high degree of arousal and a low sense of responsibility. The main factors that contribute to deindividuation are anonymity, diffused responsibility, and group size.

Deindividuation

Deindividuation is a process by which individuals lose their sense of self when they are in groups

Mob mentality

Deindividuation is the tendency for people to abdicate self-awareness and responsibility in large anonymous groups, aka a

Delirium tremens

Delirium tremens is an acute episode of delirium that is usually caused by withdrawal from alcohol.

Dendrites and axons

Dendrites, which have tree-like branching structures, gather information and relay it to each neuron's cell body. Axons are long, thin structures that carry the action potential away from the neuron's cell body toward other neurons or target tissues (muscle, gland, organ), with which the neuron connects via structures called synapses.

Dendritic cell

Dendritic cell is a antigen presenting cell

Density of water

Density (ρ), defined as mass divided by volume (ρ = m/v), is a property of all matter. Its SI units are kg/m3, although you will also often encounter g/mL and g/cm3 (which are equivalent to each other). The density of water at 4°C and 1 atm is 1000 kg/m3, or 1 g/cm3.

Depressive realism

Depressive realism, refers to the hypothesis that depressed individuals make more realistic inferences than do non-depressed individuals.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

Depressive symptoms must persist for a minimum of 2 weeks for a diagnosis of major depressive disorder

Depth of processing

Depth of processing refers to the type of attention applied to words during encoding.

chemosensory receptors

Detect chemicals from outside the body

Sliding filament model

During contraction, the actin and myosin filaments slide past each other through what is known as a cross-bridge cycle, in which a cross-bridge is formed between myosin and actin, and a power stroke provides the force of contraction. Immediately after a power stroke, myosin and actin are bound together, and the cycle begins again. ATP binds to the myosin head, causing a conformational change that releases it from actin. Then, a protein called tropomyosin moves back into place to block strong interactions between actin and myosin. The ATP molecule is then hydrolyzed. This is a strongly exergonic reaction and is used to move the myosin head into the "cocked position," where it can interact weakly with actin. Tropomyosin is ultimately removed by Ca2+ through a somewhat complex mechanism. At this point, the myosin head can bind tightly to actin. The power stroke then occurs via a conformational change that happens when Pi is released, resulting in a force of about 2 pN. ADP is then released and actin and myosin are essentially stuck together until another ATP binds to myosin so that the process can start again.

Translation elongation

During elongation, the ribosome reads the mRNA in the 5' to 3' direction and synthesizes a polypeptide from its N terminus to its C terminus, which is one of the reasons why amino acid sequences are traditionally written in the N-to-C order. Proteins known as elongation factors help move this process along. Three main binding sites are involved in elongation. The A site contains the next aminoacyl-tRNA complex, and at the P site a peptide bond is formed between the growing polypeptide chain and the incoming amino acid. The tRNA, which is now no longer "charged" with an attached amino acid, briefly pauses at the E site and detaches from the mRNA. After all of the charged tRNA sequences have been translated, translation is terminated.

Phase 2 of membrane potential

During phase 2 of the action potential, the membrane potential is held constant by Ca2+ ions entering the cell while K+ ions leave it.

Lab technique

ElISA - affinity chromatography where the substrate/antigen is specific to enzyme/antibody. PCR - makes bunch of copies of DNA using primer -- stands for "polymerase chain reaction" -- so from that you can kinda guess i guess...amplifies copies DNA sequencing - basically amplify DNA and add ddNTP so it can't elongate when you PCR it -- fluorescence that shit and run it in gel electrophoresis and it'll separate based on the sizes of the strands and computer will sequence the DNA for you Vectors/Plasmid - you should know this from bacteria and viruses. Plasmids are basically circular DNA that bacteria carry and they can replicate independently of the main DNA. Bacteria pass these between each other via conjugation -- responsible for antibiotic resistance as well Isoelectric focusing - isoelectric point - you should know the pI of the amino acids at neutral pH and based on that they will go towrads the cathode or anode. Cathode is negative end and Anode is positive end. SDS Page - separates based on molecular size - no charge Native SDS Page - disulfide bonds will be linked....you can have reduced sds page where disulfide will be disturbed

Elaborative rehearsal

Elaborative rehearsal is the attempt to organize the information into a pattern that is more meaningful (i.e., semantic), which increases the strength of the memory trace.

Electron donating and withdrawing groups

Electronegative atoms (F,Cl,Br,I,COOH,NO2,etc.) attached to the molecule pull more of the blanket toward themselves and make it easier for the proton to leave, thus making it more acidic. Electron donating groups (O, OH, NH2, etc.) push the blanket more towards the rest of the molecule and make the bond between the molecule and its acidic proton stronger, thus making it less acidic.

Elongation of translation

Elongation is the next step. During elongation, the ribosome reads the mRNA in the 5' to 3' direction and synthesizes a polypeptide from its N terminus to its C terminus, which is one of the reasons why amino acid sequences are traditionally written in the N-to-C order. Proteins known as elongation factors help move this process along. Three main binding sites are involved in elongation. The A site contains the next aminoacyl-tRNA complex, and at the P site a peptide bond is formed between the growing polypeptide chain and the incoming amino acid. The tRNA, which is now no longer "charged" with an attached amino acid, briefly pauses at the E site and detaches from the mRNA. After all of the charged tRNA sequences have been translated, translation is terminated.

What is emotions?

Emotion refers to a person's instinctive, current state of mind, based upon mood, circumstances, and interactions with others. Emotion often influences problem-solving, decision-making, and social interaction. The three components of emotion are behavioral (action), which includes body language and facial expression, cognitive (mind), or the brain's subjective interpretation of the feeling, and physiological (body), which includes changes in heart rate, respiration, and so on, often stemming from arousal of the sympathetic nervous system.

Emotion and central concern

Emotional arousal seems to focus a person's attention on the central features of an event.

Evolutionary importance of emotions

Emotions play a critical role in survival, such as by perceiving threats and registering fear. The limbic system plays a key role in human emotion.

Enantiomers

Enantiomers have identical chemical and physical properties, but they differ in their rotation of plane-polarized light (opposite directions) as well as the products they yield when reacted with another chiral reagent. If the isomers have multiple chiral centers but differ only at some, they are known as diastereomers

Enantiomers vs. Diastereomers

Enantiomers have identical chemical and physical properties, but they differ in their rotation of plane-polarized light (opposite directions) as well as the products they yield when reacted with another chiral reagent. If the isomers have multiple chiral centers but differ only at some, they are known as diastereomers. Since diastereomers have very similar chemical, but less similar physical properties,

Endonuclease

Endonucleases are more commonly encountered on the MCAT, and often appear within the context of restriction endonucleases, or restriction enzymes, which are enzymes used extensively in recombinant DNA technologies. In nature, endonucleases occur in prokaryotes and archaea, where they act as a defense system against invading viruses by cleaving DNA in response to specific recognition sites, corresponding to sequences of 4 to 8 bases.

Expressivity info

Expressivity refers to the intensity or extent of variation in the phenotype. Another way of thinking about this is that penetrance is a yes/no question (does an organism express a certain phenotype or not?), while expressivity is a shades-of-gray question (how much of an effect does a mutation have on the phenotype?). The role of environmental factors in shaping penetrance and expressivity, especially for polygenic features such as obesity and intelligence,

Expressivity vs. penetrance

Expressivity, in contrast, refers to the intensity or extent of variation in the phenotype. Another way of thinking about this is that penetrance is a yes/no question (does an organism express a certain phenotype or not?), while expressivity is a shades-of-gray question (how much of an effect does a mutation have on the phenotype?). The role of environmental factors in shaping penetrance and expressivity, especially for polygenic features such as obesity and intelligence, has led scientists to conduct twin and sibling studies to attempt to disentangle the contributions of "nature" and "nurture."

What is expressivity?

Expressivity, in contrast, refers to the intensity or extent of variation in the phenotype. Another way of thinking about this is that penetrance is a yes/no question (does an organism express a certain phenotype or not?), while expressivity is a shades-of-gray question (how much of an effect does a mutation have on the phenotype?). The role of environmental factors in shaping penetrance and expressivity, especially for polygenic features such as obesity and intelligence, has led scientists to conduct twin and sibling studies to attempt to disentangle the contributions of "nature" and "nurture."

Extractions

Extractions are a technique used to separate two or more compounds in solution by manipulating their solubility properties using acid-base chemistry. Typically, an extraction setup will have a layer of a less-dense organic (i.e. nonpolar) solvent on top of a layer of water, which is a highly polar compound. Nonpolar compounds in solution will move to the organic layer, while polar (or charged) compounds will be in the aqueous layer.

Function of FSH

FSH is able to promote and maintain spermatogenesis.

Face validity

Face validity describes the extent to which a study appears to assess what it is intended to assess—that is, more or less, the degree to which it "seems right" to participants and researchers.

Situational attribution

Factors outside the person doing the action, such as peer pressure. Use external factors to explain the cause

social control theory

a theory of delinquency that links deviance with the absence of bonds to society's main institutions

G proteins

G proteins are known as heterotrimers, because they are composed of three distinct α, β, and γ subunits. When bound to GDP, G proteins are inactive, but they become activated by binding to GTP. An intracellular component of the G protein receptor facilitates the exchange of a molecule of GDP for GTP at the α-subunit of the G protein. Once this takes place, the α-subunit together with the bound GTP dissociates from the β and γ subunits

Gambler's fallacy

Gambler's fallacy is the erroneous belief that future probabilities are affected by past events

Cell cycles checkpoints

Gap 1 (G1), synthesis (S), and Gap 2 (G2). During G1 and G2, the cell grows, and during S, DNA is replicated. The fact that S is located between G1 and G2 allows checkpoints. The G1/S checkpoint, also known as the restriction point, is when a cell commits to division. The presence of DNA damage or other external factors can cause a cell to fail this checkpoint and not divide. The G2 checkpoint that takes place before cell division similarly checks for DNA damage after DNA replication, and if damage is detected, serves to "pause" cell division until the damage is repaired. Throughout interphase, chromatin is loosely packaged (euchromatin) to allow transcription and replication.

Gap junctions and connexin

Gap junctions are formed by connexin proteins, which connect cells in a way such that diffusion can take place between them, enabling communication, without involving direct contact between the cytoplasmic fluids of each cell. Gap junctions are relatively less common, but they play certain crucial roles within the body. The most important example for the MCAT is in cardiac muscle, where gap junctions allow cells to contract at the same time.

Gas chromatography

Gas chromatography is only useful if the molecules involved were both liquid and had significant differences in boiling point.

Gender conditioning

Gender conditioning is a means by which, in part, gender roles are established. This social conditioning stems from societal reinforcements and punishments of gender-related behaviors.

Gender Schema

Gender schema is a cognitive theory of how individuals acquire and understand elements of gender and sex-linked characteristics from their surrounding culture and how those characteristics are transmitted inter-generationally.

Gender schema

Gender schema is a cognitive theory of how individuals acquire and understand elements of gender and sex-linked characteristics from their surrounding culture and how those characteristics are transmitted inter-generationally.

Euaryotic gene expression

Gene expression can also be regulated on the level of nucleosomes (i.e. chromatin and histones). Acetylation promotes transcription by attaching acetyl groups to lysine residues on histones, making them less positively-charged and causing a looser wrapping pattern that allows transcription factors to access the genome more easily.

Gene Expression in EUK

Gene expression can also be regulated on the level of nucleosomes (i.e. chromatin and histones). Acetylation promotes transcription by attaching acetyl groups to lysine residues on histones, making them less positively-charged and causing a looser wrapping pattern that allows transcription factors to access the genome more easily.

Gene expression and methylation

Gene expression can also be regulated on the level of nucleosomes (i.e. chromatin and histones). Acetylation promotes transcription by attaching acetyl groups to lysine residues on histones, making them less positively-charged and causing a looser wrapping pattern that allows transcription factors to access the genome more easily.

Gene expression and nucleosomes

Gene expression can also be regulated on the level of nucleosomes (i.e. chromatin and histones). Acetylation promotes transcription by attaching acetyl groups to lysine residues on histones, making them less positively-charged and causing a looser wrapping pattern that allows transcription factors to access the genome more easily.

Gene expression nucleosomes

Gene expression can also be regulated on the level of nucleosomes (i.e. chromatin and histones). Acetylation promotes transcription by attaching acetyl groups to lysine residues on histones, making them less positively-charged and causing a looser wrapping pattern that allows transcription factors to access the genome more easily.

General paresis

General paresis, also known as general paralysis of the insane or paralytic dementia, is a neuropsychiatric disorder affecting the brain, caused by late-stage syphilis

Generativity vs. stagnation

Generativity vs. stagnation is a basic conflict that occurs during middle adulthood (ages 40-65), when individuals are trying to balance employment and being parents. Intimacy vs. isolation occurs during young adulthood (19-40 years), when individuals need to form intimate relationships with other people. Identity vs. role confusion occurs during adolescence (12 to 18 years), when teens are trying to develop social relationships with others and find a sense of self or personal identity.

Genetic drift and founder effect

Genetic drift refers to changes in the composition of the gene pool due to chance. Genetic drift tends to be more pronounced in small populations. The founder effect is a more extreme case of genetic drift in which a small population of a species finds itself in reproductive isolation from other populations as a result of natural barriers, catastrophic events, or other bottlenecks that drastically and suddenly reduce the size of the population available for breeding

Michalis menton experiment and enzyme concentration

In a michalis menton experiment enzyme concentration is constant. Furthermore, you don't need a lot of enzyme to perform these experiments. Look at the Kcat number, enzymes can convert 1000's of substrate to product in seconds. It would make sense that in an experiment to measure the Vmax you would want lots more substrate, if you had similar amounts of enzyme it processes substrate so fast your results would be very limited.

Singe-slit diffraction

In a single-slit setup with an aperture of length A, the location of the mth minimum for light waves with wavelength λ in a single-slit setup with an aperture of length A is: Asinθ = mλ.

Types of RNA

In addition to mRNA, which codes for protein production, several forms of non-coding RNA exist. These include transfer RNA (tRNA), which assists in translation, and small interfering RNA (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA). siRNA and miRNA differ in their structure: miRNA strands are single-nucleotide strands incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop, while siRNA molecules are short and double-stranded. Both tend to be approximately 22 nucleotides in length, and both silence genes by interrupting expression between transcription and translation.

Alpha, beta, gamma decay

In alpha decay, an alpha particle, containing two protons, two neutrons, and a +2 charge, is emitted. In beta-minus decay, a neutron is converted into a proton in the nucleus, and a β− particle (an electron) is ejected to maintain charge balance. In beta-plus decay, a proton is converted into a neutron, and a β+ particle (a positron) is emitted to preserve charge. Gamma decay involves the emission of a gamma ray, which is a high-energy photon, from an excited nucleus. Finally, in electron capture, a nucleus "grabs" an electron, which changes a proton into a neutron.

SN1 vs SN2

In an SN1 reaction, the transition state of the slow step consists of a molecule bearing a positive charge, the carbocation. A polar, protic solvent stabilizes this carbocation, and therefore stabilizes the transition state. Stabilizing the transition state for a given reaction lowers the activation energy and allows for the reaction to progress at a faster rate. In a SN2 reaction however, the nucleophile tends to have a dipole or carries a negative charge. By the same logic used in SN1 reactions, a polar protic solvent will stabilize a molecule bearing a charge or dipole, in this case the nucleophile. For an SN2 reaction that is unfavorable because a more stable reactant increases the energy of activation.

Confounding variable

In an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect When there are differences between groups that could serve as confounding variables, this problem is best solved by utilizing controls that are matched for these differences...

Cardiac muscle

In an individual cardiac myocyte, action potentials are generated by Na+, K+, and Ca2+ voltage-gated channels. Unlike skeletal muscle cells, cardiac myocytes undergo calcium-induced calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. After the initial depolarization of the cell by Na+ influx, Ca2+ voltage-gated channels are opened and allow Ca2+ to enter the cell, maintaining a depolarized state longer and inducing the release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Observational vs experimental study

In an observational study, we measure or survey members of a sample without trying to affect them. In a controlled experiment, we assign people or things to groups and apply some treatment to one of the groups, while the other group does not receive the treatment.

Dissociation constant

In biochemistry, the dissociation constant (Kd) is useful to quickly compare the binding affinities of enzymes to their substrates. The key is the word "dissociation." A low Kd value means that the ES complex does not readily dissociate into enzyme and substrate (in other words, it is relatively stable). The lower the Kd, the greater the enzyme-substrate binding affinity.

Amorphous solids

In contrast to crystalline solids, amorphous solids are solids that do not have a regular crystal structure. The classic example is glass, a solid typically composed of silica (SiO2).

Kreb's cycle

In eukaryotes, the citric acid cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix, while in aerobic prokaryotes it is carried out in the cytosol. Before entering the citric cycle, pyruvate (a three-carbon molecule) must be converted into acetyl-CoA, a molecule that consists of a short two-carbon chain (the "acetyl" group) connected to CoA. This takes place in the mitochondria, in a special area called the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC), and results in 1 NADH and 1 CO2.

MCAT radioactive scans

MRI scans use magnetic fields and radio waves to image parts of the brain while avoiding the dangers of bombarding the body with ionizing radiation such as X-rays. Functional MRI, or fMRI, trades spatial resolution for temporal resolution and allows scientists to map active parts of the brain. It does so by analyzing the differences in oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin concentration in parts of the brain. PET scans work by injecting the patient with a radioactive analogue of glucose, and then measuring the radioactive emissions from the body. Much like MRI and fMRI, PET scans work on the principle that more active areas of the brain will show increased metabolism, and thus increase their uptake of glucose. Such uptake can then be converted into a false-color "heat map" of the brain to show areas of increased or decreased activity. PET scans are also frequently used for imaging designed to detect cancer in any part of the body, due to the increased glucose flux through tumor cells. Finally, CT scans use X-rays, but unlike a typical single two-dimensional X-ray film, CT machines use computer processing to take many X-ray measurements from multiple different angles, generating images that can be used for diagnosis. CT scans can provide high-resolution images, but unlike fMRI, CT is not useful for imaging processes in progress.

Macrophages

Macrophages are most likely to aide healing by phgocytosis of cellular debris

Importance of saltatory conduction?

Maintaining a propagating action potential requires ions to enter and exit the axon, which cannot happen effectively in myelinated areas. For this reason, neurons contain gaps in the myelin sheath termed nodes of Ranvier. At these nodes, Na+ and K+ ions can cross the membrane when their respective voltage-gated membrane channels are open. The result is a signal that is strong and consistent, but that appears to move down the axon by jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next. This jump-like phenomenon is known as saltatory conduction.

Maltose reducing sugar

Maltose contains a (1→4) glycosidic bond, which means that the carbons involved are the C1 and C4 of the respective monosaccharides. The C1 is the anomeric carbon and a disaccharide that has a C1 carbon that is not involved in a glycosidic bond is said to have a hemiacetal end. This is the requirement to be a reducing sugar.

Marginal poverty

Marginal poverty is a type of poverty that happens when people are chronically unemployed or underemployed.

Mast Cells

Mast cells play a central role in allergic immune responses. In response to allergens, mast cells migrate to the site of infection where they proliferate and differentiate into mature MCs.

Mead me and I

Mead proposed two versions of the self: the "me" and the "I." The "me" is the attitudes, roles, meanings, pressures, and values of society and others around the individual that are organized into one's social self through role-taking. The "I" is the part of the self that can be identified with desires, freedom, and creativity. Essentially, the "me" is the social self and the "I" is one's response to the "me."

Mitosis stages

Mitosis takes place in four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Prophase prepares the cell for mitosis: the DNA condenses such that distinct chromosomes become visible, as sister chromatids (or copies of a given chromosome) join at a region known as the centromere. The kinetochore assembles on the centromere, and is the site where microtubule fibers that extend from the centrosome and form the mitotic spindle attach to pull the sister chromatids apart in later stages of mitosis. Other microtubules known as asters extend from the centrosome to anchor it to the cell membrane. Additionally, the nuclear envelope and the nucleolus disappear, and the mitotic spindle forms. In metaphase, the chromosomes line up at the middle of the cell along an imaginary line that is known as the metaphase plate. In anaphase, the sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite sides of the cell by shortening of the microtubules attached to the kinetochores. Telophase can be thought of as the opposite of prophase, as a new nuclear envelope appears around each set of chromosomes and a nucleolus reappears within each of those nuclei. The process of mitosis is completed by cytokinesis.

Mitosis

Mitosis: The individual cell starts out with 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes or 46 chromosomes - one copy from the mother and one copy from the father in each pair. Yes, during mitosis, each of the 46 chromosomes will duplicate, giving you 2 copies for each of the 46 chromosomes --> 92 total DNA molecules / sister chromatids. Now, the 46 chromosomes (each chromosome will have 2 sister chromatids) will line up at the metaphase plate and split. Each daughter cell will have 46 chromosomes (each chromosome will have no sister chromatids) or 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes. *Sister chromatids are used to refer to the identical copies of DNA formed during replication and are joined by a centromere.

Mixed-method research design

Mixed-method research design (a study where you use both qualitative and quantitative measures to conduct your study. One example would be using quantitative measures like how would you report your like for this product on a scale of 1 through 10, and then later following up with people who answered either negatively or poorly and asking them for their qualitative opinion.)

Moderating vs mediating variables

Moderating variables attenuate or strengthen a given relationship, and mediating variables provide an important logical link between an independent variable and a dependent variable, or outcome.

Thesis of Secularization

Modernity and religious influence

UV light and fluorescence

Molecules showing conjugation have a tendency to absorb ultraviolet (UV) light and emit lower-energy wavelengths of visible light through fluorescence. This means that they can easily be visualized using UV light. Conjugation is associated with alternating single and double bonds in carbon chains, and can be defined more technically as occurring when three or more adjacent p-orbitals are aligned with each other, forming not just a π bond, but a π system through which electrons are delocalized.

Mood disorders info

Mood disorders are characterized by the persistent, abnormal elevation and/or lowering of one's mood, which refers to a sustained, internal state of feeling or emotion. These conditions include bipolar disorders, which are marked by swings between extreme moods. These moods may include depression (a state of persistent sadness and lack of energy) and mania (a high-energy state marked by poor judgment, lack of sleep, and euphoria). Another mood disorder is major depressive disorder, which is characterized by at least one major depressive episode (a period of depression lasting at least two weeks).

Why more energy is needed for vaporization than melting?

More energy is needed to evaporate water to vapor than to melt ice to water because no hydrogen bonds exist in water vapor. Therefore, all hydrogen bonds need to be broken during evaporation, which requires energy. During melting, however, hydrogen bonds are rearranged but not eliminated. Consequently, more energy is needed for evaporation than melting, as shown in the above figure.

Mores

Mores (pronounced "more-ays") are informal norms that carry major importance for society and, if broken, can result in severe social sanctions. For example, imagine a young woman who is unmarried but decides to live with her boyfriend. Her parents are very religious and belong to a community in which only married couples are supposed to live together. In the parents' eyes, the daughter has broken a more, and the parents will levy sanctions accordingly.

Cis vs Trans Isomer

Most cis isomers are generally compact, whereas trans isomers are generally more linear. Cis isomers can rarely stack close to one another, preventing strong intermolecular interactions. By contrast, trans isomers are capable of stacking more closely and therefore experience greater intermolecular attractions, which contribute to higher boiling points.

Endoderm

Most of the epithelial tissues inside the body (Bronchi, bladder, and Stomach) are derived from endoderm. Most of the lining of the mouth is derived from an invagination of ectoderm.

Valence and arousal

Most theories of emotion recognize two dimensions or aspects of emotion: valence and arousal. In psychology, valence describes the inherent attractiveness or aversiveness of a stimulus, event or situation. Attractive stimuli are labeled as having a positive valence and aversive stimuli are labeled as having a negative valence. Therefore, the researchers were contrasting two extremes of emotional valence: anger and happiness.

Motility and flagella/cillia

Motility refers to a cell's ability to move. Flagella and cilia are two structures involved in cell motility that are formed from microtubules. Flagella (singular = flagellum) are tail-like appendages that protrude from a cell and allow it to move, although they also can serve as sensory appendages. Flagella are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, but they are structurally distinct. Cilia are relatively small projections that help move substances along the cell surface. A well-known example in the human body is the presence of cilia in the respiratory tract to help move mucus out of the lungs. In eukaryotes, both cilia and flagella are characterized by what is known as a 9+2 structure, in which an outer ring of nine pairs of microtubules surrounds an inner ring of two microtubules.

Mutorotation

Mutarotation = equilibrium between the α and β anomers. Strong oxidation turns aldehyde and terminal hydroxyls to carboxylic acids, and other hydroxyls to ketones. The strongest kind of oxidation turns everything to CO2, and this occurs in cellular respiration. Reduction turns monosaccharides into polyalcohols.

Robber Cave Experiment

Muzafer Sherif's Robber's Cave experiment examined the intergroup conflicts that arise in response to competition over limited resources.

What is Myelin?

Myelin is a substance that coats the axons of some neurons. Composed largely of lipids, myelin is an effective electrical insulator. An action potential must propagate down the axon to reach the neighboring neuron or target cell, meaning that the faster the potential can propagate (i.e. the higher the nerve conduction velocity), the sooner the signal can reach its target. Myelin acts to increase this conduction velocity. As an insulator, myelin provides very high resistance around the membrane of the axon. In contrast, the interior of the axon - the inside of the cell - has much lower resistance, so the signal can propagate down the axon without "leaking" out of the neuron.

Healthcare terms morality

One important facet of sociology deals with medical ethics, the system of moral judgments and values that apply to the practice of medicine. The four primary tenets of medical ethics are beneficence (which states that healthcare professionals have a responsibility to act in the best interests of the patient), justice (which posits that professionals have a responsibility to give healthcare service fairly and justly, or in other words, not to give one patient worse care than another), non-maleficence (the responsibility to not harm the patient), and respect for autonomy (the responsibility to respect the wishes of the patient).

Species

One of the key factors that determines a species is the ability to successfully breed and produce fertile offspring.

Beta-Oxidation

One turn of the ß-oxidative cycle for an even-chain fatty acid results in the production of a single molecule of acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH2, as shown below:

Exception of IR spectroscopy

Only molecules that undergo a net change in the dipole moment during vibrational and rotational motion can absorb IR radiation. Diatomic molecules (e.g. O2, N2, and Br2) do not return IR signals because no net change in the dipole moment occurs.

Oogenesis

Oogenesis: OogoNium (new, 2n) Primary oocyte (2n), which arrests in prophase I until puberty Secondary oocyte (n), which arrests in metaphase II and ovulated, and a primary polar body (n) after meiosis I One ovum (n) and three secondary polar bodies (n) after meiosis II. Two secondary polar bodies form from the primary polar body and the other one comes from the secondary oocyte. Meiosis II is only completed if fertilization takes place. A zygote (2n) forms when the nuclei of the sperm cell and oocyte fuse together. All of the polar bodies degenerate and die.

What is social facilitation?

Social facilitation is the tendency that people have to perform simple tasks better or more efficiently when in the presence of other people. Inversely, when performing a complex or new task, the presence of others can hinder one's performance. In contrast, social loafing is the tendency that people have to put in less effort in a group setting, particularly if the group is being evaluated as a whole and not on an individual basis.

Disorganized Schizophrenia

Social isolation, clumsy movement, and hallucinations are signs of disorganized schizophrenia

Mutations types and Functions

Silent mutations occur if the mutated codon codes for the same amino acid as the original codon. Such mutations have essentially no effect on the physiological function of the organism. An example would be GCU [alanine] → GCA [alanine]. Conservative point mutations are missense mutations that occur when the mutated codon codes for an amino acid that has similar functional properties (e.g., polarity and size) as the amino acid coded for by the original codon. An example would be GAU [aspartic acid] → GAG [glutamic acid]. Conservative point mutations are expected to have a relatively small effect on the functionality of the protein coded for by the gene. Non-conservative point mutations are missense mutations that occur when the mutated codon codes for an amino acid with dissimilar functional properties to the amino acid coded for by the original codon. An example would be GCG [alanine] → GAG [glutamic acid]. All things being equal, a non-conservative point mutation could be expected to have a significant impact on the functionality of the protein in question. Finally, nonsense mutations occur when the original codon is mutated into a stop codon. This truncates the translation process early and is generally associated with significant malfunctioning in the protein product of the gene, especially if a nonsense mutation occurs relatively early in the gene.

Carboxyllic acids derivatives

Since carboxylic acid derivatives are closely interrelated molecules, they can be interconverted among each other. This process follows a scale of reactivity; more reactive carboxylic acid derivatives can be converted to less reactive carboxylic derivatives through nucleophilic substitution, but not vice versa. To "climb" the reactivity scale - or to go from a less to a more reactive derivative - requires converting a carboxylic acid derivative back to a carboxylic acid and then generating a new carboxylic acid derivative. Amides are the least reactive carboxylic acid derivative, while esters have intermediate reactivity and acid anhydrides are highly reactive.

How steroid hormones work?

Since steroid hormones diffuse freely through the plasma membrane due to their hydrophobicity, steroid hormone receptors are found on the inside of the cell, and these receptors form a complex with the hormone before entering the nucleus. Once inside the nucleus, the hormone-receptor complex binds to promoter regions of target genes and can stimulate or inhibit transcription of those genes. Thus, steroid hormones directly regulate gene expression in target cells.

size exclusion chromatography

Size exclusion chromatography and affinity chromatography (sometimes) are the only two that don't necessarily involve polarity. Size exclusion uses small beads in the column that "trap" smaller molecules in them so larger molecules elute FIRST. Its intuitive to think that they'll elute last, since they're larger, however that is not the case.

Size-exclusion chromatography

Size-exclusion chromatography does not follow the same trend as some other common separation techniques! In size-exclusion chromatography, smaller particles become trapped in the pore system present in the agarose stationary phase, while larger particles pass directly through the column. As a result, small molecules migrate more slowly than larger ones, as shown below. This differs from gel electrophoresis, in which smaller molecules move more rapidly than large ones through the agarose gel.

Why can't gel electrophoresis also function to separate proteins?

So why can't gel electrophoresis also function to separate proteins? The answer is twofold. First, proteins vary widely in their structure, or folding patterns. If we simply tried to run a mixture of proteins through a gel electrophoresis apparatus, these variations would impact the proteins' migration. Additionally, simple gel electrophoresis relies on the fact that DNA and RNA molecules contain a uniform negative charge, causing them to travel toward the positive pole of the apparatus. In contrast, proteins can have positive, negative, or neutral charges, and these charges may not be uniformly distributed throughout the molecule.

Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism is a perspective that explains an individual's success in life as the result of their personal characteristic

Social Disorganization Theory

Social Disorganization theory directly links crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics a core principle of social disorganization. theory is that place matters in other words a person's residential location is a substantial factor shaping. the likelihood that that person will become involved in illegal activities

What is conformity?

Social conformity, or just conformity, is the tendency for individuals to adopt the behaviors, attitudes, and values of other members of a reference group. A reference group is any social group to which the individual can be socially compared. An individual's degree of social conformity can be thought of as indicating how "normal" they act, but a more accurate statement is that conformity indicates the degree to which an individual's behavior corresponds to expected social norms, rules, and customs.

Social exchange theory

Social exchange theory is a sociological and psychological theory that studies the social behavior in the interaction of two parties that implement a cost-benefit analysis to determine risks and benefits.

Why gene expression occurs?

The central dogma of molecular biology states that information is passed from DNA to RNA to protein. This means that when a cell needs more of a certain protein, it can increase the degree to which the gene corresponding to that protein is transcribed. Transcribing more or less of a gene in response to the cell's needs is known as gene expression. It plays a major role in the differentiation of organs in multicellular organisms, and can also vary on shorter time scales in response to changing environmental conditions.

Lobes of brain

The cerebral cortices overlay the rest of the brain's structures and are responsible for many of the higher functions seen in humans. The cortices can be divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. The frontal lobe is associated with making judgments and regulating behavior as a part of executive functioning. The occipital lobe is most closely related to visual processing, as data from the optic nerves are sent directly there. The parietal lobe is associated with integrating various sensory input, and both the parietal and temporal lobes are important for language.

Battery energy conversion

The chemical energy of the battery elements is used as electrical energy to set the charge carriers in motion through the resistor, where they experience drag from the crystal lattice of the resistive conductor and dissipate their energy as heat from the resistor.

Citric acid cycle

The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle, is a major step in aerobic metabolism. It is the next step of glucose metabolism after glycolysis, but it is also the crossroads of various metabolic pathways in the body (that is, non-carbohydrate precursors can be fed into it, and its intermediates can be siphoned off to use as building blocks for other classes of molecules). The citric acid cycle does generate some ATP directly (through GTP), but its main value is that it generates several electron-carrying molecules that are fed into the electron transport chain to generate much larger amounts of ATP.

Purpose of cytric acid cycle?

The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle, is a major step in aerobic metabolism. It is the next step of glucose metabolism after glycolysis, but it is also the crossroads of various metabolic pathways in the body (that is, non-carbohydrate precursors can be fed into it, and its intermediates can be siphoned off to use as building blocks for other classes of molecules). The citric acid cycle does generate some ATP directly (through GTP), but its main value is that it generates several electron-carrying molecules that are fed into the electron transport chain to generate much larger amounts of ATP.

Cornea

The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye

Constant force and acceleration

The coefficient of kinetic friction is always lower than that of static friction. Therefore there is a net accelerating force on the block once it starts to slide. A constant force on a mass produces a constant acceleration (Newton's second law). Thus, the velocity of the block increases linearly with time.

Normalization explained

The passage clarifies that GAPDH is a "housekeeping" protein, which is a protein used for general cellular function and produced in nearly all cells under normal conditions. Calculating the ratio of HIF-1α relative to a protein that is maintained at a constant level in each cell normalizes the data. Without this control, below-normal HIF-1α protein levels could appear in the blot and be misinterpreted as being significant

Frequency and depth

The penetration depth of any wave is inversely proportional to its frequency. A traveling wave generated by a low-frequency sound will therefore penetrate further along the basilar membrane relative to a high-frequency sound, and the wave will approach closer to the apex of the cochlea.

Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) basics

The pentose phosphate pathway shunts glucose 6-phosphate away from the glycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathway and uses it to do other structurally important things. Namely, the pentose phosphate pathway converts NADP+ into NADPH and converts glucose 6-phosphate into ribose 5-phosphate. NADPH has two main functions: it serves as a reducing agent needed for the synthesis of lipids and nucleic acids, and it helps protect against damage from reactive oxygen species by regenerating the antioxidant glutathione from its oxidized form. Ribose 5-phosphate is used in nucleotide synthesis.

Placenta

The placenta is also an endocrine organ; early in pregnancy, it secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and later in pregnancy it secretes progesterone and estrogen. Both hCG and progesterone help maintain the pregnancy. Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin; this fact allows oxygen to be "passed" more efficiently from the maternal circulation to the fetal circulation.

Structure of cell membrane

The plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells is primarily composed of amphipathic phospholipids that have a polar head and a nonpolar tail. This structural property contributes to the formation of a bilayer membrane, in which the polar phosphate heads face the intracellular and extracellular environments (which are both aqueous solutions), while the nonpolar tails remain inside the membrane. In addition to phospholipids, the presence of cholesterol and lipid rafts within the plasma membrane help contribute to the fluidity of the membrane at lower temperatures and to its stability at higher temperatures.

The plasma membrane

The plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells is primarily composed of amphipathic phospholipids that have a polar head and a nonpolar tail. This structural property contributes to the formation of a bilayer membrane, in which the polar phosphate heads face the intracellular and extracellular environments (which are both aqueous solutions), while the nonpolar tails remain inside the membrane. In addition to phospholipids, the presence of cholesterol and lipid rafts within the plasma membrane help contribute to the fluidity of the membrane at lower temperatures and to its stability at higher temperatures.

Posterior Pituitary

The posterior pituitary (neuropophysis) and the adrenal medulla are both composed of nervous tissue and synapse directly with neurons.

Power of study

The power of a study refers to the ability of a study design to detect a real statistically significant effect, and it is primarily affected by the size of the study (larger samples have more power) and the size of the effect (larger effects are easier to identify).

Covalent disulfide bond

The presence of cysteine indicates that the peptide could form a disulfide-linked dimer.

Unsaturated fatty acids info

The presence of one or more double bonds in a fatty acid has a significant effect on its physical properties. Naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids generally have cis bonds, which introduce a degree of bending into the chain. This is especially true for polyunsaturated fatty acids with cis bonds. Such acids do not stack readily on top of each other, meaning that they tend to have lower melting and boiling points than the corresponding saturated fatty acids.

Stability of DNA double helix

Thermodynamic stability of the DNA double helix. Significant drops in pH would result in protonation of hydrogen-bond acceptors, leading to a loss in base-pairing interactions. The presence of positive ions in solution (particularly Mg2+) leads to stabilization of the DNA fold via shielding of the repulsion between phosphate groups within the DNA backbone. The length of DNA strands would also play a role. Longer DNA strands are held together by more hydrogen bonds, meaning that more energy is required to denature the double-stranded DNA.

Entropy favorable and unfavorable overcome from unfolded to folded state of protein

These are: Enthalpy due to hydrogen bond formation, enthalpy die to new electrostatic attractions, entropy due to the hydrophobic effect

Nigrostriatal tract netweorks

These networks are related to motor control

ADH and aldosterone

Two major hormones respond to low fluid levels by increasing fluid retention: aldosterone (the main example of a class of steroid hormones known as mineralocorticoids) and anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), a peptide hormone that is also known as vasopressin. However, these two hormones have different mechanisms. Aldosterone works by increasing sodium absorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the nephron, which drives water absorption. Aldosterone also increases excretion of potassium and hydrogen ions in the urine. In contrast, ADH increases the permeability of the collecting duct to water, thereby increasing water absorption. Thus, ADH acts to reduce the osmolarity of blood by increasing the amount of water present without changing the solute levels, whereas aldosterone does not affect osmolarity because sodium reabsorption drives water absorption.

Type I and type II errors

Type I error is a false positive; it is the incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis, or saying that something exists when it does not. A Type 2 error is a false negative; it is the incorrect acceptance of a false null, or saying that something does not exist, when it does.

Type vs Trait Personality Theory

Type theories categorize individuals according to set personality types. One example is the concept of Type A and Type B personalities, with Type A people more compulsive and Type B people more relaxed. In contrast, trait theory focuses on personality traits, or predispositions to certain behaviors. The most widely recognized trait theory of personality is the five-factor model, which includes the Big Five factors: openness to change, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (O.C.E.A.N). Each Big Five trait also has an opposite trait, and a person is thought to fall somewhere between those two poles.

Within-subjects design

Within-subjects design (also known as repeated-measures design, it is when a participant is exposed to every level of the independent variable. Gives you higher power because you are using more "subjects" in your study by using the same person in multiple conditions, and that you decrease individual difference effects seen in between-subjects designs.)

Without rods and cones

Without primary photoreceptors (rods and cones), only melanopsin-expressing ganglion cells would be capable of responding to light. Object edge detection, which relies upon image-forming vision, would not be possible without rods and cones

Women lateralization

Women tend to show lower lateralization compared to men

X-linked mutations

X-linked mutations are usually recessive for the purposes of the MCAT, and X-linked recessive conditions affect males more often. This is because females inherit one X chromosome from their mother and one from their father, while males only get their single X chromosome from their mother. Since males only have one X chromosome, having a single mutated allele will suffice to manifest a recessive mutation.

X-linked recessive disorders

X-linked recessive conditions affect males more often. This is because females inherit one X chromosome from their mother and one from their father, while males only get their single X chromosome from their mother. Since males only have one X chromosome, having a single mutated allele will suffice to manifest a recessive mutation.

Zimbardo's Stanford prison

Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment focused on the effects of power and authority on individuals. Participants designated as "guards" were given power over participants designated as "prisoners," and over time, the guards began to exhibit progressively more abusive and problematic behavior.

Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment

Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment focused on the effects of power and authority on individuals. Participants designated as "guards" were given power over participants designated as "prisoners," and over time, the guards began to exhibit progressively more abusive and problematic behavior.

Polyandry

a form of marriage in which women have more than one husband

inclusive fitness

an explanation for altruism that focuses on the adaptive benefit of transmitting genes, such as through kin selection, rather than focusing on individual survival

Gender roles (sex roles)

patterns of work, appearance, and behavior that a society associates with being male or female

positive vs negative symptoms

positive: something added (such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech). Positive symptoms of schizophrenia are related to increased levels of dopamine activity. negative: something removed (lack of emotion)

Factors that affect acidity

polarity, atomic radius, resonance, but inter-molecular forces do not affect acidity

Moderating variable

variable that changes the nature of the relationship between two other variables

which reinforcement schedule is the most effective?

variable-ratio schedules are generally considered to be the most effective.

Amino acids catabolism

Once liberated from peptide chains, amino acids are deaminated in the liver and kidneys, and then converted to α-keto acids and ammonia

Thioester bond

A reaction between a thiol and carboxylic acid will produce a thioester

Electrophoresis

A reducing gel will have beta mercaptoethanol (BME) and/or DTT added to the sample before boiling, and will break any disulfide bonds in the protein. This can result in a protein with quaternary structure (multiple subunits) to yield as many bands as there are subunits in the protein. Non-reducing conditions (no BME) will not break S-S bonds. A SDS-PAGE will denature the protein, but denaturation is not the same as breaking S-S bonds. A reducing SDS gel will do both (denature and break disulfide bonds). Native PAGE is not the same as non-reducing PAGE. There are two types of SDS-PAGE... SDS is not a reducing agent - it's only a denaturant/detergent. So in reducing SDS, you add BME or another reducing agent and in non-reducing SDS, you don't add a reducing agent. Then there's also native PAGE, which doesn't have SDS at all.

affinity chromatography

Affinity chromatography utilizes molecules that are specific to the molecule you're trying to analyze. For example, if you were trying to extract some antigen, A, you would use Antibody A on your column because that is specific to antigen A. Thus antigen A will bind to the column and all of the other junk will elute out. Affinity chromatography is a type of column chromatography.

Somatic cells genome

All somatic cells genomes contain identical genome

germ layers

All three germ layers develop simultaneously during development

Radioactive decay

Alpha emits alpha particle (Helium) Beta (-) is gaining a proton (emitted electron) Beta (+) is losing a proton (emitted positron) Gamma emits a gamma particle or photon (massless)

Rods and cones

Cones are more important in color vision than rods. The occipital cortex is involved in processing color and vision, and a lesion in that area would impair participant performance. The fovea is where most of the cones are concentrated in the eye, and a lesion in that area would also interfere with performance in a study of color perception. The periphery of the retina contains a higher density of light sensitive rods, which results in a clearer image in the dark.

Cytochrome c

Cytochrome c is a heme protein that only cycles between a ferrous and ferric state during oxidative phosphorylation. Therefore, only single electron transfers are possible.

Questions that asked about study design

Does the study have random assignment? Is there manipulation of a independent variable? Then it's experimental. Is the study observing subjects in their natural environment? Is there no random assignment? Then it's observational, and because it's observational we cannot infer causation. Is the study able to assess the relationship between two variables? Then it's correlational. We can infer association between two variables.

Glycosidases

Enzymes which selectively cleave glycosidic bonds are required to break the formed bond

Types of studies

Experimental study (a study where we test to prove a causal relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable. Participants are randomly assigned to different groups or levels of the independent variable. Between-subjects and within-subjects designs are common experimental studies) Between-subjects design (participants are randomly assigned to to an experimental group in the study, such that a participant only participates in one group), Within-subjects design (also known as repeated-measures design, it is when a participant is exposed to every level of the independent variable. Gives you higher power because you are using more "subjects" in your study by using the same person in multiple conditions, and that you decrease individual difference effects seen in between-subjects designs.) Longitudinal study (a study that is conducted over a long period of time, usually uses a specific cohort of people. One example is to study incidence of heart disease in people over time, while monitoring things like their diet or smoking habits) Correlational study (study that attempts to determine if there is simply a relationship between two variables. The predictor variable is the correlational studies analog to an independent variable, while the criterion variable is an analog to a dependent variable. These are observational studies that do not prove causation between variables, while experimental research design does) Retrospective study (an observational study type where we look back at information in the past to try and find a trend between events in the past and current outcomes. One example would be conducting an experiment on people who suffer from Alzheimer's disease and looking back at their medical records to set up a relation between factors in the past and the current outcome. This type of study helps to develop and find potential risk factors for disease.) Prospective study (a study where we follow groups of people and see how their behavior in that time influence future outcomes. This kind of study is looking into the future, while retrospective studies are looking into the past. One popular example of this kind of study is by following nurses to determine long term health outcomes by looking at factors like stress, smoking, and level of exercise.) Mixed-method research design (a study where you use both qualitative and quantitative measures to conduct your study. One example would be using quantitative measures like how would you report your like for this product on a scale of 1 through 10, and then later following up with people who answered either negatively or poorly and asking them for their qualitative opinion.) These are the most common ones that pop up and that I can think of off the top of my head. Feel free to ask questions.

Gender differentiation

Gender differentiation is a social construct that includes social differences, value/attitude differences, and cultural differences. Biological differences are a part of sex differentiation, not gender differentiation

Antibodies and Immune response

If Antibodies and Immune response becomes less specific, then the likelihood of a response to self, or autoimmunity increases dramatically...

Antisocial personality disorder

Individuals with antisocial personality disorder have a deceitful attitude and show no remorse when abusing others, symptoms that are not described in the question stem

Avoidant Personality Disorder (Cluster C)

Individuals with avoidant personality disorder, like those with schizoid personality disorder, are socially withdrawn. However, people with avoidant personality disorder are withdrawn due to hypersensitivity to rejection rather than to indifference

Functions of NADPH

NADPH has three primary functions: involvement in biosynthesis of lipids and cholesterol (the precursor to steroid hormones), production of bactericidal bleach in the lysosomes of certain white blood cells, and maintenance of a supply of reduced glutathione for protection against free radical damage. Energy carriage is an important function of NADH, not NADPH.

Kd (Affinity constant)

Kd is analogous to the Michaelis constant Km, which indicates the affinity with which substrate binds to the active site of an enzyme; the lower the Km, the higher the affinity. Thus any effective inhibitory compound would have to bind the toxin with a higher affinity than GPP130, and in fact the lowest Kd would represent the highest affinity

Rate limiting enzymes for major metabolic pathways

Metabolic pathways rate limiting enzymes: Glycolysis: PFK-1 (F6P --> F-1,6-BP) Citric Acid Cycle: isocitrate dehydrogenase (isocitrate --> alpha-ketoglutarate) Pentose Phosphate Pathway: glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6P --> 6-phosphogluconolactone) Glycogenolysis: glycogen phosphorylase (releases G1P from alpha 1,4-glycosidic bond) Gluconeogenesis: F-1,6-Bisphosphatase (F-1,6-BP --> F6P) Glycogenesis: glycogen synthase Fermentation: lactate dehydrogenase

Microtubules

Microtubules movement plays a large role in the formation of the mitotic spindle during prophase

Stanley Milgram and Philip Zimbardo

Milgarm and Zimbardo are known for their obedience to authority projects

Shadowing

Participants are expected to pay attention to only one ear, and keyly, repeat the numbers they hear immediately. As soon as they hear a number in the attended ear, they say it. This is a standard definition of shadowing in psychology. Shadowing is a form of selective attention because the pilots were forced to hear different things from two ears and say only the relevant numbers that they heard

Protein translation

Protein translation principally occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The proteins are then transported to the Golgi apparatus for post translational modification, processing, and packaging for proper localization. Retrograde transport would reverse the motion and return the protein to the ER.

Protein denaturation

Proteins are long one-dimensional strings of amino acids. But, for a protein to function properly, it must have a very specific three-dimensional structure. This three-dimensional structure of a protein is stabilized by covalent bonds and noncovalent interactions between different regions of the linear peptide. This three-dimensional structure can be disrupted by heating or by changing the pH. The disorganization of proteins by such agents is called denaturation.

Partial report techniques

Say I show you the following for a second: HJKL UIOP QPIO then ask you to recall the whole thing (i.e. whole reporting), you'll find that you have terrible memory and are only able to recall something like 5 terms. We therefore reason and conclude that your sensory memory is really small capacity. alternatively, say I show you the exact same letters, then cue you recall JUST a single line (e.g. top, middle, bottom). we find in this instance that you have perfect recollection of any row i tell you to recall. This shows that the whole reporting method is erroneously concluding low memory capacity because as you recall items you interfere with your sensory memory. In this partial recall technique we can instead show that your sensory memory is immensely larger than expected

Signs of psych drugs

Sleepiness, slurred speech, decreased respiration, and constriction of the pupils (miosis) are observable effects of opiates such as heroin. Stimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamine typically have effects opposite from those of opiates, including rapid speech, increased respiration, and pupil dilation (mydriasis;. While individuals under the influence of hallucinogenic drugs such as LSD may appear highly confused or disoriented, they do not appear lethargic or sedated. Moreover, like cocaine and methamphetamine, LSD causes mydriasis

Social anomie

Social anomie refers to a lack of social norms, which leads to a breakdown in the connection between an individual and their community.

Memory and aging

Stable: Implicit memory and recognition Decline: recall, episodic memory, processing speed, divided attention Improve: Semantic memory (until age 60), Crytallized IQ, emotional reasoning

Sleepwalking and stress

Stress is a contributing factor to sleepwalking; reducing one's stress level (which meditation can be quite effective at doing) can also reduce incidents of sleepwalking. Psychoanalysis is aimed at resolving deep-seated psychic conflicts. Sleepwalking is no longer generally believed to be a manifestation of inner conflict or a symptom of mental illness. Aversion therapy entails pairing an undesirable or unwanted behavior (e.g., taking a sip of an alcoholic beverage) with an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., a mild electric shock). This method would be ineffective at reducing sleepwalking because the sleepwalker is in a state of deep sleep and lacks conscious awareness, memory, and control over the behavior While prescription sleep medications may be effective at inducing sleep, they also disrupt the sleep cycle and may therefore actually exacerbate sleepwalking. Moreover, sleepwalking occurs during the deeper sleep stages, not the lighter ones

Basal ganglia

Structures in the forebrain that help to control movement (motor control)

Tend-and-befriend i

Tend-and-befriend is a behavior exhibited by some animals, including humans, in response to threat. It refers to protection of offspring (tending) and seeking out the social group for mutual defense (befriending).

ATP synthesis in bacterial and human cells

The ability to produce ATP via ATP synthase is common to both bacterial and human cells. Both types of cells possess a membrane-embedded electron transport chain capable of generating a H+ gradient, which drives synthesis of ATP via ATP synthase. This ATP synthesis takes place on the plasma membrane of bacteria and on the inner mitochondrial membrane in human cells.

The conflict theory

The conflict theory perspective emphasizes social relations of capital, power, and status as the driving forces in society.

Stanley Milgram

The dependent variable in Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments was the behavior of the teacher

Hydropathy index

The hydropathy index of an amino acid is a number representing the hydrophobic or hydrophilic properties of its sidechain. It was proposed in 1982 by Jack Kyte and Russell F. Doolittle.[1] The larger the number is, the more hydrophobic the amino acid. The most hydrophobic amino acids are isoleucine (4.5) and valine (4.2). The most hydrophilic ones are arginine (-4.5) and lysine (-3.9). This is very important in protein structure; hydrophobic amino acids tend to be internal (with regard to the protein's 3 dimensional shape) while hydrophilic amino acids are more commonly found towards the protein surface.

How to read study design

There are two major categories of study that could be described. In an observational study, the authors will measure variables but not change them. Observational studies produce correlation, which means you can infer association, but not causation. In an experimental study, the authors will change a variable (the independent variable) and look for changes in other variable(s) (the dependent variable(s)). Experimental studies can provide evidence of causation. When I took the exam, I noticed that there were some patterns in the incorrect answer choices. These choices tried to mislead people by either: Giving an answer choice that contradicted what the data suggested. Giving an answer choice that drew conclusions about causation where the studies described were observational, or that drew conclusions only about correlation even when variables had been changed. Giving an answer choice that was the right type of conclusion and fit the data more or less, but went a bit further than the data could support (ie, too general, too certain, etc). Maybe try outlining the passages as you read through: summarize the hypothesis, list the variables, label the experimental one(s) where applicable, jot down conclusions. That way you can make sure you're getting the info you need from the passage as you read, and you'll also be more resistant to being misled by the answer choices.

Mutations

Transitions are the substitution of a purine with a purine or a pyrimidine with a pyrimidine while a transversion is the substitution of a purine with a pyrimidine or the reverse. This has no particular importance in whether a mutation will be deleterious to the function of a protein however. Point mutations can have a significant impact on the function of a protein if they occur in an intron or an exon. Of the examples provided, the substitution of UAA for UAG will be least likely to influence the structure of a protein as both codons are stop codons

Endosome material

Transport of endocytosed material typically travels from the endosome to a lysosome, where the material is broken down.

Enzyme Specific Activity

When measuring enzyme kinetics (the rate of reaction of an enzyme with a substrate — or surface), specific activity is defined as the amount of substrate the enzyme converts (reactions catalyzed), per mg protein in the enzyme preparation, per unit of time. An example of specific activity would be: The specific activity of the isolated enzyme was measured at 150 umoles/min/mg protein before purification and 800 umoles/min/mg, after purification. Specific activity is an important measure of enzyme purity. Different batches of a pure enzyme should have the same values and even diluting an enzyme solution many times will have identical specific activity values even though there will be different enzyme activity values. This is because in calculating specific activity, the numerator (units/ml) and denominator (mg/ml) are affected equally.

Difference threshold vs absolute threshold

difference threshold refers to the minimum change in a stimulus necessary to be noticed whereas absolute threshold means the minimum stimulus needed to perceive a 50% time the necessary stimulus

Transcription and translation in prokaryotes

mRNA processing does not occur in prokaryotes. Because transcription in prokaryotes occurs in the cytoplasm, ribosomes are able to bind and begin translation even before transcription is complete; prokaryotic mRNA requires no additional processing after transcription.