Mixed Methods [COMB2]

Pataasin ang iyong marka sa homework at exams ngayon gamit ang Quizwiz!

Ethnography

"Its good if you can't tell if it is _______ or hanging out."

Phenomenology

Theory created by philosophers

How do you make house gingerale?

7-up with a splash of coke

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Creme De Almond

Almond, red in color

What is limitations to sequential explanatory model, and Sequential Exploratory Model

Amount of time it takes for data collection

Concurrent Transformative Model

Each method may have equal or unequal emphasis

Spuriousness

Outside effect - one that may not be known

Concurrent Triangulation Model

Shorter data collection time

ontology

What is the nature of reality?

intrinsic case study

a case study that provides in-depth description of a particular individual, organisation or event

Idiographic Causation

an action for a particular person in a local situation with an observable result

qualitative

an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem

multivariate questions

compare or relate variables

Plus sign (+) means:

concurrent method

Grounded theory v quantitative methods

critiques 'arm chair theorising', and also challenges assumption that theory can only come from theorising or from a deductive approach

philosophy is either?

pragmatic or tranformative

Explanatory Sequential Design

Quantitative method implemented 1st followed by qualitative method

What is a positivism paradigm?

Quantitative research

Multimethod Studies

Variables (dependent variables) are measured using MORE THAN 1 METHOD

mixed methods research

a research method that uses quantitative and qualitative techniques in the same study

Open Coding

first stage of data analysis in GT and its the most exploratory stage

research designs

procedures of inquiry

triangulation

the use of multiple methods to ensure that the data collected are trustworthy and accurate

Triangulation

the use of multiple methods to ensure that the data collected is trustworthy and accurate

Theory Triangulation

the use of multiple theories or perspectives to aid in interpreting the data

by combining two or more methods researchers can make it less likely that what will happen

they will cover every aspect and perspective

Group

Finding ideally represent the experiences of each individual participant AND the _____ as a whole --> convergence/divergence & commonality/individuality

Tools

Surveys, ethnographies, interviews Structured, semi-structured, unstructured

absolute risk

-chance of drawing a heart 13/52 (25%) -chance of drawing queen of hearts 1/52

convergent parallel

-strands independent -equal priority -mixes at interpretation

the 2 dimensions of mixed methods designs

1. time order 2. paradigm emphasis

Limited

Literature review is ________ a priori to minimize bias

Name a Red/Brown Drink

So Co

QUAN or QUAL means:

We are emphasizing that method (uppercase)

Independent variable

affect outcomes (treatment, etc)

sequential

one methodology follows the other

Expansion

provides richness and detail to the study exploring specific features of each method

Quantitative Research (2)

- Go into an experiment with a presumption of what the end result is - Already know what to expect - Everything is measurable - Positivism + Realism

other limitations of analytic research: observer bias

-data collection by interview -observer to blind to disease status

Data analysis

-descriptive stats - inferential stats (t test, ANOVA, MANOVA, ANCOVA) -indicate confidence interval

components of epidemiologic research

-distribution -determinants -application (translation of knowledge)

case control strengths

-efficient for studying relatively rare disease and conditions -enable hypothesis testing ex. multiple exposures for a single disease outcome -can be used to acquire exposure data in relatively great detail

cohort studies

-examines a large disease-free population over long period of time -baseline data used to categorize participants on some determinant (high, medium, low active) -follow up and track occurrence of health outcomes of interest (ex disease) -exposure-disease relationship expressed in absolute or relative terms (relative risk)

prevalence

-how many people are living with disease or health condition NOW

frequency

-how often disease occurs - measured in terms of prevalence, incidence or mortality rate

case-control studies

-identifies casually-related factors for disease outcome in populations with and without disease -cases (with the disease) matched to controls (similar characteristics but without disease) -retrospective -particularly useful in studying relatively rare diseases and conditions

primary prevention

-induction period disease onset

Threats to external validity

-interaction of selection and treatment (participants were selected too narrowly) -interaction of setting and treatment (setting is too specific and results cannot be generalized) - interaction of history and treatment ( results cannot be generalized into a later time span)

explanatory sequential design

-interactive stages -quantitative priority followed up w/ qualitative -sequential timing -mixed at data collection (ex/ rating feelings, then qual. to explain why)

cohort limitations

-limitations of any longitudinal study -cost -lose people -some disease outcomes too rare

What are the 4 ethical issues in research?

1) Voluntary participation 2) No harm to participants 3) Anonymity + confidentiality 4) Deception

What are the 5 considerations in designing a research study?

1) What is the research question? 2) What is the best research design to use? 3) Who will be the participants for the study? 4) How will the data be analysed? 5) What methods/procedures will be used + have ethical considerations been addressed?

5 factors in deciding on a design

1) matching the design to the research purpose 2) deciding level of interaction between strands 3) deciding on priority of the strands 4) deciding of timing of the strands 5) deciding on procedure for mixing strands

4 situations which mixed method approach is needed/ best

1) need both qual. & quan. 2) need to enhace study w/ 2nd source of data 3) need to explain results from quant. study 4)need to first explore qual.

What are the two types of grounded theory approaches

1) systematic approach (Strauss & Corbin) and 2) constructivist approach (Charmaz)

2 General Strategies

1. Convergent 2. Sequential

Nomenclature

1. Orientation: Whether the research is qual or quan oriented. 2. Dominance: Which aspect of the mixed methods design is dominant; uppercase: dominant, lowercase: less dominant. 3. Sequence: Whether mixed methods designs are conducted simultaneously, as designated by + or ->

Sequential Exploratory Model

1. Qual data collection ---> 2. Qual data analysis ---> 3. Quant data collection ---> 4. Quant data analysis --> 5. Interpretation of entire analysis

null value

1.0

paradigms

A set of assumptions, theories, and perspectives that make up a way of understanding social reality.

Whats it made from? What Color? Goldschlager

Cinnamon Tastes, clear

(1) Introduction

Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research

QUAL + quan or QUAN + qual

Dominant status / concurrent

Orientation

Explanation, Expansion

Timing of data Explanatory:

Explanatory: Two phase (sequential) quan then qual

There is hierarchy of evidence for qualitative research. True or false?

False

Convergent (MM Research Design) Purpose

Find convergence and divergence

Johnson, Ongwuegbuzie, & Turner 2007 Meaning

First, a consensus about a definition by suggesting a composite understanding. Second a methodology and research design- that spanned viewpoints and a definition of mixed methods to a rationale for conducting it.

Purpose, priority, sequence, integration

Four mixed method design considerations

Name 3 yellow drinks

Galliano, Banna, back bar tequilla (gold)

axiology

How are values of the research expressed?

Literary Form Hypothesis

Hypothesis written so that it represent variables in the abstract

Holism

Idea that a whole, such as a culture, is more than the sum of its individual parts

Phenomenology

Idiographic philosophy

Case Study

In-depth description or analysis of a single unit

Responsive Interviewing

In-depth interview with main, follow-up, and probe questions Varying degree of success obtaining useful data

What does the plus sign indicate?

Indicates simultaneous or concurrent form of data collection

Feedback

Information about service delivery system outputs, outcomes, or operations that can guide program input.

What are qualitative data collection methods?

Interviews, naturalistic observation and analysis of documents / photos

Multiphase Design

Involves series of qualitative/quantitative designs Informs next phase

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Bailey's Irish Cream

Irish Whiskey based, from Ireland, Cream

What is merging?

Merged can occur after completion of qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis. The total findings are then interpreted to find complementary, convergence and divergence among data sets

What is the difference between method and methodology

Method is what we are doing and methodology is asking why we are doing what we are doing

Name 2 green drinks

Midori, and green cream de menthe

Exploratory Design Mixed:

Mixed: Results of qual help design quan methods

What is ontology?

Nature of being

Quantitative is beneficial because there is

Norm and generalizability

Quantitative for ontology, epistemology and goals

Ontology: One reality Epistemology: predictable (1+1=2 always) Goals: generalize to population

Paradigm

Patton (1990) - a World view - A General perspective

Final activity in mixed method research

Report data

Outliers

Scores distant from the mean/average

What is step 2?

Select the contrasting complementary method

Separate but Linked

Separate but linked research questions Example: One quantitative & one qualitative question that address separate non-overlapping constructs about the same phenomenon.

Sequential Explanatory Designs

Sequential Explanatory -you complete one, then go onto the next -you don't know what your research questions are in the second tradition because these questions depend on outcomes from the first tradition -first is usually QUANTITATIVE and second is usually QUALITATIVE ---qualitative provides a way to explain quantitative data -within qualitative and quantitative, you cold use any type of study design (experimental, survey, etc.)

Convergent Parallel Design

Simultaneous collection of quantitative and qualitative data, then margining the two together

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color?Drambuie

Sweet and Spicy Scotch, from Scotland, Tan

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color?Southern Comfort

Sweet whiskey, America, Reddish Brown

Sequential Validity

The degree researcher appropriately addresses and/or builds on findings from earlier quantitative and qualitative phases

Define chance.

The possibility of findings being due to random variation.

The Multistage Evaluation Design (Definition)

The systemic process of collecting and analyzing data about the quality, effectiveness, merit or value of programs, products or practices.

incompatibility thesis

an either-or position claiming mixing research methods is not possible or allowable (a problem is its failure to recognize that creative and thoughtful mixing of assumptions, ideas, and methods can be very helpful and can often best address your research question(s).

Theory in quantitative research

an interrelated set of constructs formed into propositions, or hypotheses, that specify the relationship among variables.

Qualitative Research

an open approach to the study of social phenomena; some aspects include: emergent design, grounded in the lived experiences of individuals, and drawing on multiple methods. Data is in narrative form.

Complementarity

clarifies and illustrates results from one method with the use of another method

Shared values

culturally defined standards about what is good or bad or desirable or undesirable

Embedded Design

data collection may be either concurrent or sequential. One form of data is embedded within another form, thus one form is supportive of the other.

which of the following mixed research purposes seek to broaden the breadth and range of inquiry by combining research methods

expansion

community trials

experimental design in which intervention takes place at the community level

experimental designs: clinical trials

experimental design in which intervention takes place on the individual level

3

providing quantitative guidance for the allocation of public health resources

Pragmatists

researchers emphasize the research problem and use all approaches available to understand the problem.

Development

results from one method shape subsequent methods or steps in the research process

Embedded Design Purpose:

(a.k.a. concurrent nested) Purpose: Different types of data are used to answer different Qs w/in a study

Triangulation Design Purpose:

(a.k.a. concurrent triangulation): Purpose: compare and contrast quan and qual data on the same topic

Explanatory Design Purpose:

(a.k.a. sequential explanatory) Purpose: Qual data is used to expand quan results;

humpherys

(example of triangulation) his participant observation caused qualitative data and questionnaires caused quantitative data. (gay sex in public bathrooms)

newby

(example of triangulation) studied suffolk farm workers- used census statistics, interviews and participant observation.

What exploratory verbs are used to match the four qualitative research designs (Creswell, 2007)

* Discover = grounded theory * Seek to understand = ethnography * Explore a process = case study * Report the stories = narrative

What are Pros & Cons of Exploratory MM Design?

+ Although this design typically emphasizes the qualitative aspect, the inclusion of a quantitative component can make the qualitative approach more acceptable to quantitative-biased audiences. _________________________________________________________ - Requires considerable time to implement - Researchers should discuss whether the same individuals will serve as participants in both the qualitative and quantitative phases, as this will affect internal review board decisions

What are Pros & Cons of Triangulation (Convergent) MM Design?

+ Data collection is concurrent; can lend to better understanding of POP + Same time frame for data collection ___________________________________________________________ - Separate analysis is required (time consuming) - Researchers need to consider the consequences of having different samples and different sample sizes when converging the two data sets. Different sample sizes are inherent in the design because quantitative and qualitative data are usually collected for different purposes (generalization vs. in-depth description, respectively).

What are the Pros & Cons of Embedded MM Design?

+ This design may be logistically more manageable for graduate students because one method requires less data than the other method. +This design may be appealing to funding agencies because the primary focus of the design is traditionally quantitative _____________________________________________________________ - For during-intervention approaches, the qualitative data collection may introduce potential treatment bias that affects the outcomes of the experiment. - Researcher needs to ensure that the qualitative data collection is carefully designed to match the intent for including qualitative data, such as to develop an instrument or shape the intervention.

The sequence of the research

+ means that they were conducted simultaneously (Ex: QUAN + qual) --> shows the sequence that they were conducted in

exploratory design

- 2 phase process -QUAL than QUAN -how QUAN results provide new and better instruments & intervention

explanatory design

- 2 phase process -QUAN than QUAL - how do QUAL results explain QUAN results

What is a research log?

- A diary to track recruitment, interviews, transcriptions, record filed notes + write analytic memos through to analysis

Quantitative Research (1)

- Cause and Effect - Reliability and Validity - Hypothesis driven (deductive) - Need lots of #s

Quantitative Research (3)

- Cause and Effect - What is seen only counts - What happens in the middle is irrelevant

What are the key features of mixed methods research?

- Collecting + analysing quant + qual data in response to research question - Using rigorous quant + qual methods - Integrating quant + qual data using specific types of mixed methods design - Framing mixed methods design within broader framework

What is the 3 phase design used to show?

- Data connected qual analysis informs quantitative data collection - Use to administer to large sample of population -Allows high contextual relevance

What does the 2 phase design used to show?

- Data connected quantitative analysis informs qualitative data collection - Used to explain and interpret quantitative results by collecting and analyzing qualitative data

Step 6: Strengthening Evaluation Design and Validity of the conclusions

- Internal validity and descriptive validity -Methods by which the information will be collected - questionnaires, interviews, observations, program documents, and official statistics -Validity — the extent to which a procedure measures what it is supposed to measure -face validity -content validity -construct validity -predictive validity -Reliability — stability and consistency of the results

Challenges of Mixed Methods

- Needing to understand both quantitative and qualitative research procedures. - Assumption about how research questions cannot be answered by a single (quan or qual) method.

Quantitative Research (5)

- Nomothetic Analysis - Trends/patterns by compiling responses - Numbers! Numbers! Numbers!

Quantitative Research (4)

- Objectivity - Reliability and Validity - Depersonalized - Overidentifying

Explain concurrent transformative

- One data collection phase - No predominant weighting - Must be guided by theoretical orientation

What are the key features of quantitative research?

- Reduces data collection to numbers + analyses using statistical techniques - Methodologies are based on principles of scientific methods - Objective stance (researchers are external to it) - Researcher deduces a hypothesis

Qualitative Research (1)

- Relationship building - Human-centred - Experiences (Inductive)

Mixed Methods Evaluation Research

- Since both quantitative and qualitative approaches have much to offer, evaluation research frequently employs the mixed methods approach, which is simply the planned use of different methods of data collection. -Three types: -QUAL-quan -QUAN-qual -QUAN-QUAL

Explain the rigour of qualitative data:

- Site - Permissions - Purposeful sampling - Reciprocity - Types of data - Protocol - Data preparation - Data analysis - Validity strategy - Reflectivity

Explain the rigour of quantitative data:

- Site - Permissions - Systematic sampling - Types of data - Instruments - Data cleaning - Statistics - Validity and reliability

Social Research

- Study of society - Attitudes, assumptions, beliefs - The relationship between one or more variables -- ie. gender & income

Quantitative Research (6)

- Theory - Hypothesis - Data Collection - Findings - Hypotheses confirmed/rejected - Possible revision of theory

when to use mixed methods

- a need exists for both qualitative and quantitative approaches - a need exists to enhance the study with a second source of data - a need exists to explain the results of a quantitative study - a need exists to first explore qualitatively

Qual. Reliability procedures

- check transcripts for errors - check and cross check codes - coordinate team communication ( inter-coder agreement) -

pragmatism

- consequences of actions - problem-centered - pluralistic - real-world practice oriented

postpositivism

- determination - reductionism - empirical observation and measurement - theory verification

narrative research

- explore the life of an individual - tell stories of individual experiences

methods for strengthening theoretical validity in qualitative research

- extended fieldwork - theory triangulation - pattern matching - peer review

what is epidemiologic research

- from word epidemic -study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specific populations and the application of this study to the control of health problems -how often disease occur in different groups of people and why -key=large scale

Instrumentation

- identify if instrument is designed for this research or modified,

Population and sample

- identify population (size, availability of sample) - identify if single stage or multistage (clustering) sample - identify selection process - identify if there is stratification of population before selecting a sample (identify characteristics of stratification) - identify procedures for selecting sample from list - identify number of people in sample

Components of survey design

- identify purpose of survey - indicate why survey as data collection procedure - identify if survey is cross sectional, data collected at one time or longitudinal - specify form of data collection ( self-administrered questionnaires, interviews, structured record reviews, structured observations, online).

choosing a design

- identify the type of mixed methods design - defines characteristics with this design (time, weighting, mixing decision) - overall purpose for using this design in the stiudy

methods for strengthening descriptive validity in qualitative research

- investigator triangulation

why is philosophy important?

- it shapes how researchers formulate problem and questions, how seek answers to research questions - assumptions deeply rooted in training and reinforced by the scholarly community -reviewers make philosophical assumptions about a study...need to be able to understand this

methods for strengthening interpretive validity in qualitative research

- participant feedback - low-inference descriptors

Pragmatism

- pluralistic (recognizes single and multiple realities) - problem centered - recognizes value of multiple methods to collect data - primary importance placed on research question

methods for strengthening internal validity in qualitative research

- researcher as detective - methods triangulation - data triangulation

epistemological assumption

- researcher relies on quotes as evidence from the - collaborate and spends time in field with participants - becomes an "insider"

"good" qualitative research

- rigorous data collection procedures - frames study w/in the assumptions and characteristics of qualitative approach - uses qualitative inquiry - begin with a single focus or concept being explored - detailed methods, rigorous approach to data collection, data analysis, report writing - analyze data using multiple levels of abstraction - write persuasively - study reflects the history, culture, and personal experiences of the researcher - ethical

Strengths of Mixed methods

- strengths of both approaches is combined - grounded theory can be generated and tested - broader research questions can be tested (more tools) - more insights with more then one approach

pros & cons of mixed methods

- strengths of both methods can be combined -ground theory can be tested/ generated -0broader research questions can be tested -more insight w/ more than one approach Cons... -labour intense -conflicting results can be difficult to resolve -mixed violates philosophical underpinnings (positivist & interpretivist)

What are the key features of qualitative research?

- subjectivity of research is acknowledged - knowledge is constructed by participants - seek to understand subjective meaning of the phenomenon - data is naturalistic + complex

Qual. validity procedures

- triangulate different sources of data to build coherent theme - member checking (check with participants for accuracy of report) -use rich, thick description -clarify researcher's bias (self-reflection) - present discrepant info -spend prolonged time in field -peer debriefing -external auditor

greene 5 reasons

- triangulation - complementarity - development -initation -expansion

Bryman 16 reasons

- triangulation - offset - completeness - process - different research questions - explanation - unexpected results - instrument development - sampling - credibility - context - illustration - utility - confirm and discover - diversity of views - enhancement

constructivism

- understanding - multiple participant meanings - social and historical construction - theory generation

limitations of mixed methods

- very labour intensive and may have to learn new methods - conflicting results can be difficult to resolve - mixing violates philosophical underpinnings (positivism vs constructivism)

exploratory sequential design

-2 interactive phases -qual. is priority -qual builds to quan. -mixed at data collection (can form ground theory)

multiphase iterative design

-3 or more phases -early ones provide foundational data on which later ones can build

What are advantages of using mixed methods research?

-A researcher can use the strengths of an additional method to overcome weaknesses in another method by (principle of complementarity) -Provides stronger evidence for conclusion through convergence/corroboration of findings (triangulation) -produces more complete knowledge necessary to inform theory and practice -Can be used to increase the generalizability of the results

Step 2: Budget Constraints

-Budget can dictate much about the evaluation design. -Many times, clients feel that evaluation is a relatively straightforward process, thereby allocating less dollars to the project. -It is essential for the evaluation team to discuss the impact of the low budget and to do so with the reality that all organizations have limited budgets.

Step 5: political influences

-Consider other potential "influencing bodies" -funding and regulatory agencies, public response, groups who are politically active on the topic at hand, and other stakeholders -To meet the political influences, the researcher should maintain positive relationships with all the stakeholders and be very transparent in all actions. -Explanation should delineate the shortcomings of the evaluation as well as the strengths with the caveat that the evaluation is only one source of information that can be used in decision-making

Step 7: Using the evaluation with clients

-Decision-makers -Involvement in the evaluation Commitment to use the findings of the project -If the groups that have a stake in the program receive information about the process and outcome of the program, then more appropriate decisions can be made concerning the program.

Sequential Transformative Design Example

-Effectiveness of a newly implemented classroom wide handwriting program ---quantitative (pre-post test design) -Experience of teachers and children ---qualitative (ethnography)

Sequential Exploratory Design Example

-How do individuals define their identify with regards to disability? (qualitative) ---phenomenology --> in-depth interviews -What is the prevalence of disability in the US? (quantitative) ---survey --> prevalence of disability

Behavioral objectives Evaluation

-It starts with a program's goals and collects data to determine if these goals were met. -The program's success is measured by the outcomes of the program in relation to the stated goals. -The behavioral objectives approach includes nine steps. -Weaknesses: Questions usually arise concerning who sets the goals and objectives, whose interests they represent, if goals are a complete set of the desired behaviors, goal measurement, and if important outcomes are reflected by the respecification of objectives. -Strengths: It provides validity and enables the evaluator to have a set plan of action by establishing predetermined steps to be taken

Real world Evaluation

-It takes budget, time, and data constraints into consideration, as well as the political environment surrounding the evaluation process. -It facilitates mixed evaluation techniques by combining quantitative and qualitative approaches. -It provides opportunities to strengthen the level of evidence.

Step 1: planning the evaluation

-Know and understand your client and the political context in which the research evaluation will be done. -Address the issues of time, budget, and data constraints. Select the appropriate methodologies. -Determine how the information will be disseminated and used.

Cost Analysis for Evaluation Research

-Public and private funding sources are not satisfied with just numbers of statistical importance. -It is essential to know what you get for costs as a program; one way to accomplish this is to determine cost-effectiveness, which refers to how effective the program is and at what cost. -Determine the ratio of monetary to non monetary program effects to choose the least expensive program that produces the same result. Determine benefits-cost ratio.

Qualitative Evaluation

-Research questions are more open-designed, searching for meaningful answers rather than quantitative data. -It is evidenced by words, photographs, and videos. -Inductive reasoning is used to develop more hypotheses and questions. -Data analysis emphasizes meaning and how things work.

I. Mixed methods

-The combination of quantitative and qualitative methods -gives us a better picture of the research problem

Step 4: Data Constraints

-The key issue is collecting the right data. -Quantitative — What to count, how to count it, and what you cannot do without need to be known. -Qualitative — What perceptions, opinions, and thoughts most impact the evaluation outcome need to be known. -There are issues and hard-to-reach participants. -Failure to get accurate information is a threat to validity. -Reconstructing baseline data or addressing missing data is challenging.

Step 3: Time constraints

-The link between "money and time" is important when considering the evaluation design. -Options for reducing time include using secondary data, reducing the sample size, selecting quicker data collection techniques, bringing on more people to help, and simplifying the overall design.

What are disadvantages of using mixed methods research?

-The researcher has to learn about multiple methods and approaches and understand how to appropriately mix them -It is more expensive and more time consuming. -Need to work out issues ahead of time (e.g., problems of paradigm mixing, how to qualitatively analyze quantitative data, how to interpret conflicting results)

ex. having several CT scans as child could make you 3x more likely to develop leukemia

-absolute risk of developing leukemia (0.6 per 10,000 children 0-9y.o) -increased risk would mean one additional case of leukemia for every 10,000 children given the scans

limitations of ecological design

-can lead to false findings -findings on group level rather than individual level -should be considered a first line of investigation only

measuring PA in epidemiologic studies

-can use any measure of PA -short assessment (questionnaires) are common -longer assessments (objective assessments) required to determine dose/response relationships

health risks of inactivity

-cardiovascular disease -osteoporosis -type 2 diabetes -obesity -depression/anxiety etc

experimental designs (randomized trials)

-clinical trials -community trials

mixed methods research

-combine quantitative and qualitative -can range from highly quantitative to highly qualitative -often requires team of researchers

3 designs of mixed methods

-convergent (parallel/concurrent) -explanatory -exploratory -embedded -multiphase iterative

study designs: descriptive

-cross sectional design -ecological design

embedded design

-either quan or qual emphasis (flexible) -concurrent (separate) or sequential -mixed at design level (ex/ survey, emergent)

multiphase design

-equal emphasis -often used in program evaluation -study 1 qual. -> study 2 quan. -> study 3 mixed methods

cross sectional designs

-examines relationships between health behaviours (PA) and health outcomes -often use known risk factors as endpoints (high BP rather than death from heart attack) -assemble distinct groups within the data (High active vs. low active) and compare on risk factor of interest -control for confounding variables with statistics

limitations to cross sectional

-exposure and outcome measured at the same time -does not allow for accural of outcome events

Example of a Sequential Explanatory design

-first tradition: Leisure pursuits of adults with serious mental illness (quantitative) ---uses surveys (hours, types of activities, social vs. solitary) -second tradition: Why do adults with severe mental illness participate in solitary leisure activities? (qualitative) ---phenomenology --> in-depth interviews

Sequential Transformative Design

-goal is to transform policy, ideology, or practice -qualitative or quantitative core -ex: effectiveness of program evaluation ---followed by interview from parents/teachers or observations of kids in the classroom in order to highlight how the new program is being perceived

constructivist worldview

-goes along with qualitative research -individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and work

postpositivist worldview

-goes along with quantitative research -represents the traditional form of research -scientific method or science research -hold a deterministic philosophy in which causes determine their outcome

mortality rate

-how many people die from a disease of health condition within a given time frame

Method section

-introduce variables (again) but this time relate them to the hypothesis/specific questions -table example p. 151 shows how IV, DV and ControlV can be identified and cross referenced

pragmatic worldview

-mixed methods approach goes along with it -arises out of actions, situations, and consequences -emphasize the problem and use all approaches available to to understand the problem

natural history of chronic disease

-most chronic disease takes 10-40 years to develop into a problem sufficient for clinical diagnosis

Types of Mixed Design Methods

-multimethod studies -mixed method studies

quantitative

-numbers -close ended questions -experiments -collecting data on instruments

pragmatism

-primary importance on research question -(problem centered) question drives the research -recognizes value of multiple methods -pluralistic

when to use qualitative research

-problem or issue needs to be explored -need a complex, detailed understanding of the issue -want to empower individuals -want to write in a literary flexible style that conveys stories or theater, poems... -help explain the mechanisms or linkages in causal theories or models -develop theories when partial or inadequate theories exist -quantitative measures and statistical analysis do not fit the problem

Mixed Method Study

-qualitative and quantitative are used in the same study; simultaneously or concurrently ---Qual + Quan or Qual --> Quan -one method can be the primary ---Quan --> qual

relative risk

-ratio of the probability of an event occurring (ex. developing heart disease) in an exposed group compared to the probability of the event occurring in a non-exposed group

case control limitations

-recall bias: -inability to recall accurately -bias from post-diagnosis recall selection bias: -controls are selected based on characteristics that match the cases so findings may not be generalizable to general pop. -interviewer knows if the person is case or control: may be biased to prompt certain questions

pluralistic

-recognizes single & multiple realities -gains multiple perspectives

note about absolute and relative risk

-relative risk is meaningless unless you know the absolute risk -if the initial risk is small, even a huge relative risk could be really smalle

how to interpret

-relative risk of 7.0 means that the event is 7 times more likely in the exposed than the non-exposed group

design considerations

-research question and hypothesis -design selection -sampling -data collection -evidence of good data -presentation of results

transformative design

-shaped by theoretical framework (make decisions based on a theory that you are working from) -ALL decisions based on qual & quan -emergent OR fixed

other threats affecting validity

-statistical conclusion validity (inaccurate inferences from data because of poor stats) - construct validity (poor definitions and measures of variables)

cohort studies strengths

-temporal sequence between exposure and outcomes clearly defined -ideal for rare exposures (can recruit a specific cohort) -can provide insight into multiple effects of a single exposure

analytic designs

-test specific hypothesis about casual links between exposures and mortality and incidence outcomes -use only observational research

Challenges of Mixed Method Design

-time and resource consuming -expertise in both methods -publication challenges

why mixed

-triangulation(brings data together to see if they support eachother) -offset weaknesses of each -completedness -different research questions answered as well -explanation (explained w/ other method) -unexpected results -instrument development (qual first w/ new instrument) - credibility -context -illustration (qual illustrates quan) -utility (easier to use results w/ comprehensive picture) -confirm & discover -diversity of views -enhancement

qual. write up

-use different types of quotes (short and long) -use original language in script (then translate for cultural sensitivity)

ecological designs

-use existing data sources (public health records etc) -compare and contrast rates of disease across population subgroups differing in characteristics of interest

how do you gain a deeper understanding of a problem in mixed method research?

-uses both QUAN & QUAL techniques for data collection and analysis

qualitative

-words -open ended questions -case study -collecting data by observation

Greene 2007 Defined

..that actively invites us to participate in dialogue about multiple ways of seeing and hearing, multiple ways of making sense of the social world and multiple standpoints on what is important and to be valued and cherished"

What 3 issues does qualitative researchers address?

1. Know about the CHARACTERISTICS of whatever phenomena you are addressing 2. Know about people's PERCEPTIONS of the causes of the phenomena you are addressing 3. What are the CONSEQUENCES of the phenomena you are addressing

Social Science Theory Key points

1. Place at beginning to guide hypotheses in study 2. Write how it is used then describe how it informs the qual/quan components of the study 3. include diagram of theory 4. provide framework for data collection 5. return theory @end of study to inform how findings and results compared w/use of theory

what are the 3 types of mixed methods research designs?

1. Qualitative before Quantitative - identifies key features to include in survey/questionnaire 2. Simultaneously - focus on different aspects 3. Quantitative before Qualitative

Sequential Explanatory Model

1. Quant data collection---> 2. Quant data analysis ---> 3. Qual data collection ---> 4. Qual data analysis ---> 5. Interpretation of entire analysis

What are 4 ways to enhance rigour?

1. Reflexivity - being aware of researchers attitudes/power/influence + accounting for mistakes 2. Member checking/respondent validation 3. Peer review of data analysis 4. Triangulation

Phases of Exploratory Sequential Design

1. Research begins by working inductively, collecting qualitative data (through observation/interview) from a purposive sample. Then coding/identifying themes and/or categories occurs. 2. Then quantitative data is collected with a large, randomly chosen sample.

Phases of Explanatory Sequential Design

1. Researcher formulates a hypothesis, collects quantitative data, and conducts data analysis. - Findings determine data collection method 2. Data collection, analysis, and interpretation of qualitative data.

List five other ethical considerations for health research?

1. Special populations in Australia 2. Risk balanced by expected benefits for wider community and participants 3. Conflicts of interest 4. Submission to multiple ethical review boards 5. Storage of data

Experimental procedures

1. pre-experimental (study single group, provide an intervention. No control group) 2. true experiment (random assingment) 3. quasi experiment (use of control and experimental grps, no random assignment of participants) 4. single subject design (also called N of 1 design, observe bx. of sngl. (or sml grp) individual over time)

What are some examples of enhancing qualitative rigour?

1. reflexivity - being aware of impact of researcher's attitudes, their power and influence 2. member checking or respondent validation 3. peer review of data analysis / concensus coding and 4. triangulation (e.g. data sources, types of data, data analysis)

postpositivism

1. scientific approach to research, utilize social science theoretical lens; 2. positivism-elements of being reductionistic, logical, empirical, cause-and-effect, oriented and deterministic based on a priori theories

Transformative Theory -applicable to what studies? -Common themes? -steps for theory?

1. study of community health or marginalized groups 2. Themes: - underlying assump. that rely on ethical stances of inclusion challenging opressive social structures - entry process w/commun. to build trust and make goals -disssemination of findings that encourages use of results to enhance social justice/human rights 3. Steps: -define problem/lit. rev -identify research design -find data sources -identify istruments/methods -analyze, interpret & report

Mixed methods theory use

1. used for deductive in quant. theory for testings/validity 2. used for emerging qual. theory/pattern 2 frameworks: social science and transformative

Embedded Design Mixed:

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vi. Participant selection model:

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Likert Item

A "Likert item" is a statement that the respondent is asked to evaluate in a survey. The table as a whole is the Likert scale.

Likert scale

A "Likert scale" is the sum of responses to several Likert items. These items are usually displayed with a visual aid, such as a series of radio buttons or a horizontal bar representing a simple scale.

Ethnography

A "key contact" or "gate keeper" is used to gain access to a community

Abstract

A brief review of the literature that summarizes major elements to enable a reader to understand the basic features of the article.

MIXED METHODS PURPOSE STATEMENT:

A good mixed methods purpose statement contains: •The overall intent of the study from a content perspective •Information about both the quantitative and qualitative strands of the study •A rationale for combining both quantitative and qualitative data •Guidelines include: •Use words and phrases that signal intent such as: purpose, intent of, or objective •Indicate the overall purpose of the study from a content perspective •Indicate the type of mixed methods design

Embedded advanced mixed methods

A one or more forms of data (quantitative or qualitative or both) within a larger design (e.g. a narrative study, an ethnography, an experiment)

Sample

A part of the population is called a sample. It is a proportion of the population, a slice of it, a part of it and all its characteristics. A sample is a scientifically drawn group that actually possesses the same characteristics as the population - if it is drawn randomly

Experimental Design

A quantitative design in which groups are chosen by the researcher based on the chosen independent variable. Group membership is randomly assigned. There is often a control group that does not receive any treatment/intervention and one or more experimental groups that do receive a treatment/intervention.

Hypothesis

A quantitative hypothesis contains a null and an alternative proposition that is either proved or disproved through statistical analysis. The process speculates that an independent variable affects a dependent variable and an experiment is conducted to see if there is a relationship between the two. This type of hypothesis is stated in numerical terms and has specific rules and limits.

Reasons for using mixed method

A researcher cannot fully address a research problem and sub-problems unless he or she collects, analyzes, and interprets both qualitative and quantitative data

Convergent parallel mixed methods

A researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data, analyze them separately, and then compares the results to see if the findings confirm or disconfirm each other

Conducting Mixed Methods Research (Literature Review)

A researcher needs to consider how and when to conduct a literature review, whether or not to let it guide hypotheses or other expectations for the study, and how to present it in a final report.

Rule for prospective mixed methods researchers

A researcher who is thinking about conducting a mixed methods study should only do so after he or she has had some experience with strictly qualitative studies and strictly quantitative studies (mixed methods requires more of the researcher's time and energy)

Multi-phase Design

A series of phases or separate studies, each of which may use a combination of sequential ad/or concurrent phases

Define bias.

A systematic error in the way we select our patients, measure our outcomes or analyse our data that lead to results that are inaccurate.

Needs assessment

A type of evaluation research that attempts to determine the needs of some population that might be met with a social program.

Cost-benefit analysis

A type of evaluation research that compares program costs with the economic value of program benefits.

By definition, quasi experimental design is

A type of quantitative research

What is typology? (4)

A way to clarify method choice and methodological approach This gives a map of priority and sequence of which method you will employ Explains which type of method emphasized or if they hold equal value Sorts out order of methods or if they work concurrently

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Qualitative Data?

ADVANTAGES - Detailed perspective of a few people - Hear voices of participants - Understand perspectives in context - Built from participants views DISADVANTAGES: - Limited generalizability - Few people studied - Interpretive

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Quantitative Data?

ADVANTAGES: - Draw conclusions for large number of people - Efficient data analysis - Demonstrate relationships - Bias control - Examine cause and effect DISADVANTAGES: - Impersonal - Limited understanding of context

Transformative designs: Purpose

ALL ABOUT ADVOCACY Purpose: bring about change - transform how society thinks about injustice

Challenges

Ability to set aside investigator self to be open to the emergent theory. Charmaz (2006) said this is impossible Researcher may have difficulty knowing when saturation is reach or richness of categories is detailed. Remedy of this is discriminant sampling (Creswell 2007?) by testing theory on people similar to original group to see if it matches.

What two questions are answered in ethnography (Creswell, 2013)

Analysis results in an understanding of how the culture-sharing group works, the essence of how it functions, the group's way of life. 1. What do people in this setting have to know and do to make this system work? 2. If culture, sometimes defined simply as shared knowledge, is mostly caught rather than taught, how do those being inducted into the group find their "way in" so that an adequate level of sharing is achieved?

Pragmatic worldview

Arises out of actions, situations and consequences rather than antecedent conditions. Focus is on what works for problem resolution. Instead of focusing on methods, concentrate on problem and use all approaches available to understand it. Use mixed methods. Truth is what works at the time.

Mixed Methods Research Purpose

Articulates the WHAT, WHY, & HOW of the phenomenon of interest.

Advocacy and participatory worldview

Based on belief that theories and laws do not fit marginalized individuals or issues of social justice. Research must be intertwined with politics. Researcher has action agenda for reform for change. Addresses specific issues. Researcher collaborates with participants to design questions, data collection or analysis.

When is sample selected?

Before study starts, some designs sample during

Quantitative Examples

Behavioral Observations: Counting Frequency, Rating Intensity Interviews: Rating specific responses of the interviewee to specific questions for quality and accuracy Survey: Gathering self-ratings of agreement or satisfaction with descriptive items and scales Case Study: Small-n or single participant study of changes in behaviors, attitudes, or other measurable variables

Qualitative Examples

Behavioral Observations: Describing process or actions. Highlighting perceived causes and effects Interviews: Recording and transcribing the entirety of the interview experience, including interviewer questions, interviewee responses, gaps in conversation, etc., viewing all as meaningful information and reflections of interviewees' own reality. Survey: Eliciting writing responses to open-ended questions or comment-request boxes Case Study: More in-depth review of individualizing cases, with goal of providing detail regarding context and process, rather than generalize quantified effects.

(4) Phenomenological Research Design

Best used when it is important to understand several individuals' common or shared experiences of a phenomenon or it would be important to understand these common experiences in order to develop practices or policies, or to develop a deeper understanding about the features of the phenomenon This turns on the lived experiences of individuals and how they have both subjective experiences of the phenomenon and objective experiences of something in common with other people

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Chambord

Black Raspberries, from France, its purple.

Mixed Methods Data Analytical Procedures - Blending

Blending Variable, category, or theme generated from one type of analysis is tested under another type of data or a variable, category, or factor is created by combining qualitative and quantitative data.

Blending

Blending into a single statement Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2006 Example: "What are the implications of the No Child Left Behind Act on parents?"

Mixed Methods

Blending of research tools, qualitative/quantitative, both in one study

Viewpoint

Both deductive & inductive, Multiple influences exist

What is depth vs breadth of info?

Both in different strands of the research design

Data Numerical

Both numerical (quantitative) and narrative/visual (qualitative)

Concurrent Designs

Both qualitative and quantitative data is collected simultaneously -neither design is a core (but need to maintain the integrity of both methods)

Why and how does feasibility of using mixed methods need to be assessed beforehand?

Both the RESEARCH QUESTION and the REQUIRED DATA will be the main determinants of the methods used. To a lesser extent, the choice of methods may be influenced by feasibility, the research team's skills and experience, and time constraints. Secondly, priority of methods will relate to the emphasis placed on each method in the study.

What does "blend" mean?

Build in a blender, then pour into glass

What does "shake and strain" mean?

Build in a mixing glass with ice, then strain in to chilled stemmed glass

How to tell which is the dominant design?

CAPS=the dominant design (QUAL or QUAN)

Mixed Method Research Designs Remeber

CEE

Ethnography

Can be "critical ______," which advocates for marginalized people...by sharing their story you are theoretically advocating for them

The Social Justice Design (Definition and Purpose)

Can be based on any of the 3 basic mixed methods design. Purpose: to address one or more injustices faced by some group in society and ultimately evoke societal change.

Limitations of Case Studies

Can't generalize the results to the wider population. Researchers' own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias). Difficult to replicate. Time consuming.

What is convenience sampling?

Captive sample - you ask everyone in the waiting room to fill out your survey Volunteer sample - you advertise your study (e.g. internet) and people self-select to participate

Name 3 Purple Drinks

Chambord, Blackberry Brandy, Creme de Cassis

Concurrent: Nested

Characterized by: A nested approach that gives priority to one of the methods and guides the project, while another is embedded or "nested." Purpose: The purpose of the nested method is to address a different question than the dominant or to seek information from different levels.

Sequential: Exploratory

Characterized by: An initial phase of qualitative data collection and analysis followed by a phase of quantitative data collection and analysis. Purpose: To explore a phenomenon. This strategy may also be useful when developing and testing a new instrument

Sequential: Transformative

Characterized by: Collection and analysis of either quantitative or qualitative data first. The results are integrated in the interpretation phase. Purpose: To employ the methods that best serve a theoretical perspective.

Sequential: Explanatory

Characterized by: Collection and analysis of quantitative data followed by a collection and analysis of qualitative data. Purpose: To use qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of a quantitative study.

Concurrent: Transformative

Characterized by: The use of a theoretical perspective reflected in the purpose or research questions of the study to guide all methodological choices. Purpose: To evaluate a theoretical perspective at different levels of analysis.

Concurrent: Triangulation

Characterized by: Two or more methods used to confirm, cross-validate, or corroborate findings within a study. Data collection is concurrent. Purpose: Generally, both methods are used to overcome a weakness in using one method with the strengths of another.

Member checks

Checking in with participants to make sure that what you're finding is accurate...see if there is anything misstated or anything that should be added

Name 5 Red Drinks

Cherry Brandy, Slow Gin, Creme De almond, dubonnet, Campari

Exploring Data in Quantitative Data Analysis

Conduct a descriptive analysis (e.g., mean, SD, & variance in responses) & examine quality of scores from data collection instruments to assess validity & reliability

(2) Research Paradigm

Consider various research paradigms, philosophies, and worldviews

Reliability

Consistancy of measures allowing for repititions yeilding the same result

Dependability

Consistency of results; would the results be the same if the study was repeated or is another researcher analyzed the data?; consistency

What is one of the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research?

Context- in quantitative research you strip out the context in order to be as objective as you possibly can whereas in qualitative research the context is really important.

Continuous Variable

Continuous variables can have an infinite number of different values between two given points. As shown above, there cannot be a continuous scale of children within a family. If height were being measured though, the variables would be continuous as there are an unlimited number of possibilities even if only looking at between 1 and 1.1 meters.

Mixed Method Research Designs List

Convergent Explanatory Exploratory

What design is it when qual and quan are used at the same time?

Convergent mixed methods design

What type of design is it if a researcher used qual and quant questions in a questionnaire

Convergent mixed methods design

Triangulation Design Convergent model:

Convergent model: Compare and contrast qual w quan results; do they tell us the same story? E.g. obtain self-ratings of health using a questionnaire as well as conduct a media HX E.g. Andrewson, Newell, and Kilcoyne (1999) motivation behind college plasma donors -Questionnaire and focus groups Emphasize both qual and quan

Sequential Designs

Data collected in 2nd tradition AFTER analysis of data collected in the 1st tradition -in sequential designs, one tradition follows the other, whereas in concurrent designs, the data are being collected simultaneously ---sequential designs: you have to wait in order to complete the second phase ---concurrent designs: you can do the second phase at the same time

Integration can occur at what stages of research process

Data collection, analysis, interpretation, knowledge translation

Concurrent Triangulation Design

Data from one tradition is used to verify, complement, and fortify findings from the other -role of social and physical environment in recovery from OA ---quantitative (cross-sectional survey) -Experience of patients with OA ---qualitative (phenomenology)

Triangulation Design Data transformation model:

Data transformation model: E.g. participants complete questionnaire in which they indicate the symptoms they exp and to what degree they exp those symptoms as well as open ended Qs regarding their health -Open ended Qs are transformed into quan data ---X number of people reported this symptom in the open-ended response

What is step 3?

Decide how the data will be used - This will help you to determine how to design the data collection aspect of your study Collect quantitative data, then qualitative data Collect qualitative data, then quantitative data Collect at the same time

Analyzing Data in Quantitative Data Analysis

Deductive; Confirmatory; Used to test theory Validate/check reliability of scores from past instrument use. current data & internal & external validity of results.

Types of Comparative Research

Descriptive & Analytic

Descriptive

Descriptive Quantify responses on one or more variables. For example, "What is the graduation rate of doctoral students in a distance education program?"

Sequential Explanatory

Design type order quantitative, then qualitative; collection and analysis or quantitative data followed by collection and analysis of qualitative data

What is the first step?

Determine whether research question is quantitative or qualitative

Slump

Determines how workable the mix will be. Ideal slump is a mix with the greatest stiffness that can still be placed adequately

Quantitative Research Questions

Developed a priori (deductive) Narrows the purpose by indicating specific variables to test Addresses WHAT & WHY questions Three categories: descriptive; comparative; relationship

Thematic Coding

Differs from other, more quantitatively oriented forms of content coding. The goal of thematic coding is typically to extract themes from a set of data. Typically, these data are verbal in nature, either collected via open-ended survey or interview questions, or extracted from communication records (e.g., e-mail, or Internet chat logs). Thematic coding also can be used with records of speeches or recorded dialogues between people. Or even video capturing a person's movements and nonverbal behaviors.

Define confounding.

Effects of an additional variable that might be responsible for the observed association.

Sequential Transformative Model

Either quant or qual first in the sequence, either being the priority or both having equal priority, integrating the two phases in the interpretation process.

Mixed Methods Research Questions

Embed quantitative & qualitative research questions in the same question. The wording of research questions identifies priority. (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998)

What is embedded?

Embedded occurs in studies with both primary and secondary research questions in which different methods are employed to address each question

Weighting Embedded

Embedded: Unequal emphasis

Timing of data Embedded:

Embedded: Usually One-phase (concurrent) but cld be two-phases (sequential)

Mixing: How are the quan and qual data sets related or mixed? Embedded:

Embedded: embedded (mix by embedding one in the other)

Weighting: Triangulation

Emphasis or priority of quan vs qual methods Triangulation: Usually equal emphasis

Triangulation

Enhance validity by using different types of data to measure the same phenomenon. Example : Questionnaire with quantitative closed and qualitative open-ended questions.

QUAN + QUAL

Equal status / concurrent

QUAN --> QUAL or QUAL --> QUAN

Equal status / sequential

(6) Ethnographic Research Design

Ethnography is appropriate if the needs are to describe how a cultural group works and to explore the beliefs, language, behaviors, and issues facing the group, such as power, resistance, and dominance.

Summative

Evaluates the final effects or benefits of a program, product, or practice. Looks at outcomes and impacts. -Outcomes, cost-effectiveness, cost-benefit analysis, impact, meta-analysis, and management system

Process evaluation

Evaluation research that investigates the process of service delivery.

Multilevel/Expansion Example

Ex: Cross-case comparisons of in-depth narratives or case studies of effective leaders or organizations - Kerrigan's study of community college's organizational capacity

Mixed Methods

Example: healthcare-related interventions, which are implemented in a highly complex environments, answering the question of why some interventions work while others fail is not easily done within a quantitative framework. Such a question can be more comprehensively addressed with the use of a qualitative or combo of qualitative and quantitative (mixed methods) strategy.

What is expansion?

Expanding the depth of the study by using different methods for different research components

Natural Science

Explain or clarify the rules of the natural world using scientific methods - Bio - Physics - Chem

Explanatory (MM Research Design) Remember

Explain the QUAN results with QUALity data

Mixed Methods Conclusions

Explain the anticipated & unanticipated contribution of quantitative & qualitative results to inform meta-inferences

Basic Mixed Methods Designs

Explanatory Sequential, Exploratory Sequential, Convergent

Mixing: How are the quan and qual data sets related or mixed? Explanatory

Explanatory: Connected

Weighting Explanatory

Explanatory: Quan followed by Qual - emphasize quan ususally

Exploratory Design Purpose

Exploratory Design (a.k.a. sequential exploratory) Purpose: Use qual methods to help develop quan methods -If doing an exp where there is no questionnaire out there, e.g. an instrument to measure buddies for anorexia

Transformative Mixed Methods

Exploratory sequential, explanatory sequential, or convergent approaches are incorporated within a social justice framework

Mixing: How are the quan and qual data sets related or mixed? Exploratory

Exploratory: Connected

Weighting Exploratory

Exploratory: Qual followed by Quan usually emphasize the qualitative

Timing of data Exploratory:

Exploratory: Two phase (sequential) qual then quan

Exploratory (MM Research Design) Remember

Explore the QUAL data for better QUAN

What is the generalizability of MMS?

External validity or transferability

Qualitative Data Techniques

Field Notes • Observation-focused • Comprehensive: complete; including all or nearly all elements or aspects of something. "A comprehensive list of sources" of or relating to understanding. Behavioral observation, interviews, Case studies, surveys

Conditional Matrix

Final and optional step of study process to create matrix of theory in context of historical, cultural, social and economic conditions which influence the central phenomenon. Theory from the smallest to broadest perspective. Grand theory level

Ethnography

Findings describe the shared beliefs, practices, rituals, artifacts, and/or behaviors of a group

open coding

First step- segmenting collected data into categories. Each category has properties and look for data to dimensionalize properties.

Case Study

Focus is on trying to better understand a unique or exemplary unit or a standard typical unit

What is the Focus Method Question Reasoning Sampling Method Strength of quantitative research

Focus: How Methods: experiment & survey Question: how many? Reasoning: deductive/logic Sampling method: statistical Strength: reliability

What is the Focus Method Question Reasoning Sampling Method Strength of qualitative research

Focus: what and why Methods: observation and interview question: what is x, why is x? Reasoning: iterative Sampling method: theoretical Strength: validity

Multivariate Questions

Follow descriptive questions; compare or relate variables

Post-positivism

Traditional research form, als called scientific method, or postitivist research, and empirical science. It challenges the notion of absolute truth of knowledge, we cannot be "positive" about claims of knowledge. Based on Comte, Mill, Newton, Locke and Durkheim. Problems studied reflect need to identify causes that influence outcome. It is reductionistic, meaning to reduce idea into small discrete set of ideas to test. Knowledge gathered is based on observations. As laws and theories govern the world, these need to be tested and verified. Begins with theory, data collection supporting or refuting theory. Instead of saying they proved a theory they "fail to reject the hypothesis".

Operational Form Hypothesis

Hypothesis written so that it represent specific information about the variables in the study

Analyzing and Interpreting Mixed Methods Data

Ideally, a researcher will make a decision before he or she collects the data about whether he or she will: give the qualitative data and quantitative data equal weight or give a higher importance to one form of data over another

What is an extreme case analysis?

Identified from either qual or quan and further examined using complementary data collection and analysis to further explore the nature of the outliers and refine your interpretation of the results - quant outliers are identified and their qual data is explored - extreme cases identified in constant comparative analysis of qual data are further examined in quan analysis to refine interpretation of qual data

Variables of experimental method design

Identify independent variables. One IV must be treatment variable others can simply be used as measurements. Identify dependent variable. (the response to the criterion).

Strengths of Mixed Methods

Triangulation, comprehensiveness, enhancing generalization

Mixed Methods Research can take many forms, and many decisions need to be made including:

Implementation sequence (timing) Priority (weighting) Integration

What is the difference between sampling for quantitative vs. qualitative studies?

In QUALITATIVE study, sampling involves the intentional selection of participants who have experienced a central phenomenon, condition, or concept. In QUANTITATIVE study, sampling requires that selection include a large number of individuals who are representative of the population or a segment of the population.

What does "Up" mean when requested?

In a a stemmed Glass, Shake and strain method.

A meta-matrix

In a meta-matrix, researchers array information from qual and quan data sources; in a typical meta-matrix the rows correspond to cases (individual participants) and data from multiple sources are entered into the column

How does one analyze data in ethnography (Creswell, 2013)

In an analysis of this data, the researcher relies on the participants' views as an insider emic perspective and reports them in verbatim quotes, and then synthesizes the data filtering it through the researchers' etic scientific perspective to develop an overall cultural interpretation. This cultural interpretation is a description of the group and themes related to the theoretical concepts being explored in the study

What is the arrow symbol?

Indicates a sequential form of data collection with one form of data building on the other

What does capitalization mean?

Indicates weight or priority data

How does mixed methods take into account the different disciplinary approaches discussed in your study's lit review?

Individual Response:

Stakeholders

Individuals and groups who have some basis of concern with the program.

multiphase design

Interactive • Combines sequential and concurrent strands • Equal emphasis • Mixing at design level - first one study, which informs a second, which then informs a third mixed methods study

Qualitative Conclusions

Interpretations on how the qualitative data explained quantitative results with inferences that extend the data

Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity (Rice Specific Gravity)

It is Gmm and is the specific gravity excluding air voids. The rice density is obtained by multiplying Gmm by the density of water.

Evaluation Research

It is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing data about the quality, effectiveness, merit, or value of programs, products, or practices

What are the uses of qualitative research in practice?

It is useful for exploring new topics without preconceptions, it facilitates the discovery of information relevant to the research topic that the researcher might never have considered, it enables greater insight into and understanding of phenomena than quantitative methods alone, and it is increasingly required by funders of Health Service Research (HSR).

Timing of data: Triangulation

Triangulation: One-phase; concurrent; happens simultaneously

Mixing: How are the quan and qual data sets related or mixed? Triangulation

Triangulation: merged; we merge either in analysis or interpretation

Even though participants can't be told the true purpose of the study prior to participating, there is usually no reason they can't be told afterwards. True or false?

True

Participants must be given an opportunity to withdraw from the study with no implication. True or false?

True

exploratory design

Two Interactive phases • Qualitative priority • Sequential timing • Mixing at data collection

explanatory design

Two interactive phases • Quantitative priority (follow-up explanation) • Sequential timing • Mixing at data collection

Mixed Methods

Type of research in which a researcher or team of researchers combines elements of qualitative or quantitative research approaches for the broad purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and collaboration

Typical

Type of sampling in which you look for typical characteristics of the groups that you're wanting

Unique/examplary/extreme

Type of sampling in which you may be looking for non-traditional students or students with a 4.0 in undergrad or something

Maximum variation

Type of sampling in which you mix it up in terms of education, location, undergrad, wait or list, for example...

Phenomenology

Typically a small sample size; depth of knowledge vs. breadth of knowledge

Explanatory (MM Research Design) Purpose

Use QUAL results to explain QUAN results

Exploratory (MM Research Design) Purpose

Use QUAL to create a better QUAN tool

Explanatory (MM Research Design) Sample group for QUAL

Use a small number of people from QUAN data for QUAL

Researcher who used mixed methods must

Use both qual and quant

Triangulation

Use of multiple sources, bringing in more viewpoints

What is Complementarity?

Use one method to elaborate, illustrate, enhance, or CLARIFY the results from another method, AKA COMPLIMENT another

What is triangulation?

Use qual and quant = support hypothesis

Asphalt binder with lower stiffness

Used to increase a mixture's fatigue life by providing greater flexibility.

How do you control bias through a study design?

Using a hierarchy of evidence. Study designs are structures in a sequence starting with research designs that potentially have the least bias to those with greater potential for bias when answering a particular type of question.

What is triangulation?

Using different methods to measure the same phenomenon and increase confidence in the conclusions reached.

What is initiation?

Using one method to discover paradoxes and contradictions in findings from another method that suggest reframing research questions -- Basically the other method finds things that make you reconsider your research question

What is development?

Using results from one method to inform another

Development

Using results from one method to inform another method. Example : Observations or interview data followed by the development and pilot testing of an instrument.

Nesting

Usually means that embedded method answers a different question or seeks info from a different level than the dominant method

Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research

It is your research question that should drive the method you use, not the other way around. You may want to ask a question that requires less quantification and more qualification, fewer numbers and statistics and more detail and description. In these cases, a qualitative and/or combined qualitative and quantitative method for data collection and analysis may be useful to you.

Glaser critique of strauss and corbin

It relates the fractured codes at a much earlier level. This forces the data - it is too structured and deductive. Introduces preconceived ideas while pretending to be a grounded theory

Sequential Explanatory Model, Sequential Exploratory Model, Concurrent Triangulation Model, Concurrent Nested Model

May or may not have a particular theoretical perspective

Concurrent Transformative Model

May use either concurrent triangulation approach or the concurrent nested approach

Mixed Methods Design

Mixed Methods design is different from mixed design and mixed factor (these two are both quantitative) -mixed methods design is an integration of qualitative and quantitative methods -overcomes limitations associated with either tradition ---however, usually very time consuming and resource-consuming -Motivation/Choice of method ---appropriate for the RQ/purpose ---identify purpose and unique contribution of each method ---avoid muddling of methods

Sequential Exploratory

Mixed method research design that is focused on discovery

Explain the philosophical stance of mixed methods:

Mixed method researchers have looked for one underlying philosophy that informs both quantitative and qualitative data collection

Mixed Methods Data Collection: Sampling

Mixed method sampling procedures use various approaches to combine a traditional quantitative - probability approach - to sampling with a qualitative - purposeful approach - Creamer, 2017

Concurrent triangulation

Mixed methods research design that is focused on cross-validation within a single study--looking at two forms of data and hopefully getting similar information/answers

Sequential Explanatory

Mixed methods research design that is focused on explaining or confirming quantitative results by exploring certain results in more detail or by helping to explain unexpected results

Johnson, Ongwuegbuzie, & Turner 2007 Definition

Mixed methods research is the type of research in which a researcher or team of researchers combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches - e.g., use of qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis, inference techniques - for the broad purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration

Validity/Refers to overall trustworthiness of data and overall study.

Mixed methods studies must have strong quantitative & qualitative validity. Trustworthiness of study overall; see module 13 for specific types

How do mixed methods strengthen the validity of research findings? (Onwuegbuzie & Johnson, 2006)

Mixed methods, can capitalize on the respective strengths of each approach. Pairing quantitative and qualitative components of a larger study can achieve various aims, including corroborating findings, generating more complete data, and using results from one method to enhance insights attained with the complementary method. Quantitative Validity: ensure scores or ratings on participants are meaningful and accurate indicators of the construct being measured; that scores are consistent and stable over time; and that multiple coders produce similar results during observations (fidelity of implementation on participants, fidelity of implementation on training of coders, and inter-rater reliability on coders).

Explanatory Design Mixed:

Mixed: -Qual expands quan -Quann used to select participants for qual phase

Triangulation Design Mixed:

Mixed: Analysis and interpretation (we mix at the analysis phase or interpretation phase)

Teddlie & Tashakkori 2009

Mixing is the linking, merging, or embedding of qualitative and quantitative strands of a mixed methods study.

Fully-Integrated Mixed Methods Study

Mixing occurs across the four phases of the research process. It is not present when the strands -qualitative and quantitative -of a mixed study are kept parallel or distinct

Planning Mixed Methods Research: Integration

Mixing or purposeful integration of quantitative and qualitative components

Instruments/ Methods of data collection

Mixture of instruments & methods.

Marshall HMA mix design method

Most widely used HMA mix design method. It was designed in US army and designed to stress the entire sampler rather than just a proportion of it, it facilitates rapid testing with minimal effort, compact, light and portable.

Basic Mixed Methods Design

Mostly used in education; usually used as a starting point for educational researchers.

Triangulation Design: Multilevel model:

Multilevel model: collecting w/in an organization, different levels of quan and qual data; then we look at the overall interpretation E.g. Level of achievement of Rosemead students -qual - interview a select group of students (high low achievers) -quan - analyze the achievements of a cohort -quan - have all students complete questionnaire A level could be size and classification of sample A level could be interviewing all on an assembly line, then giving the bosses a questionnaire, the interviewing ?? Interview Faculty, give students Q, interview ??

Single subject design

Multiple observation os single individual . Target bx is established over time and referred as baseline bx. Baseline bx is assessed , treatment provided and then trmt is withdrawn. Baseline A 0--0--0--0 Tmt B x--x--x Baseline A 0--0--0--0

(3) Narrative Research Design

Narrative research is best for capturing the detailed stories or life experiences of a single individual or the lives of a small number of individuals; Narrative inquiry is stories lived and told

Embedded Mixed Methods

Nests one or more forms of data within a larger design

When can mixed method researcher choose to disregard data?

Never

What does "straight-up" or Neat mean?

No Ice, may be room temperature when stirred with ice and strained

Levels of Participation in Ethnographies

Non-participation, Passive Participation, Moderate Participation, Active Participation

Quantitative Data Collection: Probability Sampling

Numbers Characterized by large sample size Designed to capture breadth & prioritizes the value of a randomly collected sample Sample size of 50 units recommended for representativeness Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009

Pre-experimental designs

One shot case study: Grp A X------O One grp pre test post test design: GrpA 01----X----02 Static grp comparison or post test only with nonequivalent grps: grp A X----0 grp B ----0 alternative treatment post test only with nonequivalent grps design: grp A X1----0 grp B X2----0

Grounded Theory Questions Creswell 2007 Corbin & Strauss 1990

Open coding: What is the process? what are the steps in the process? How did X unfold? For Axial coding (more detail): What caused x to occur?- causal conditions/ What was central to the process? -core phenomenon/ What strategies were incurred through the process - strategies/ What effect occurred? - consequences

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Grand Marnier

Orange Flavored Cognac, from france, tan

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Blue Curacao

Orange taste, France? blue

What does PICO stand for?

P - a population being considered I - an intervention C - A comparator (if relevant) O - An outcome of interest

What are the four considerations when forming a clinical question?

P - population being considered I - intervention, prognostic factor, assessment etc. C - comparator (if relevant) O - outcomes of interest

p value

P values evaluate how well the sample data support the devil's advocate argument that the null hypothesis is true. It measures how compatible your data are with the null hypothesis. How likely is the effect observed in your sample data if the null hypothesis is true? High P values: your data are likely with a true null. Low P values: your data are unlikely with a true null. A low P value suggests that your sample provides enough evidence that you can reject the null hypothesis for the entire population.

Strategies for Achieving Interpretive Validity

Participant Feedback and low inference descriptors

What does informed consent involve?

Participants basing their voluntary participation in research on a full understanding of the possible risks involved.

External audit

Peer review by someone not involved in teh study

Focus

Pluralistic Multi-lens

Discussion

Portion of the research article where the integration of qualitative and quantitative data is seen most

In which paradigm do researchers take an objective stance in the research process as they are external to it?

Positivism

What are the 2 different paradigms in health research? (+ describe the differences)

Positivism (quantitative) vs Interpretivism (qualitative) knowledge is objective vs subjective hard data vs meaning has action can be measured vs relies on interpretation natural + social world are same vs social world is diff to natural world

Philosophical worldview (aka paradigms, epistemologies, ontologies).

Post-positivism, Soc. Constructivism, Advocacy/Participatory, Pragmatism

What does "Layer" Mean?

Pour alcohol so that it is separated, creating layers

What is concurrent sampling strategy for MM?

Probability and purposive sampling used at the same time Allows researchers to integrate results from QUAL and QUAN parts of research which allows for confirmation & cross-validation of results Purposively drawn sample a subset of probability sample Data are collected at the same time

Transformative designs: Procedure

Procedure: any of the 4 mixed methods designs: triangulation, embedded, explanatory, or exploratory; Use the one that best fits and maximizes change e.g. Reearcher approaches all aspects thru the paradigm (lens) of advocacy.

Embedded Design Procedures:

Procedures: Quan and Qual data sets are combinded at the design level; when designing the exp you are embedding qual or quan aspects to it;

Explanatory Design Procedures:

Procedures: Two-phase design -Phase 1: collect quan data - ususally emphasis is here -Phase 2: collect qual data

Triangulation Design Procedures:

Procedures: one-phase design in which quan and qual are collected simultaneously and are given equal weight; interpretation is based on both results (equal wt) e.g. I give them a questionnaire and ? right afterward

Formative evaluation

Process evaluation that is used to shape and refine program operations.

Salkind described research as?

Process through which new knowledge is discovered

Representing Data in Qualitative Data Analysis

Provide evidence by including subthemes, subcategories, cite specific quotes, & use different sources of data to cite multiple items of evidence

Strengths of Case Studies

Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information. Provides insight for further research. Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Phenomenology

Purpose is to better describe and understand a phenomenon that can only be understood from the perspective of those that experience it (insider)

Ethnography

Purpose is to describe a culture from the perspective of an insider

Grounded Theory

Purpose is to generate theory from the data that explains a process, action, or interaction

Convergent Design

QUAL + QUAN -Both are equally important and done at the same time -The most challenging mixed methods design

Exploratory Sequential

QUAL + quan -Qualitative data is collected first and is weighed more heavily than quantitative

Exploratory Sequential Design

QUAL -> quan - Qualitative data are collected first and given more emphasis or attention than the quantitative data.

Explicitly labeled mixing question - Creamer & Ghoston, 2014

QUALITATIVE: What values, skills, and outcomes are identified in mission statements in colleges/schools of engineering...? MIXED: Do the values endorsed in mission statements differe between institutions with lower-and higher-than-average enrollment of women?

Convergent Parallel Design

QUAN + QUAL - Quantitative and qualitative data are given equal attention and emphasis and are collected concurrently throughout the same study.

Explanatory Sequential

QUAN + qual -Quantitative data is collected first and is weighed more heavily than qualitative

Explanatory Sequential Design

QUAN -> qual - Quantitative data are collected first and are more heavily weighted than are qualitative data.

What is the sequence of MM sampling strategies?

QUAN->QUAL or QUAL->QUAN Information from the first sample needed to draw the second sample Commonly used in health and behavioural sciences research

What is exploratory?

Qual data and results -> building -> quan data and results -> compare/relate interpret

Qual phase followed by a quan phase?

Qual design with supplementary quan

Cross-Case Comparison

Qualitative and quantitative data are consolidated by creating profiles that are then used to test or expand upon qualitatively or qualitatively derived themes for the purposes of comparison

Explain relative timing:

Qualitative and quantitative data collection (concurrent of sequential)

Embedded mixed-methods design

Qualitative and quantitative methods are used concurrently in the research but one is given priority.

Integrated mixed-methods design

Qualitative and quantitative methods are used concurrently, and both are given equal importance

Staged mixed-methods design

Qualitative and quantitative methods are used in sequence in the research and one is given priority.

Interviews, focus groups, document analysis, participant observation

Qualitative data

Mixed Methods Data Analytical Procedures - Converting

Qualitative data is converted to quantitative data or vise versa so that they can be analyzed together.

What is purposive sampling?

Qualitative designs Selecting specific participants based on the purposes of the study Example: Research question aims to describe treatment experiences in younger and older depressed and non-depressed people Purposive sampling based on clinical diagnosis or cutoff on validated measure of depression

Exploratory Sequential Design

Qualitative implemented 1st, then quantitative

What is an interpretivism paradigm?

Qualitative research

How are stakeholders' concerns addressed through decision of research methodology? (Mertens, 2007)

Qualitative research often answers questions of community perspective, whereas quantitative research provides specific outcomes. Combining both provide deeper/ more honest perspectives on an issue.

What is the context of qualitative research?

Qualitative researchers study things in their natural setting, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.

Sequential Exploratory Model

Qualitative then Quantitative with qualitative being the priority, integrating the two method in the interpretation phase.

In what paradigm order would you conduct a mixed methodology research to identify key features to include in a survey?

Qualitative then quantitative

Three types of research design (plan or proposal to conduct research, which involves intersection of philosophy, strategies of inquiry and specific methods).

Qualitative, Quantitative, Mixed Method

Convergent Parallel Design

Qualitative/Quantitative methods implemented at the same time. Findings integrated/interpreted together

Explain what is meant by convergent design:

Quan and Qual data merge to form interpretation

What is explanatory?

Quan data & results -> follow up-> qual data& results -> compare/relate interpret

Based on quan results, researchers ask subjects to form focus groups to discuss process?

Quan design with supplementary qual

What is triangulation/convergent?

Quant (data and results) -> compare/relate interpret <- qual data and results

Priority and Timing

Quantitative Dominant, Qualitative Dominant, or equal dominance. Timing is either Concurrent or Sequential

Meta-Analysis

Quantitative analysis of published research on a specific topic

Concurrent Triangulation

Quantitative and qualitative research occurring simultaneously

Questionnaires, performance tests, heart rate, cytokines

Quantitative data

What is probability sampling?

Quantitative designs - Randomly select a large sample from a population so as to minimize the chance of drawing a representative sample

What is Reliability? Why is it important to report in your study?

Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. While reliability is necessary, it alone is not sufficient. For a test to be reliable, it also needs to be valid.

Dictates Research Design

Research Question

Philosophical World Views Dictate the

Research Question

How do you link research questions to the mixed methods data analysis procedures? (Onwuebuzie & Leech, 2006)

Research goals/purpose shape research questions by taking these first steps of analysis : 1.) What is goal? 2.) What are objectives? 3.) What is your rationale for mixing methods per research questions? 4.) What sampling design will you use? 5.) Decision on design

What is a research paradigm?

Research paradigms associated with both sides of the debate, e.g. quantitative: positivism, qualitative: interpretivism or constructivism

Mixed methods

Research that combines qualitative and quantitative methods in an investigation of the same or related research question(s).

What is the epistemological stance of qualitative research?

Research using methods such as participant observation or case studies which result in a narrative, descriptive account of a setting or practice.

Convergent Parallel Design

Researcher collects quantitative and qualitative data at the same time, analyzes them separately, and then compares results to see if the findings confirm (or disconfirm)

Convergent

Researcher converges qualitative and quantitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis

Ethnography

Researcher immerses themselves in a culture by either being a participant observer or a total participant (researcher should remain detached enough to reflect accurately on experience)

What is an advantage to using mixed methods?

Researcher incorporates the strengths of qual+quan

How do multiple perspectives tie in with mixed methods?

Researcher needs to acknowledge the theoretical/philosophical views , identify their components, and then relate them to the mixed methods questions, as well as results.

Phenomenology

Researcher reflects on and identifies personal beliefs/biases about this phenomenon and "brackets" those beliefs so they will not interfere with understanding

Sequential

Researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand the findings of one method with the other

Multiphase Mixed Methods

Researchers conduct several mixed methods projects

Transformative mixed methods

Researchers incorporate elements of the convergent, explanatory sequential, or exploratory sequential approaches within a social justice framework to help a marginalized group

How should a researcher determine which methods and data collection to use?

Researchers should aim for PERSUASIVE QUALITATIVE data procedures, and RIGOROUS QUANTITATIVE data analysis.

Quant/Qual research and theory

Researchers use theory in quant. res. to provide an explanation or prediction about the relationship among variables in the study. A theory explains how and why variables are related. in Qual res. theory is a broad explantation , may also be a theoretical lens that raises questions.

Grounded Theory

Sample size is relatively large since you're trying to generate a theory (> 20 participants is not uncommon); looking for breadth vs. depth of knowledge

Complementarity

Seeking elaboration and clarification of the results from one method with results from the other method - explanatory design. Example: Merging both types of data in one data set.

Purpose is to use the qual data results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings from a primarily quantitative study. Goal is to explain to interpret relationships

Sequential Explanatory Model

Purpose is to use quantitative data and results to assist in the interpretation of qualitative findings. Goal is to explore phenomenon.

Sequential Exploratory Model

Name 3 sequential models

Sequential explanatory, sequential exploratory, sequential tranformative

Transferability

Similar to external validity; can you relate the participants' experiences to your experiences?; can the findings be applied to other situations?

Credibility

Similar to internal validity; can you believe the results?

Concurrent Nested Model

Simultaneous data collection, one method predominates and guides the project, the less dominant method is nested within the more dominant method

Concurrent Mixed Methods Sampling

Single sample of participants Qualitative and Quantitative data collected simultaneously and around the same time point

Convergent (MM Research Design) Procedure

Study QUAL and QUAN at the same time; compare the studies of both, and look for similarities and differences

Exploratory (MM Research Design) Procedure

Study QUAL first, and then use the QUAL to create a better QUAN tool

Explanatory (MM Research Design) Procedure

Study QUAN results first and if there's an outlier, then do QUAL results

Rheology

Study of deformation and flow of matter. HMA pavement that deforms and flows to much (not stiff enough) is susceptible to rutting and bleeding. If to stiff (does not deform much), pavement susceptible to fatigue cracking

Sequential Mixed Methods Sampling

Subsequent sampling strategy is directly linked to the results of analytical procedures earlier in the study

What kind of relationship is between quantitative and qualitative data collection?(concurrent or sequential)

Temporal relationship

Pilot-testing

Testing a smaller sample of the population in order to work out any flaws in the design.

What is the core assumption for using a mixed methods study?

That when an investigator combines both statistical trends and stories, that this combination provides a better understanding of the problem than either trends or stories alone.

What is validity? Why is it important to report in your study?

Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure. More specifically, validity applies to both the design and the methods of your research. Validity in data collection means that your findings truly represent the phenomenon you are claiming to measure. Valid claims are solid claims. Validity is the best available approximation to the truth of a given proposition, inference, or conclusion. Measures, samples and designs don't 'have' validity -- only propositions can be said to be valid. Technically, we should say that a measure leads to valid conclusions or that a sample enables valid inferences. It is a proposition, inference or conclusion that can 'have' validity.

Outcomes

The impact of the program process on the cases processed.

Emic Perspective

The insider's perspective

Qualitative research

The means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. Process involves emerging questions and procedures, data collected in the participant's setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes and researcher makes meaning of data. Report has flexible structure. Strategy of inquiry: Ethnography, Grounded theory, case study, phenomenological, narrative.

Quantitative Research Purpose

Variable oriented - offers breadth Addresses WHAT & WHY questions Testing & validating already constructed hypotheses & theories

Quantitative theory

Variables (aka constructs) (characteristic of an individual or organization than can be measured or observed and varies among people). Differ in temporal order ( one variable precedes another in time..one variable causes another). Independent probably cause outcome. Dependent depend on independent variable and are the result aka criterion/outcome/effect. Intervening variable/mediating v. stands between dependent and independent v. Moderating variables are constructed by researcher by taking one variable and multiplying it by another to determine the joint impact of both: age X attitudes toward quality of life)

Implementation Sequence

Varies based on the needs of the study - Equal Status Simultaneous, Equal Status Sequential, Different Weight Simultaneous, Different weight sequential

Literary Alternative Hypothesis

The more first-generation college students use student support services, the more they will persist academically.

Operational Alternative Hypothesis

The more that first-generation college students use the academic advising center, the more they will persist at college after their freshman year.

What do you need to determine to ensure research validity / rigour?

Was the association between variables in the quantitative research not to some other factor? Could be chance, bias or confounding factors.

The first Tub is filled with hot detergent, The second with water to rinse, whats in the third tub?

Water plus Sanitizer

Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis (H0) is a hypothesis which the researcher tries to disprove, reject or nullify. The 'null' often refers to the common view of something. H0: there is no difference between the Vitamin C group and the placebo group

Explain weighting:

Weight or priority given to quantitative or qualitative research (equal or one given greater emphasis)

My Qualitative Research Example

What are the ways in which students describe their learning experiences in their mathematics classes?

The Multistage Evaluation Design (Use)

When a researcher wants to evaluate the impact of a program using both qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques.

What is expansion?

When different methods are used to assess different phenomena to expand scope/range of study.

What is complementarity?

When different methods are used to investigate different aspects/dimensions of the same phenomena to deepen/broaden interpretations and conclusions.

What is initiation?

When different methods are used to investigate different aspects/dimensions of the same phenomenon.

What is development?

When results from one method are used to inform development of other methods.

When to use mixed methods

When the research question cannot be answered adequately using either quantitative or qualitative alone

What is anonymity?

When the researcher and the people who read about the research cannot link any given response to any given participant.

What is confidentiality?

When the researcher can identify a given person's response but essentially promises not to do so publicly.

When to use grounded theory? Creswell 2007

When there is no theory yet to use at all, not far enough reaching, or was based on populations other than who you'd want tested. Also theory may be needed to explain how people experience a phenomenon. Creswell says phenonmenology is better for policy and practice needs however I would disagree and say that GT is better for creating content for policy vs phenom which helps give rise to need for the policy or the evaluation of a policy but does not provide information useful for policy development strategies or actors.

What Drinks are brown?

Whiskey, scotch, dark rums, amaretto, brown cream de cacao, cognacs, kailua, drambuie, Jager, Tia Maria, Godiva, Brandy

Packer critique (Wittgenstien)

Wittgenstien - words have only applied meaning, we use patterns to give words very context-specific meanings. Cannot see words as distinct from activity and context

Qualitative Data Collection: Purposeful Sampling

Words Guided by expert judgement rather than concerns for random selection. Designed to pursue depth & complexity (Teddlie & Yu, 2007) A purposeful sample is smaller than 30 cases (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009)

Thomas Kuhn "paradigm" (5)

Worldview, general perspective, way of understanding complex world, tells us what is important/legit/reasonable, paradigms are essential to scientific inquiry

Conducting Mixed Methods Research (Research Question)

Your research question(s) dictate whether a mixed methods study is appropriate for your research, and the decision about whether one type of data will be primary and one will be secondary determines the basic design.

Theoretical Sampling Glazer & Strauss 1967

The process of developing sampling based on emerging theory of study. To select participants based on addressing areas of need from study and may increase sampling size according to need of direction of study growth. Also use deviant sampling to interview someone different from your sample that may challenge your theory not just support already made conclusions. Search for observational data is active and dynamic to emerging theory until saturation. Begins first with homogenous sampling then after theory move to heterogenous sampling to confirm or disconfirm theory.

What is the constant comparative method of data analysis in grounded theory (Creswell, 2013)

The process of taking information from data collection and comparing it to emerging categories is called the constant comparative method of data analysis

Glaser Grounded Theory

The process: basic description, conceptual coding, theorising

Script for a quantitative purpose statement

The purpose of this ......................... [experiment? survey?] study is [was? will be?] to test the theory of ......................... that ......................... [describes outcomes] or [compares? relates?] the ......................... [independent variable] to ......................... [dependent variable], controlling for ......................... [control variables] for ......................... [participants] at ......................... [research site]. The independent variable(s) ......................... will be defined as ......................... [provide a definition]. The dependent variable(s) ......................... will be defined as .................... [provide a definition], and the control and intervening variable(s) ......................... [identify the control and intervening variables] will be defined as ......................... [provide a definition].

Abstract

a brief review of the literature that summarizes major elements to enable a reader to understand the basic features of the article.

instrumental case study

a case study in which a specific case is studied only to gain an understanding of a broader phenomenon or event

Ordinal

a clear ordering of the variables. For example, suppose you have a variable, economic status, with three categories (low, medium and high). In addition to being able to classify people into these three categories, you can order the categories as low, medium and high. Now consider a variable like educational experience (with values such as elementary school graduate, high school graduate, some college and college graduate). These also can be ordered as elementary school, high school, some college, and college graduate. Even though we can order these from lowest to highest, the spacing between the values may not be the same across the levels of the variables. Say we assign scores 1, 2, 3 and 4 to these four levels of educational experience and we compare the difference in education between categories one and two with the difference in educational experience between categories two and three, or the difference between categories three and four. The difference between categories one and two (elementary and high school) is probably much bigger than the difference between categories two and three (high school and some college). In this example, we can order the people in level of educational experience but the size of the difference between categories is inconsistent (because the spacing between categories one and two is bigger than categories two and three). If these categories were equally spaced, then the variable would be an interval variable.

Triangulation

a major purpose of mixed methods research that seeks convergence, correspondence, and corroboration of results from different methods

Complementarity

a major purpose of mixed methods research that seeks elaboration, enhancement, illustration, and clarification of the results from one method with the results from the other method

Initiation

a major purpose of mixed methods research that seeks the discovery of paradox and contradiction, new perspectives and new frameworks, and the recasting of questions or results from one method with questions or results from the other method

Expansion

a major purpose of mixed methods research that seeks to extend the breadth and range of inquiry by using different methods for different inquiry components

Ethnography

a qualitative design of inquiry coming from anthropology and sociology in which the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time.

Phenomenological Research

a qualitative design of inquiry coming from philosophy and psychology in which the researcher describes the lived experiences of individuals about a phenomenon as described by participants.

Case Study

a qualitative design of inquiry found in many fields, especially evaluation, in which the researcher develops an in-depth analysis of a case, often a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals.

Grounded Theory

a qualitative design of inquiry from sociology in which the researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of participants.

Narrative Research

a qualitative design of inquiry from the humanities in which the researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide stories about their lives.

phenomenology

a qualitative research method that attempts to describe a participant's "subjective" experience; e.g. their emotions, feelings, reactions or thoughts. Akin to getting inside their head. - data collection: interviews and open-ended questionnaires - analysis/reporting: detailed narrative

case-study research

a qualitative research method that involves an intensive and detailed description and analysis of one or more cases, and the environment in which they exist/occur. - data collection: multiple sources - interviews, documents, questionnaires, tests - analysis/reporting: each case is intensively analysed as a separate entity that is then integrated into the broader literature

grounded theory

a qualitative research method used specifically to discover or generate a theory from a set of empirical data. Used mainly in social, behavioural, and clinical sciences - data collection: interviews and observations - analysis/reporting: (analysis) 3 stage process of open coding, axial coding, selective coding (reporting) descriptive and detailed

Experimental Research

a quantitative method that seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome. The researchers assesses this by providing a specific treatment to one group and withholding it from another and then determining how both groups scored on an outcome.

Survey Design

a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population.

Define qualitative research

a situated activity that locates the observer in the world; consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible; these practices transform the world; they turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to self; involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world; these researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of,m or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them

Confounding Variables

a spurious variable that is not actually measured or observed in a study.

collective/comparative case study

a study of two or more cases for the purpose of comparison

Sample

a subset of the larger population

explanatory design

a two phase mixed methods design in which qualitative data help explain initial quantitative results. this design can be ideal for researchers who are looking for additional qualitative data to explain quantitative results

exploratory design

a two-phase design where qualitative results are obtained first, followed by the quantitative in order to inform the qualitative data. this design is used when there are no measurements or instruments available to guide the study, when the variables are unknown, and when the study has no guiding framework or theory in use.

qualitative research

a type of empirical research that relies on qualitative data such as words, pictures and images. Focuses on: - individual people - subjective, non-generalisable results - intensive case studies

theoretical generalization

a type of generalisation in which theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theory

inside-outside validity

a type of mixed methods validity referring to the degree to which a researcher accurately understand and presents the participants' subjective view as well as the objective outsider view

weakness-minimisation validity

a type of mixed methods validity that refers to the degree to which the researcher combines qualitative and quantitative approaches to compensate for the weaknesses in each

Mixed Methods Research Design

a type of research design where the researcher employs both quantitative and qualitative research methods to collect and analyze data, and report research findings in a single study

nomological causation

a view of causation that seeks to determine generalised, non-specific relationships between variables

idiographic causation

a view of causation that seeks to determine what caused a particular event in a particular situation at a particular time

Literature Map

a visual picture of groupings of the literature on the topic that illustrates how your particular study will contribute to the literature, positioning your study within the larger body of research.

null hypothesis

a written statement that predicts that there is no difference, or no relationship, between groups related to a particular variable

Null Hypothesis

a written statement that predicts that there is no difference, or no relationship, between groups related to a particular variable.

4 Major Types of Mixed Methods

a. Triangulation Design (a.k.a. concurrent triangulation): b. Embedded Design (a.k.a. concurrent nested) c. Explanatory Design (a.k.a. sequential explanatory) d. Exploratory Design (a.k.a. sequential exploratory)

3 Practical implication for choosing a research design:

a. What is the overarching Question I want answered? Use a design that best answers this question b. Evaluate your expertise - get experience and knowledge before you do it c. Consider the time required

Interpretive Validity

accurately portraying the participants' subjective viewpoints and meanings

dialectical approach

advocates a dynamic back-and-forth listening to multiple perspectives and multiple forms of data

Important characteristics in aggregate selection for HMA mix design

aggregate source, gradation and size, toughness and abrasion resistance, durability and soundness, shape and texture, and even cleanliness

Glaser and Strauss grounded theory

aimed to mix strengths of quantitative research with qualitative approaches.

Convergent design

aka: triangulation design obtains different but complementary data about the central phenomenon under study qualitative and quantitative data are collected simultaneously and with equal priority

Qualitative Research

an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem.

quantitative

an approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables

Quantitative Research

an approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables.

Mixed Methods Research

an approach to inquiry involving collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks.

Research focus (mixed methods research)

an assumption that includes a multilens focus

Script for a qualitative purpose statement

The purpose of this ......................... [strategy of inquiry, such as ethnography, case study, or other type] study is [was? will be?] to ......................... [understand? explore? develop? discover?] the ......................... [central phenomenon being studied] for ......................... [the participants, such as the individual, groups, organization] at ......................... [research site]. At this stage in the research, the ......................... [central phenomenon being studied] will be generally defined as ......................... [provide a general definition].

Prior to conducting any research study, where do researchers gain approval from?

The relevant institutional ethics review boards

Accessing Participants' Life World

The research participant's inner world of subjective experience

Explanatory sequential mixed methods

The researcher collects quantitative data in the first phase, analyzes the results, and then uses the results to plan (or build on to) the second, qualitative phase

Multiphase mixed methods

The researcher conduct several mixed methods projects

Exploratory sequential mixed methods

The researcher first begins by exploring with qualitative data and analysis and then uses the findings in a second quantitative phase.

What is "restorying" in narrative research (Creswell, 2013)

The researcher may take an active role and "restory" the stories into a framework that makes sense • Restorying is the process of reorganizing the stories into some general type of framework; o During the process of restorying, the researcher provides a causal link among ideas.

What is a sequential mixed methods design?

The researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand the findings of one method with another method Explanatory: priority is on QUAN data collection and analysis Triangulation: Priority is on both QUAN and QUAL data Exploratory: Priority is on QUAL data collection and analysis

What is the fundamental principle of mixed methods research?

The researcher should mix quantitative and qualitative research methods, procedures, and paradigm characteristics in a way the resulting micture or combination has complementary strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses

Inputs

The resources, raw materials, clients, and staff that go into a program.

Outputs

The services delivered or new products produced by the program process.

Culture

The shared beliefs, values, practices, language, norms, rituals, and material things that the members of a group use to interpret and understand their world

Ethnography

Theory introduced by sociologists

Grounded Theory

Theory introduced by sociologists

Data Collection: Sampling

There are pronounced differences between quantitative & qualitative approaches to sampling. The sampling plan is important because it determines the types of statistical procedures - Collins 2007

Study purpose according the creswell + Script

There is a need for a theory on this topic that explains this process because exisiting literature is incomplete, or in need of modification" The purpose of this grounded theory study is to develop/generate a substantive theory of the process of (ex developing health literacy) for (population) at (site). At this stage in the research, (health literacy) will be generally defined as (give general definition)

Literary Null Hypothesis

There is no relationship between student support services and the academic persistence of first generation college students.

Operational Null Hypothesis

There is no relationship between the number of hours first generation students use the academic advising center and their persistence at college after their freshman year.

View of Thought and Behavior (mixed methods research)

an assumption that includes dynamic, complex, partially predictable, multiple influences (i.e. environment/nature, biology/nature, free will/agency, and chance/fortuity

Ontology- Nature of Reality/truth (mixed methods research)

an assumption that includes pluralism, appreciation of objective, subjectivism, and intersubjective realities with their interrelations

Epistemology - Theory of Knowledge (mixed methods research)

an assumption that includes pragmatism, pragmatic justification of what works for whom in specific contexts, and a mixture of universal and community-specific needs-based standards

Population

an entire unit or group; includes all units of interest in the study (i.e., all students, all clients, all employees)

Optimum asphalt binder content

asphalt binder content that results in 4 percent air voids.

Define axiology as a philosophical assumption in qualitative study (Creswell, 2007)

axiology = what is the role of values, how are values of the research expressed?; researcher acknowledges that research is value-laden and that biases are present; researcher openly discusses values that shape the narrative and includes his or her own interpretation in conjunction with the interpretations of participants

Experimental survey design

basic intent is to test impact of treatment (intervention) on an outcome, controlling for all other possibly influencing factors

Social Constructivists

believe that individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and work. These individuals develop subjective meanings of their experience.

single-phase approach

both qualitative and quantitative questions can be identified as one set of questions that does not rely on the others

intramethod mixing

both quantitative and qualitative data are obtained through the creative use of a single method of data collection

What does "on the Rocks" Mean?

build in the rocks glass with ice

researcher bias in qualitative research

can be reduced by: - reflexivity - negative case sampling

secondary prevention

case -diagnosis

Intrinsic Case Study

case study in which the researcher is only interested in understanding the individual case, organization, or event

Instrumental Case Study

case study in which the researcher studies a case in order to understand something more general than the particular case or insight into an issue or to develop, refine, or alter some theoretical explanation

Cross case analysis

cases are compared and contrasted for similarities or patterns or differences

feminist research approaches

center on and make problematic women's diverse situations and the institutions that frame those situations

Variable

characteristic of an individual/organization that can be measured or observed (aka also known as construct)

Creswell & Plano Clark 2011

characterize mixed methods research as having a set of guiding philosophical assumptions and a method where the qualitative and quantitative strand are mixed at one phase in the study

Threats to internal validity

Threats to researchers ability to draw correct inferences from the data about the population : -History -Maturation -Regression -Selection -Mortality -Diffusion of treatment (participants of control and experimental grp talk to each other ) -Compensatory/resentful demoralization (only experimental grp gets trmt, which demoralizes control grp) -Compensatory rivalry (cntrl grp feels devalaued) -Testing (participants become familiar with outcome measure and remember responses) -instrumentation

Challenges of Mixed Methods

Timelines and resources, sampling and analysis decisions, blending philosophical world views

Timing, weighting, and mixing of data (3 things that distinguish mixed methods) Timing:

Timing: What is the timing of quan and qual methods? When employed?

Purpose

To Confirm To Explore To Expand breadth & scope of research

What is the chief responsibility of ethical boards?

To ensure that the risks faced by human participants in research are minimal

Initiation

To examine extreme or negative cases or explore unexpected or contradictory findings. Example: Testing competing hypotheses

Evaluation/Intervention

To examine the effectiveness of an intervention; provide contextual understanding. Example: Collect process or outcome participant data in order to design & measure FOI & outcomes.

What is the purpose of qualitative research?

To find out how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world.

Multilevel/Expansion

To study multilevel systems such as a school or medical system. To examine nested designs (e.g. students within classrooms, schools within districts, teachers within schools).

What are three components that need to be included in a researchers log?

Tracking, field notes and memos

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Kahlua

coffee with chocolate, from Mexico, Dark Brown

methodological pluralism

combining research methods in order to build up a fuller picture of what is being studied.

Multiphase mixed methods

common in the fields of evaluation and program interventions; concurrent or sequential strategies are used in tandem over time to best understand a long-term program goal.

Between subject design

compare tow or more grps factorial design is very similar. uses tow or more treatment variables to examine effects on outcome.

Greene 2007 Meaning

conceptualized the form of inquiry as a way of looking at the social world as a paradigmatic stance that embraces a more thorough saturation of the intent

critical theory

concerned with empowering human beings to transcend the constraints placed on them by race, class, and gender

Critical Theory

concerned with empowering human beings to transcend the constraints placed on them by race, class, and gender.

Equal status vs dominant status

concerns whether a particular type of data will be emphasized more or equally to the other type of data

Name 3 Concurrent models

concurrent triangulation, concurrent nested, concurrent tranformative

pragmatism

consequences of actions, problem centered, pluralistic, real-world practice oriented

Pattern Matching

construction and testing of a complex hypothesis

charmaz

constructivist grounded theory

mixed methods research design

convergent exploratory sequential transformative, embedded or multiphase

What is a concurrent mixed method design?

converges quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem collects both forms of data at the same time during the study and then integrates the information in the interpretation of the overall results nests one form of data within another, larger data collection procedure in order to analyze different questions

Data transformation

converting qualitative data into quantitative or vice versa

Coding process of constructivist grounded theory

create descriptive codes, line by line. Raise codes to concepts through drawing on theoretical knowledge, rereading data and comparing and contrasting the codes.

concurrent time orientation

data are collected for the quantitative phase and qualitative phase of the study at the same or during approximately the same time period

Key features of Glaser and Strauss

data collection and analysis occur at the same time; codes and categories constructed from the data; constant comparison; memo-writing to elucidate categories; non-random theoretical sampling; theoretical saturation; completing the literature review after analysis

Which analysis procedure focuses on taking the quantitative and qualitative data findings and building a coherent whole?

data integration

What is a limitation to concurrent nested model?

data needs to be transformed in some way in order to integrate the data at the analysis stage, little written about how to do this

sequential time orientation

data obtained from the sample during the first phase of the study are used to shape or structure the sample selection of the next phase of the study

which analysis procedure focuses on decreasing the number of dimensions in the quantitative and or qualitative data

data reduction

Validity strategies used in research

data triangulation, extended fieldwork, external audit, investigator triangulation, low inference descriptors, methods triangulation, negative case sampling, participant feedback,

Theoretical Validity

degree to which theory or explanation fits data

qualitative sampling

depends on the purpose of the study and the information that will be most useful, the larger the number of participants, the less depth and detail that can go into the data collection with each, the number is based on this approach used in the study

descriptive studies

describe -magnitude of a health problem -adversely affected population sub-groups -identify risk factors

phenomenological research

describes the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or phenomenon - tell stories of individual experiences

distribution

description of the frequency and patterns of diseases and or negative health outcomes

Essence

description or structure of an individual(s) experience

Low-Inference Descriptors

descriptions that are very close to participants' words or are direct verbatim quotes

case study

detailed and in depth examination of one particular case

postpositivist

determination, reductionism, empirical observation and measurement, theory verification

Which of the following mixed research purposes seek to use the results from one method to inform the other method by including sampling and implementation

development

which mixed research purposes seek to use the results from one method to inform the other method by including sampling and implementation

development

Random Sample

each individual in the population has an equal probability of being selected

quantitative research questions

emphasizes measurement and variables, questions are directional, reflect the relationship variables, but place this information in the form of a question

Inference transferability

encompasses the quan term external validity and the qual term transferability; the degree to which the MM conclusions can be applied to other similar people, context, settings, time periods and theoretical representations of the phenomenon

Define epistemology as a philosophical assumption in qualitative study (Creswell, 2007)

epistemology = what counts as knowledge, how is reality known? how are knowledge claims justified? what is the relationship between the researcher and that being researched?; subjective evidence from participants; researcher attempts to lessen distance between himself or herself and that being researched; researcher relies on quotes as evidence from participants; collaborates, spends time in field with participants, and becomes an insider

benefits of mixed methods design

expand understanding, help clarify and assist in answering difficult questions, allows researcher to use two types of data to verify findings, produce richer data

ethnographic research

explain the shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language of a culture sharing group

Purpose is either?

exploratory or confirmatory

case study research

exploring an issue or problem in a single case - the case is bounded by time/place

Achieve Theoretical Validity

extended fieldwork; theory triangulation; pattern matching; peer review

Gatekeepers

group members who control a researcher's access to the group

embedded data

have a larger (quantitative or qualitative) study with another smaller study within it

hermeneutic phenomenology

hermenutical phenomenology - research as oriented toward lived experience (phenomenology) and interpreting the "texts" of life (hermeneutics)

Postpositivists

hold a deterministic philosophy in which causes determine effects or outcomes. These problems reflect the need to identify and assess the causes that influence outcomes.

Transformatives

holds that research inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and a political change agenda to confront social oppression at whatever level it occurs.

transformative worldview

holds that research inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and political change agenda to confront social oppression at whatever level it occurs

there are still some details of mixed research which remain to be worked out by research methodologists, including all except?

how to interpret conflicting results

3 types/forms of theories in quantitative research

hypotheses if-then logic statements visual models

Effect Size

identifies the strength of the conclusions about group differences or the relationship among variables in quantitative studies.

2

identifying factors that cause the disease or health problem -capitalize on naturally occurring differences in a population

Case studies are

in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews). The research may also continue for an extended period of time, so processes and developments can be studied as they happen. The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies. Most of this information is likely to be qualitative (i.e. verbal description rather than measurement) but the psychologist might collect numerical data as well.

qualitative research questions

includes broad, open ended questions that answer the how or what about a particular phenomenon. example; how does college counseling impact the coping mechanisms of college freshman?

mixed methods research

incorporates elements of both quantitative an qualitative approaches

Moderating Variables

independent variables that affect the direction and/or the strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables. Typically found in experiments.

vales below 1.0

indicate reduced risk

Qualitative methods

instead of relying on numbers, counts, and frequency-type data, qualitative research will often involve the collection and analysis of detailed observations, stories or narrative histories, sounds, picture or video. • Qualitative methods often bring a fresh or new perspective to existing research in fields of science that have been dominated by quantitative methods. • When combined with quantitative techniques, qualitative strategies can often help researchers to more strongly support their research design choices and final inferences.

meta-inferences

integrative inferences or conclusions based on qualitative and quantitative data and findings

A multilevel relationship

involves selecting samples from different levels of hierarchy, usually this means sampling from different but related populations

misclassification of exposure

measurement error (particularly as a result of accurate recall)

Participant Feedback

member checking to see if participants agree with the researcher's statements, interpretations, and conclusions

Researcher - as Detective

metaphor applied to researcher looking for the local cause of a single event

Case Study Research

method in which the researcher provides a detailed description and account of one or more cases

Define methodology as a philosophical assumption in qualitative study (Creswell, 2007)

methodological = what is the process of research, how is the research conducted? what is the language of research; researcher uses inductive logic, studies the topic within its context, and uses an emerging design; researcher works with particulars (details) before generalizations, describes in detail the context of the study, and continually revises questions from experiences in the field

parallel

methodologies occur currently in the study

Grounded Theory

methodology for generating and developing a theory that is grounded in the particular data

characteristics of qualitative inquiry

natural setting researcher as key instrument multiple methods complex reasoning through inductive and deductive logic participants meanings emergent design reflexivity holistic account

Qualitative Research

non-numeric research such as words, pictures, images, etc. . .

Reactive Effect

non-typical behavior of participants because of the presence of the researcher

Aspects of a good narrative

o Focuses on a single individual (or two or three individuals) o Collects stories about a significant issue related to this individual's life o Develops a chronology that connects different phases or aspects of a story o Tells a story that reports what was said (themes), how it was said (unfolding story), and how speakers interact or perform the narrative o Reflexively brings him/her self into the study

(5) Grounded Theory Research Design

o Grounded theory is a good design to use when a theory is not available to explain or understand a process; o The literature may have models available, but they were developed and tested on samples and populations other than those of interest to the qualitative researcher; o Theories may be present, but they are incomplete because they do not address potentially valuable variables or categories of interest to the researcher; o On a practical side, a theory may be needed to explain how people are experiencing a phenomenon, and the grounded theory developed by the researcher will provide such a general framework (Creswell, 2013, p. 88)

Creswell's criteria for good case study research

o Is there a clear definition of the "case" or "cases" in the study? o Is the "case" (or are the "cases") used to understand a research issue or sued because the "case" has (or "cases" have) intrinsic merit? o Is there a clear description of the "case"? o Are themes identified for the "case"? o Are assertions or generalizations made from the "case" analysis? o Is the researcher reflexive or self-disclosing about his or her position in the study?

Challenges of narrative research

o Need to collect extensive information about the participant o Need to have a clear understanding of the context of the individual's life o Takes a keen eye to identify in the source material that gathers the particular stories to capture the individual's experiences o Active collaboration with the participant's stories as well as be reflective about their own personal and political background, which shapes how they "restory" the account (Creswell, 2013, p. 76)

Non interview forms of data collection

observations, documents, audiovisual

Theoretical Saturation

occurs when no new information relevant to the GT is emerging from the data and the GT has been sufficiently validated

analyzed using odds ratio:

odds ratio= an estimate of the relative risk null=0 >1.0= increased risk <1.0= reduced risk

time order

one of the two dimensions of a mixed methods design Time order has two levels: 1. concurrent (the qual and quan parts are conducted concurrently; e.g QUAL + QUAN) 2. sequential (the qual and quan parts occur one after the other; e.g. QUAL > QUAN)

Time Order

one of two dimensions used in MM design matrix and its levels are concurrent and sequential

Paradigm Emphasis

one of two dimensions used in MM matrix and its levels are equal status and dominant status

Categorical (Nominal)

one that has two or more categories, but there is no intrinsic ordering to the categories. For example, gender is a categorical variable having two categories (male and female) and there is no intrinsic ordering to the categories. Hair color is also a categorical variable having a number of categories (blonde, brown, brunette, red, etc.) and again, there is no agreed way to order these from highest to lowest. A purely categorical variable is one that simply allows you to assign categories but you cannot clearly order the variables. If the variable has a clear ordering, then that variable would be an ordinal variable, as described below.

mediating variable

one that mediates the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable

Temporal order

one variable affects/causes another variable

Researcher bias

only noticing data that support one's prior expectations

Define ontology as a philosophical assumption in qualitative study (Creswell, 2007)

ontology = what is the nature of reality? ; reality is multiple as seen through many views; researcher reports different perspectives as themes develop in the findings

Qualitative for ontology, epistemology and goals

ontology: many realities Epistemology: varied sample Goals: Understanding and discovery

substantive coding part 2

open codes are connected to core categories

Substantive coding part 1

open coding or fracturing. immersion in the words of the data. line by line analysis generating as many codes as possible. constantly comparing until possible overarching theme emerges

Strauss and corbin process

open coding, axial coding, selective coding

Objectives of HMA mix design

optimize deformation resistance, fatigue resistance, low temperature cracking resistance, durability, moisture damage resistance, skid resistance, and workability

embedded design

places one type of data in the lead role with the other type of data acting as a "supporting" actor. is used when researchers need to answer questions from a different perspective and their research has primarily focused on one type of data. useful when the researcher needs to insert a qualitative component within a quantitative design

which of the following is best represented by both quantitative and qualitative data being analyzed by quantitative dat analysis techniques in the same study

practical theory

when a researcher can use the strengths of an additional method to overcome the limitations in another method this is know as what?

principle of nonoverlapping weaknesses

aims of constructivist grounded theory

prioritises the studied phenomenon rather than the methods of studying it. Researcher looks at their own assumptions and implicit meanings. More interpretive, meaning co-created.

Dominance

priority given to quantitative or qualitative approach

What is evidence based practice?

process of making informal professional decisions Integration of: - clinical expertise - best available research evidence - patient's values + circumstances - info from practice context

Style manuals

provide guidelines for creating a scholarly style of a manuscript, such as a consistent format for citing references, creating headings, presenting tables and figures, and using nondiscriminatory language.

Survey design (quant)

provides a quant or numeric description of trends, attitudes or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. From the sample results, researcher generalizes claims about the population.

Survey Research

provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population.

survey research

provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population.

Mixed methods research

provides a way to investigate the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of human thought and behavior in its various contexts

What is the purpose of MMS?

purpose: generate sample that will address research question

converge data

put together findings from qualitative and quantitative to determine results

Shorthand notation

qual = Qualitative quan = Quantitative

What is incompatibility thesis?

qualitative and quantitative research paradigms, including their associated methods, cannot and should not be mixed Pragmatism has been suggested

Interpretive integration

quan data analyzed in quan form, qual data analyzed in qual form, interpretation developed by comparing the 2 sets of data, interpretation is simply at a narrative level

Parallel databases variant

quan data are collected and analyzed in parallel with the collection and analysis of qual data the 2 separate analyses are compared and contrasted goal is to develop internally confirmed conclusions about a single phenomenon

Data collection in quantitative vs qualitative research

quant - measures of variable of interest qual - different approaches for different types

Sampling in quantitative vs qualitative research

quant - want to make generalisations to population qual - transferability is important

goals of epidemic research 1

quantifying the magnitude of a health problem

compatibility thesis

quantitative and qualitative approaches can be used together in a single research study as long as researchers respect the assumptions associated with quantitative and qualitative research and construct a thoughtful combination that will help to address their research question(s)

if a mixed research study uses a nested concurrent sampling design, then which of the following best represents this design

quantitative and qualitative data are collected at the same time but with qualitative sample being a subset of the quantitative sample

if a mixed research study uses a nested sequential sampling design then which of the following best represents this design

quantitative and qualitative data are collected one after the other, but with the quantitative sample being a subset of the qualitative sample

Mixed method research

quantitative and qualitative data techniques are combined in a single research study

Sequential Explanatory Model

quantitative then qualitative with qualitative being the priority, integrating the two methods in the interpretation phase.

Research Question

questions that the researcher seeks to answer.

Racialized Discourse

raises important questions about the control and production of knowledge, particularly about people and communities of color.

true experimental design

random assignment of participants to both grps pre test post test control grp design Grp A R----0---x---0 Grp B R---0------0 Post test only control grp Grp A R----x---0 Grp B R-------0 Solomon four grp Grp A R----0---x---0 Grp B R---0-----0 Grp C R------x---0 Grp D R--------0

What does sand equivalent test measure

rapid field test that shows relative proportions of fine dust or clay like materials in fine aggregate or granular soils. Excessive dust or plastic fines (clay-like fine particles) in HMA aggregate can contribute to a lack of stability (rutting or shoving) or moisture damage and stripping. Higher sand equivalent values indicate cleaner or less fine dust or clay like aggregate.

parallel sample relationship criterion

samples for quantitative and qualitative components are different, but drawn from the same population

Negative Case Sampling

searching for cases that challenge one's expectations or one's current findings

Axiel coding

second stage of data analysis in GT its focus on making concepts more abstract and ordering them into the theory.

experimental research

seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome

Data transformation variant

separate but concurrent quan and qual data collection and then analysis transforms the qual data into quan form and then comparing and interrelating the data sets

What quantitative and qualitative study parts are performed one after the other, this is considered which of the following? concurrent, sequential, synchronized

sequential

Exploratory designs

sequential designs with qual data collected in the first phase usually the first phase is focused on detailed exploration of a little-researched phenomenon, and the second phase is focused on measuring or classifying it

Explanatory designs

sequential designs with quan data collected in the first phase, followed by qual data in the second phase either types of data can be given a stronger priority data from the 2nd phase are used to build on or describe data from the first phase

This model will ALWAYS have theoretical perspective that guides the research

sequential transformative model

Theory

set of variables/constructs prevent a view of a phenomenon w/purpose of explaining it

embedded design

similar to convergent design but one general approach dominates

Meta-inference

the conclusion generated by integrating inferences obtained from the results of qualitative and quantitative strands of an MM study

Sociopolitical Validity

the degree a mixed researcher addresses the interests, values, and viewpoints of multiple stakeholders in the research process

internal validity

the degree to which a researcher can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study

external validity

the degree to which a researcher can generalise the results of a study to a wider population. The least-used type of validity in qualitative research.

theoretical validity

the degree to which a researcher's explanations or theory about a phenomenon fits the data

Commensurability Approximation Validity

the degree to which meta-inferences made in a mixed research study reflect a mixed worldview

Conversion Validity

the degree to which quantitizing or qualitizing yields high-quality meta-inferences

Paradigmatic / Philosophical Validity

the degree to which the mixed researcher clearly explains his or her philosophical beliefs about research

Sample Integration Validity

the degree to which the mixed researcher makes appropriate conclusions, generalizations, and meta-inferences from mixed samples

Inside - Outside Validity

the degree to which the researcher accurately understands, uses, and presents the participants' subjective insider (emic) views and the researcher's objective outsider (etic) view

by combining two or more research methods in a research study researchers can make it less likely that what will happen

they will make a mistake

Reflexivity

thinking critically about one's interpretations and biases

Selective Coding

third and final stage of data analysis in GT in which the theory is finalized

constructivist

understanding, multiple participant meanings, social and historical construction, theory generation.

Category Strauss & Corbin 1990

unit of information containing events, happenings and instances

theory triangulation

using multiple theories or perspectives to help interpret and understand the data

Examining multiple levels

using one method at one level and the other method on a different level

monomethod research

using only quantitative or qualitative methods - limiting

Instrument development

using qualitative data to construct quantitative instruments

multilevel sample relationship criterion

using quantitative and qualitative samples obtained from different levels of population under study

Scatterplot

values along the vertical axis were internality scores, those along the horizontal axis were externality scores

participant feedback

when a researcher discusses their findings with participants to see if they agree with the researcher's statements, interpretations and conclusions

Purposeful Sampling

you specifically choose and that contain a certain element that will highlight and inform a particular aspect of the study.

What are the defining features of case study research

• Case study research begins with the identification of a specific case. o The case may be a concrete entity, such as an individual, a small group, an organization, or a partnership o At a less concrete level, it may be a community, a relationship, a decision process, or a specific project o The key is to define a case that can be bounded or described within certain parameters, such as a specific place and time o Typically, case study researchers study current, real-life cases that are in progress so that they can gather accurate information not lost by time o A single case can be selected or multiple cases identified so that they can be compared

What are Pros & Cons of Explanatory MM Design?

+ Methods implemented sequentially (1. quan 2. qual) so as to explain the quantitative results (single researcher can do this) + The final report can be written in two phases + This design appeals to quantitative researchers, because it often begins with strong quantitative orientation. ____________________________________________________ - This design requires a lengthy amount of time for implementing the two phases. - It can be difficult to secure internal review board approval for this design because researcher cannot specify how participants will be selected for second phase until the initial findings are obtained.

Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 2

"Is the correct type of mixed methods research design used?"

Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 4

"Is the priority given to quantitative and qualitative data collection and the sequence of their use reasonable given the research question?"

qualitative study requires

* extensive time in the field * engage in the complex, time-consuming process of data analysis * write long passages * does not have firm guidelines

advocacy/policy

- political - empowerment issue-oriented - collaborative - change-oriented

indicidence

-how many people are newly diagnosed within a given timeframe

6 broad types of research situations that are especially well suited for MM research:

1. Concepts are new and poorly understood 2. Neither method by itself is adequate in addressing the complexity of the research problem 3. Findings from one method can be greatly enhanced with a second source of data 4. The quantitative results are puzzling and difficult to interpret, and qualitative data can help explain the results 5. A particular theoretical perspective might require both qualitative and quantitative data 6. A multiphase project is needed to attain key objectives, such as the development and assessment of an intervention

What are Lincoln and Guba's criteria for validation and evaluation equivalents for qualitative research

1. Credibility 2. Transferability 3. Dependability 4. Confirmability

What is Creswell's criteria for assessing the quality of phenomenology

1. Does the author convey an understanding of the philosophical tenets of phenomenology? 2. Does the author have a clear "phenomenon" to study that is articulated in a concise way? 3. Does the author use procedures of data analysis in phenomenology, such as the procedures recommended by Moustakas or van Manen? 4. Does the author convey the overall essence of the experience of the participants? Does this essence include a description of the experience and the context in which it occurred? 5. Is the author reflexive throughout the study? (Creswell, 2013, p. 260)

Give 3 qualitative methods of data collection which are commonly used in social sciences...

1. Ethnography (e.g. participant observation) 2. Life Histories 3. Direct Observation

What are five advantages of qualitative research?

1. Flexibility in thinking 2. Flexibility in the research process 3. Rich description 4. Compensation (can be used to investigate areas where quantitative methods are inappropriate or where little is known) 5. Validity (draw understanding of research participants)

Outline the five step process of evidence based practice.

1. Formulate an answerable clinical question 2. Find the appropriate research evidence 3. Critically appraise the research evidence for validity and impact 4. Apply evidence if appropriate 5. Evaluate the process

Describe the 5 stages of the research cycle in order...

1. Identify research area 2. Design research study 3. Carry out research 4. Analyse research results 5. Publish research results.

What are the defining features of phenomenology

1. In some forms of phenomenology, the researcher brackets himself out of the study by discussing personal experiences with the phenomenon. 2. A phenomenology ends with a descriptive passage that discusses the essence of the experience for individuals incorporating "what" they have experienced and "how" they experienced it. The "essence" is the culminating aspect of a phenomenological study (Creswell, 2013, p. 79)

Give 2 qualitative methods of data collection which are commonly used in health service research...

1. Interviews 2. Focus Groups

Outline the four key points of positivism.

1. Knowledge is objective 2. Hard data 3. Can be measured 4. Natural and social world are the same

Outline the four key points of interpretivism.

1. Knowledge is subjective 2. meaning has action 3. Relies on interpretation 4. Social world is different to natural world

What are five advantages of quantitative research?

1. Measurement (being able to demonstrate quantity) 2. Rigour (methods are transparent) 3. Internal validity (methods have independent and dependent variables and therefore can show cause and effect) 4. Generalisability 5. Replicability

Name all 7 terms used for mixed/multi-method research...

1. Multi-methods 2. Mixed-methods 3. Multi-methodology 4. Mixed methodology 5. Multiple methods 6. Combined methods 7. Integrated methods

What are six disadvantages of qualitative research?

1. Observer bias 2. Lack of consensus 3. Lack of focus (research questions can sometimes be too broad) 4. Lack of generalisability 5. Poor replication 6. Time cost

What are four disadvantages of quantitative research?

1. The social world is different from the natural world 2. Measures are artificial 3. Surveys only measure response at a single point in time 4. Less effective at determining why people act as they do

Give 6 qualitative methods of data analysis...

1. Thematic Analysis 2. Framework Analysis 3. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) 4. Grounded Theory 5. Narrative Analysis 6. Discourse Analysis/Conversation Analysis

Identifying Studies Using Mixed Method Designs

1. Title has quan. and qual, mixed methods, convergent parallel, explan., explor., simult., and sequential. 2. Purpose statement or research questions indicate mixed methods 3. Combo of quan. and qual. were used to collect and analyze data.

types of validity in qualitative research

1. descriptive validity 2. interpretive validity 3. theoretical validity 4. internal validity 5. external validity

3 key questions for mixed methods

1: when should each approach occur in the design? 2: What priority or weighting in each approach is given? 3: at what stage in the design does the mixing occur?

Participant selection variant

1st stage quan data are in the service of the 2nd phase qual component info about the characteristics of the large group in the first phase is used to purposively select participants in the 2nd dominant phase

Quasi Experimental designs

> experimental and control grp not randomly selected Non equivalent (pre-test and post- test) control grp design: grp. A 0----X---0 grp B 0----------0 single grp interrupted time-series design grp. A 0--0---0--x---0----0---0 control grp interrupted time series desing

What is a sample?

A carefully chosen subgroup of a population that serves as a reference group for drawing conclusions about the population.

(7) Case Study Research Design

A case study is a good approach when the inquirer has clearly identifiable case with boundaries and seeks to provide an in-depth understanding of the cases or a comparison of several cases

Hypothesis

A declarative statement of the relationship between two or more variables.

Descriptive Research

Account of the nature of processes - WHAT/HOW questions

Population

All members of a defined group that researcher is studying or collecting information on for data driven decisions.

Interval

An interval variable is similar to an ordinal variable, except that the intervals between the values of the interval variable are equally spaced. For example, suppose you have a variable such as annual income that is measured in dollars, and we have three people who make $10,000, $15,000 and $20,000. The second person makes $5,000 more than the first person and $5,000 less than the third person, and the size of these intervals is the same. If there were two other people who make $90,000 and $95,000, the size of that interval between these two people is also the same ($5,000).

Meta-Synthesis

Analysis and synthesis of qualitative research

Analytic Research

Analysis of operations - WHY questions

What occurs during typology development?

Analysis of qual or quant data reveals set of categories that is then used as a framework to analyze the complementary data - Factor analysis of the quan data results in categories that are used in the analysis of the qual data - Categorical coding of qual data results in typology for use in quant hypothesis testing

Impact evaluation (or analysis)

Analysis of the extent to which a treatment or other service has an effect; also known as summative evaluation.

It is common to converge/merge the data at the _________

Analysis phase

What occurs during data comparison in MM?

Analyze qualitative and quantitative data separately then compare findings

Variable

Any entity that can take on different values.

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Campari

Aperitif wine-semi-bitter-itally-red

Types of Evaluation Research

Applies social research techniques to assess conceptualization, design, implementation, and utility of social intervention programs

Forms of theories (qual)

As part of an : • interconnected hypotheses (if then logic) • If then statements that explain influence of independent variables on dependent variable • visual model (causal modeling)

HMA mix design process

Basic HMA mix design always involves aggregate selection, asphalt binder selection, and optimum asphalt binder content determination

Why does voluntary participation go against several scientific concerns regarding generalisability?

Because results are often swayed by the type of person who volunteers for research.

Benefits (advantages) of Mixed Methods Research

Benefits (advantages) • In many, dare we say most cases the researcher can learn the most about a phenomenon by using a combined, mixed-methods approach • The researcher can also successfully apply principles of data triangulation (The process of operationalizing and measuring constructs or variables in multiple ways to converge upon a more accurate observation or assessment) to ensure you are gaining the clearest possible understanding of the phenomenon you are studying.

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Sambuca

Black Licorice from Italy, clear with a hint of vanilla bean

Qualitative Research Purpose

Case & process oriented - offers depth Can also address HOW questions Exploration & emerging understanding of a complex phenomenon

PCC mix design procedure

Choice of: Slump, max aggregate size selection, mixing water and air content selection, water-cement ratio, cement content, coarse aggregate content, fine aggregate content, and adjustments for aggregate moisture

Evidence based practice is the integration of what four things?

Clinical expertise, the best available research evidence, patient's values and circumstances and information from the practice context.

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Couvoisier, Hennessey, Remy Martin

Cognac From France, amber to brown

Exploratory Sequential Design

Collect qualitative data in the first phase, analyze results, and then use the results to plan the second quantitative phase

Explanatory Sequential Design

Collect quantitative data in the first phase, analyze results, and then use the results to plan the second qualitative phase

Mixed-methods purpose

Collect, analyze, and interpret both qualitative and quantitative data and then Integrate conclusions from all of this data into a cohesive whole

embedded design

Collects and analyzes both quantitative and qualitative • Either quantitative and qualitative emphasis • Either concurrent or sequential • Mixes at design level

Problems

Combination harms the best of either kinds of research, expensive & time consuming, scarcity of skilled researchers

Data Analysis

Combination of techniques. Statistical techniques used for numerical data; Qualitative techniques used for narrative/visual data

Mixed methods

Combines both qual and quant approach. Involves philosophical assumptions as well . strategy of inquiry: Sequential mixed methods, concurrent mixed methods, transformative mixed methods.

Mixed Methods Research

Combines quantitative and qualitative research within the same study to fully understand phenomena

Purposive

Common sampling method for qualitative design; involves deliberately choosing individuals, groups of individuals, or institutions towards the goal of best answering the research question

Comparative

Compare two or more groups on an outcome variable For example, "What is the effect of cooperative learning techniques on the academic achievement of middle school students?"

Context

Compatibility; both perspectives important. Holistic & complex

Results

Comprehensive Thorough, complete. Pragmatic knowledge

Reflexivity

Concept of acknowledge and being sensitive to assumptions/biases related to the research topic; ongoing process through all phases of a study--may do a paper or a journal; promotes transparency

Relationship:

Concerned with trends between two or more variables. For example "What is the relationship between age & job satisfaction between nurses?"

Purpose is to gain a broader perspective of the phenomenon under study, can utilize the different methods to study different groups

Concurrent Nested Model

sometimes called a multilevel design

Concurrent Nested Model

Purpose is to confirm, cross validate or corroborate findings within a single study, uses both types to offset the weakness of each method

Concurrent Triangulation Model

quant/qual data collection-->quant/qual data analysis--> interpretation

Concurrent Triangulation model

What is an ethical consideration regarding deception?

Conduct a debriefing interview with participants post-experiment

What does creswell tell us about mixed methods?

Creswell tells us mixed methods 1. Collecting and analyzing data 2. Rigour 3. Integrate 4. Framing within a greater framework

Concurrent Triangulation Model

Data collection is concurrent , ideally given equal priority, results of each compared to each other in the interpretation phase.

Concurrent Nested Model

Data is mixed during the analysis phase

Sequential Exploratory

Design type order qualitative, then quantitative; collection and analysis of qualitative data followed by collection and analysis of quantitative data

Exploring Data in Qualitative Data Analysis

Develop a qualitative codebook.

QUAL --> quan or QUAN --> qual

Dominant status / sequential

Concurrent Transformative Design

Goal is transformation of thinking -e.g. focus groups to identify client needs, followed by implementation of EBP -goal is to change practice, ideology, or policy -either qualitative or quantitative -both are being done simultaneously

Reduce

Goal of data analysis is to ______ data from whole into themes, theories, and/or models

Concurrent Transformative Model

Guided by the use of a specific theoretical framework. theory guides the definition of the problem, the purpose of the study, the research questions, the research design and methods, data collection methods, types of anaylsis, interpretation of results, reporting results.

Superpave specimen compaction

Gyratory compactor works by heating each sample to the anticipated mixing temperature, aged for a short time, and then compacted. Device applies pressure to sample through hydraulically or mechanically operated load. Desired mixing and compacting temperatures are based on different asphalt binder properties to ensure compaction occurs at the same viscosity level for different mixes

Advanced Mixed Methods Research Designs

Have emerged in recent years because mixed methods research has become more common within many social and health science disciplines.

So when should you consider qualitative or mixed-methods research methods?

In general, when your research questions are more in line with developing understanding than identifying differences, some form of qualitative inquiry may be helpful.

Mixed Methods Data Analysis

In mixed methods research, the goal of analysis is "to identify, compare, and consolidate thematically similar results by using more than one source or form of data - Creamer 2017

The Experimental Design

In the experiment mixed methods design, the quantitative element of the study is ALWAYS an experimental design. Primary data is quantitative and secondary (supportive) data is qualitative.

What design did you select for your POP and why? What are the pros and cons of the design you used (e.g., embedded, exploratory, etc.) in your particular study?

Individual Response:

Social Constructivis

Individuals seek understanding of the world and develop subjective meanings of their experiences, directed towards certain objects of things. Toal of research is to rely as much as possible on the participants' views of the situation. Questions are broad and general so participants can construct meaning. Addresses the process of interaction among people and context. Researchers own background shapes interpretation is acknowledged. Researchers generate theory as they go along.

Analyzing Data in Qualitative Data Analysis

Inductive; Context-bound; Exploratory Involves coding the data, dividing the text into small units , assigning labels to each unit, & then coding into themes.

Meta-inferences

Inferences that link, compare, contrast, or modify inferences generated by the qualitative and quantitative strands.

confounding variable

Influence cannot be directly detected

Steps

Initial inquires, assembling research team, literature survey, question formulation, choice of methods, IRB approval

Qualitative Research Questions

Insights into social processes that exist in specific contexts - Connolly, 1998 - Address the WHAT & HOW

Concurrent Transformative Model

Integrates methods at both the analysis and interpretation phases

Can occur at various stages of research process

Integration

Quantitative Conclusions

Interpretations & inferences that extend the data

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Tia Maria

Light coffee, from Jamaica, Dark

One limitation to sequential transformative model?

Little is written about this approach

What is looked for when looking at results of concurrent triangulation model?

Looking for convergence or lack of convergence

Typical water/cement ratio for PCC mix design. Why is it important

Lower ratio's produce stronger, more durable PCC. Most state DOT's set max water-cement ratio at 0.40 to 0.50. It is important in determining the desired compressive strength. Used to calculate required cement content

Grand tour

Main, open-ended question that guides an interview and is followed by follow-up questions, prompts, and probes

What type of data is collected?

Numeric and narrative

Embedded Design

Occurs when primary method is qualitative/quantitative but researcher adds other component - gain additional insight

Grounded Theory

Often provide results in the form of a visual representation of the theoretical model

Concurrent Nested Design

One core tradition, and the second is nested within the core -e.g. content analysis of daily diaries within an RTC -build a small study into a larger study -usually it is a qualitative nested within a quantitative

Choosing a study design ...

One of three approaches: qual, quant or mixed Methods are strategies to gather info Methods refer to data collection, analysis and interpretation that researchers use

Explain the three phase sequential explanatory design:

Phase 1 is Qual data collection which builds into phase 2 of quan phase instrument/intervention design and phase 3 which is the same as phase 2 followed by inferences

Explain the two phase sequential explanatory design:

Phase 1 is quantitative data collection and analysis which is explained by phase 2 which is the qualitative data collection and analysis followed by inferences

Exploratory Design Procedures;

Procedures: Two phase-design -Phase 1: qual -Phase 2: quan

participants of experimental method design

Random (all have equal chance of selection) or nonrandom (convenient) If nonrandom then the procedure is a quasi-experiment If random the procedure is a true experiment. Identify if participants are matched on a certain trait/characteristics Use power analysis to determine size of sample size (based on level of significance of alpha=.05, power=.08 and effect size =.05) according to table.

Confirmability

Reduction of researcher bias; is bias acknowledged and considered?; neutrality

Internal Validity

Relation between variables

How can a researcher access or ensure trustworthiness of qualitative data? (Creswell & Plano, 2011)

Reliability and validity remain appropriate concepts for attaining rigor in qualitative research. Qualitative researchers must take responsibility for reliability and validity by implementing verification strategies integral and self-correcting during the conduct of inquiry itself. Qualitative Trustworthiness depends on the following (Nastasi et al., 2005): credibility (INTERNAL VALIDITY); transferability (EXTERNAL VALIDITY); dependability (RELIABILITY); and confirmability (OBJECTIVITY).

Representing Data in Quantitative Data Analysis

Representing the findings in statements summarizing the statistical results. -Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011

How is sample size selected in MMS?

Sample size calculation and/or expert judgment

Conducting Mixed Methods Research (Sampling)

Sampling is a particularly important consideration when conducting a mixed methods study because sampling for each phase of the study (qualitative and quantitative) must be compatible with the assumptions belonging to that part of the design.

Formative

Sometimes called process evaluation, it assesses program implementation or examines program delivery and/or organizational context, all with the goal to improve the program, product, or practice. -Needs assessment, program implementation, program delivery or technology, program fidelity, and program staff and personnel

The Multistage Evaluation Design (Aim of study)

Stages can be done sequentially or concurrently; can be built off of any three basic designs. *Each stage can require qualitative, quantitative or both.

What is basic sampling strategy for MM?

Stratified purposive sampling Divide population of interest into strata (e.g. low income, middle income, high income) Use purposive sampling to select small number of people in each strata to describe similarities and differences across strata

Exploratory Design Taxonomy development model

Taxonomy development model: We are developing a taxonomy or theory for testing (see chart) Theory is the main focus; quan is there to test the theory; we are developing theories that do not exist, then we use quan to test them

Mixed Methods Research Design

The collection, analysis, and "mixing" of quantitative and qualitative research designs to understand a research problem.

Program process

The complete treatment or service delivered by the program.

Substantive Level Theory & Components

The level of theory that is applied to a specific group or situation. Not grand theory. For a specific level of inquiry. Central phenomenon, causal conditions, strategies, conditions and context, & consequences

Dependent variable

The measured outcome from changing the independent variable. Examples: attitude survey scores, growth, test scores.

Independent variable

The variable the researcher chooses. The researcher has the power to manipulate this. Examples: grade level, level of education, gender, hair color, age.

Transformative Design

Theoretical perspective with social justice focus - improve well-being of vulnerable population

Underlying Philosophy

Things are complex; Facts matter but so do situations/opinions/personal understanding

Example of Mixed Methods Purpose Statement

This study addresses ___________ [content aim]. The purpose of this exploratory sequential design will be to first qualitatively explore with a small sample and then to determine if the qualitative findings generalize to a large sample. The first phase of the study will be a qualitative exploration of ___________ [the central phenomenon] in which ___________ [types of data] will be collected from ___________ [participants] at ___________ [research site]. From this initial exploration, the qualitative findings will be used to develop assessment measures that can be administered to a large sample. In the tentatively planned quantitative phase, ___________ [instrument data] will be collected from ___________ [participants] at ___________ [research site].

What occurs during data transformation?

Transformation/conversion of one type of data into another so that both can be analyzed together Qualitative data are coded and proportion of people endorsing each theme calculated (qual-> quant) Quantitative data are transformed into narrative and included with qualitative data in thematic analysis (quant-> qual)

Sequential Exploratory Design

Trying to identify or explore a concept first before you do a study -usually explore a concept first using qualitative methods, then collect quantitative data ---Qual --> Quan

Qualitative analysis

Two Core Approaches are: 1) Content Analysis 2) Thematic Coding

Qualitative Purpose Statements

Use action verbs such as describe, understand, develop, examine the meaning of, or discover to convey how learning will take place Use neutral words and phrases, nondirectional language such as "self-expression experiences of individuals" Provide a general working definition of the central phenomenon or idea, particularly those not typically understood by a broad audience Include words that indicate the strategy of inquiry to be used in data collection, analysis and the process of research Mention the participants in the study Identify the site for the research Delimit the scope of participation or research sites in the study

Main Purpose of Mixed Methods Research

Use advantages of both quantitative and qualitative research designs.

What are the features of mixed methods?

Uses rigorous methods that are both qualitative and quantitative - Specific types of mixed method designs for the combination and interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data - Design may be framed within a theory/broader framework

Grounded Theory

Uses the constant comparative model method of data analysis, which is "iterative". It starts when first data is collected. New data continually informs data collection process and initial development of a theoretical model. Data collection continues until "saturation" is reached.

What is sample size of MMS?

Varies

Operationalization

When concepts become measurable variables

Concurrently

When two or more things happen at the same time, they occur concurrently. If the concerts you want to attend are happening concurrently, you have to choose one — unless you know how to be in two places at the same time.

Define Build

When you pour the alcohol into the glass it is served, most often with ice

hypothesis

a declarative statement of the relationship between two or more variables

Transformative mixed methods

a design that uses a theoretical lens drawn from social justice or power as an overarching perspective within a design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data.

key terms: determinant

a factor that changes a characteristic

Convergent parallel mixed methods

a form of mixed methods design in which the researcher converges or merges quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem.

Fieldwork

a general term for data collection in ethnographic research

Purposeful Sample

a group of individuals who have experience with the phenomenon under study

purposeful sample

a group of individuals who have experience with the phenomenon under study

Development

a major purpose of mixed methods research that seeks to use the results from one method to develop or inform the other method, where development is broadly construed to include sampling and implementation as well as measurement decisions

researcher as detective

a metaphor applied to researcher looking for the local cause of a single event

mixed methods research

a method and a methodology for conducting research that involves collecting, analyzing, and integrating quantitative and qualitative research in a single study

mixed methods

a methodology for conducting research that involves collecting, analyzing, & integrating (mixing0 qualitative & quantitative research (&data) in a single study or a longitudinal program of inquiry

What is mixed methods

a methodology involving quantitative and qualitative research in a single study or longitudinal program

Grounded theory

a methodology of systematic but flexible guidelines for collecting and analysing data to construct theories 'grounded' in the data themselves

Multiphase timing

a multiphase project that includes several sequential and/or concurrent substudies over a program of study

Lifeworld

a person's subjective inner world of experience

life world

a person's subjective inner world of experience

ethnography

a qualitative research method that attempts to discover and describe the "culture" of a person or group of people - data collection: in-depth interviews and participant observation - analysis/reporting: descriptive narrative

naturalistic generalisation

a type of generalisation based on the context of a study and similarity of participants

disability theories

addresses the meaning of inclusion in schools and encompasses administrators, teachers, and parents who have children with disabilities

Disability Inquiry

addresses the understanding this population's sociocultural perspectives allowing them to take control over their lives rather than a biological understanding of disability.

reflexivity

an ability to think critically about one's interpretations and biases. Can reduce researcher bias in qualitative studies.

qualitative research

an open approach to the study of social phenomenon; some aspects include emergent designs, being grounded in the lived experiences of individuals, and drawing on multiple methods. data are in narrative form

Research Design

an outlined plan for data collection and analysis; the purpose of the study determines the design that will be used

research design

an outlined plan for data collection and analysis;the purpose of the study determines the design that will be used

Inference quality

an overarching criterion for evaluating the quality of conclusions and interpretations made on the basis of mixed methods findings; incorporates notions from both internal validity and statistical conclusion validity within a quant framework and credibility within a qual framework; refers to the believability and accuracy of the inductively and deductively derived conclusions from an MM stud

Descriptive Questions

are written for each independent and dependent variable and any significant mediating variables in the study.

analytic

cohort -case control studies

Quantitizing

converting qual data into various codes than can be analyzed quantitatively

research methods

data collection, analysis, and interpretation

Peer Review

discussing your interpretations with one's peers and colleagues

concurrent

doing both research and figuring out results at the same time - no adapting the study

sequential

doing research then determining results - adapting study throughout

mixed research considers human thought and behavior to be partially predictable and have many sources of influence. Which of the following is also a view of behavior held by mixed research? dynamic, dialectical pragmatism, pluralism

dynamic

Summary: Glaser

emergent concepts

Finding a sample size that is "just right"

finding the ideal sample size depends on the method of data collection in use.

2 major forms of mixed methods

fixed- predetermined & planned emergent- arises due to issue discovered (flexible)

disability interpretive lens

focus on disability as a dimension of human difference and not as a defect as a human difference, its meaning is derived from social construction and it is simply one dimension of human difference

Corbin and strauss grounded theory

focused more on verification with strict coding process. advocated going back and forward between inductive and deductive process.

Queer Theory

focuses on individuals calling themselves lesbians, gays, bisexuals, or transgendered people.

Ethnography

focuses on the discovery and description of the culture of a group of people

critical race theory

focuses theoretical attention on race and how racism is deeply embedded within the framework of American society

Exploring outliers

follow up with unusual cases in order to understand why they deviate from the norm

Tenant of constructivist grounded theory Charmez (2006)

from symbolic interactionist perspective, observer cannot be neutral. researcher is acknowledged as an active player in analysis and approaches field with theoretical perspective

Examples of variable in a study

gender, age, SES, atittudes, racism, political power etc.

Naturalistic Generalization

generalization based on similarity, made by the reader of a research report

Theoretical Generalization

generalization of a theoretical explanation beyond the particular research study

reciprocity

giving back to participants for their time and efforts

critique of grounded theory

glaser and strauss have strong positivist thread run through their work. it glosses over epistemological assumptions in minimising relationship to sociological theory

values above 1.0

indicated increased risk

Descriptive Analysis

indicates the means, standard deviations, and range of scores for the variables.

Onwuegbuzie and Johnson's Nine Mixed Research Validities

inside/outside, paradigmatic/philosophical, commensurability approximation, weakness minimization, sequential validity, conversion validity, sample integration, sociopolitical, and multiple

grounded theory

intent is to create a theory about something -focuses on action that has distinct phases over time

Modified stem leaf plot

internality behaviors from unstructured data sources are listed on one side and the identification numbers from individuals who exhibited those behavior were listed on the right

charmaz

interpretive, flexible, acknowledge taken for granted processes and researchers as co-creating meaning.

Definition of a theory

interrelated set of constructs formed into propositions (hypotheses), that specify the relationship among variables.

Where are theories placed in quantitative studies

introduction lit review after hypotheses/research questions as a rationale in a seperate section

Action Research

investigation or analysis that is directed in the direction behind a useful objective, typically a growth in a specific function or system, in comparison to strictly trial and error studies. In company growth and advancement, it comprises not just methodically gathering information regarding a company but additionally supplying evaluations to the company, taking actions to improve the company mainly based on the evaluations, and consequently reviewing the feedback behind these behaviors, ACTION RESEARCH: "The action research methods would lead scientists to provide further proof of the drug's efficacy."

Strategies for Achieving Descriptive Validity

investigator triangulation

Embedded mixed methods

involves as well either the convergent or sequential use of data, but the core idea is that either quantitative or qualitative data is embedded within a larger design and the data sources play a supporting role in the overall design.

Iterative analysis

involves ongoing interpretive feedback loops

Inductive reasoning (Qualitative Research)

is a logical process in which multiple premises, all believed true or found true most of the time, are combined to obtain a specific conclusion. Inductive reasoning is often used in applications that involve prediction, forecasting, or behavior.

Quantitative research

is also typically designed to test predetermined hypothesis that are formed on the based on existing theory (a deductive process), while qualitative research often functions to develop theory from the data that are collected (an inductive process). With these two distinctions in mind it is also often suggested that qualitative research tends to focus more on rich description of a phenomenon than on its qualifications.

A case study

is one type of observational data collection technique in which one individual is studied in-depth in order to identify behavioral, emotional, and/or cognitive qualities that are universally true, on average, of others. Case studies often include face-to-face interviews, paper and pencil tests, and more. Sigmund Freud conducted case studies.

before deciding to design a mixed study what is a crucial point to consider?

is the panned study feasible

triangulation

it involves combining methods that result in quantitative and qualitative data in order to check and verify the reliability and validity of data.

Ethnocentric

judgment of people in other cultures based on the standards of your culture

Memo writing

key method of organizing thoughts and emergent theory progresses

Validity of qualitative research is often questioned because

lack of rigor findings are largely dependent on the researcher (researcher bias)

Further Packer critique

line by line is not how words are experienced; arbitrary to split line by line instead of by meaning; glaser's reliance on emergence underplay's researchers role in interpreting; bracketing assumptions problematic

connect data

look at qualitative and compare to quantitative to determine results

what consideration is important before making the final decision to design a mixed study

make sure the study being planned is feasible

which is important before making the final decision to design a mixed study

make sure the study being planned is feasible

Sequential Validity

making sure that the ordering of quantitative and qualitative components in a sequential design does not bias the results

Multiple Validities

making sure your mixed methods study meets appropriate quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods validity types

reasons for mixed methods

match the design to research purpose and questions be explicit about reasons for mixing methods

Statistical Significance

mathematical tool that is used to determine whether the outcome of an experiment is the result of a relationship between specific factors or merely the result of chance

Quantitative research

means for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables. Data is analyzed using stats. Final written report has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory, methods, results and discussion. Strategy of inquiry: Survey, experimental

4

monitoring the effectiveness of prevention strategies using population wide surveillance programs

all of the following are types of mixed data except? monodata-mulitanalysis, multidata-monoanalysis, momodata-momoanalysis

monodata-monoanalysis

Data Collection

most common methods of data collection are interviews and observations

axial coding

moving from abstraction to reconnection by connecting categories to other categories. focusing on one open code as a core phenomenon and creates coding paradigm/logic paradigm (visual model of core, cause, strategies, intervening conditions & consequences)

qualitative and quantatitive data analyzed using qualitative techniques within a single study

mulitdata-mmonoanalysis

qualitative research design

narrative research phenomenology grounded theory ethnographies case study

Does having both quantitative and qualitative data available but not combining them still count as mixed methods?

no

Fieldnotes

notes taken by the researcher during (or immediately after) one's observations in the field

What is Creswell's criteria for good ethnography

o Clear identification of a culture-sharing group o The specification of a cultural theme that will be examined in light of this culture-sharing group o A detailed description of the cultural group o Themes that derive from an understanding of the cultural group o The identification of issues that arose "in the field" that reflect on the relationship between the researcher and the participants, the interpretive nature of reporting, and sensitivity and reciprocity in the co-creating of the account o An explanation overall of how the culture-sharing group works o A self-disclosure and reflexivity by the researcher about her or his position of research (Creswell, 2013, p. 263)

An identical relationship

occurs when exactly the same people are in both components of the study

Explanatory sequential mixed methods

one in which the researcher first conducts quantitative research, analyzes the results, and then builds on the results to explain them in more detail with qualitative research.

paradigm emphasis

one of the two dimensions of a mixed methods design Paradigm emphasis has two levels: 1. equal status (the qual and quan parts are given equal emphasis; e.g. QUAL+QUAN) 2. dominant status (either the qual OR quan part is given primary emphasis; e.g. qual+QUAN)

Dependent variable

outcomes/results of the influence of the independent variable

Going Native

over-identification with the group being studied so that one loses any possibility of objectivity

nested sample relationship criterion

participants selected for one phase represent a subset of participants selected for another phase

Significant statements

participants words, phrases, or sentence length that vividly communicates the participants experience

4 major qualitative research methods

phenomenology, ethnography, grounded theory, case study research

What 3 elements are research designs composed of?

philosophical assumptions, stages of inquiry and research methods

Pragmatism

philosophy focusing on what works as the criterion of what should be viewed as tentatively true and useful in research and practice

transformative

political, power and justice oriented, collaborative, change-oriented

Compatibility Thesis

position that quantitative and qualitative research methods and philosophies can be combined

inside-outside validity

present when the researcher both the inside and objective outsider perspectives

Weakness- Minimization Validity

present when the researcher compensates for the weaknesses of one approach through the use of an additional approach

Warranted assertibility

present when you have good evidence about your research claim (John Dewey)

which phrase refers to a researcher providing stronger evidence for a conclusion through convergence and corroboration of findings

principle of triangulation

paradigm/research-approach emphasis

refers to whether the qualitative and quantitative parts of the study are given approximately equal emphasis, or if one part is considered primary and more strongly emphasized

Delaying literature review

reinventing the wheel

operational form

represent specific information about the variables in the study

literary form

represent variables in the abstract

quantitative research

research that employs the use of predetermined instruments in order to measure and observe; some aspects include experiments, and the collection of survey data via predetermined instruments. data are in numerical form

Quantitative Research

research that employs the use of predetermined instruments in order to measure and observe; some aspects include: experiments and the collection of survey data via predetermined instruments. Data is in numerical form.

Phenomenology

researcher attempts to understand and describe how one or more participants experience a phenomenon

Participant Observation

researcher becomes an active participant in the group being investigated

Qualitative validity

researcher checks for the accuracy of the findings

convergent design

researcher collects both QUAN & QUAL data usually at the same time, see results of both, merge for hope of same conclusions about phenomenon

axiological assumption

researcher openly discusses values that shape the narrative and includes his/her own interpretation in conjunction with participants

ontological assumption

researcher reports different perspectives as themes develop in findings

What is a mixed methods study?

researcher tends to base knowledge claims on pragmatic grounds (e.g. consequence oriented, problem-centered, and pluralistic). - It employs strategies of inquiry that involve collecting data either simultaneously or sequentially to best understand research problems. - The data collection also involves gathering both numeric information (e.g. on instruments) as well as text information (e.g. on interviews) so that the final database represents both quantitative and qualitative information

methodological

researcher works with details before generalizations - continually revises questions from experiences in the field

qualitative reliability

researcher's approach is consistent across different researchers and different projects

Sample Integration Validity

researchers must not treat the quantitative and qualitative samples as equals, but, instead, draw appropriate conclusions from each sample

The compatibility thesis states that quantitative and qualitative approaches can be used together in a single research study as long as researches construct a thoughtful combination that will help to address their research question as well as adhere to which of the following

respect for the assumptions of each method equally

Problems with to high asphalt binder content

results in mix that has greater tendency to deform elastically rather than fracture under repeated loading. However, needs to be high enough to prevent excessive fatigue cracking

Theoretical coding

rethink and revise how substantive codes relate to each other

relative chance (risk)

risk of drawing a heart compared to risk of drawing queen of hearts 12.5

identical sample relationship criterion

same people participate in both the quantitative and qualitative phases of investigation

quantitative sampling

sample needs to be large enough to perform the statistical procedures you use to make inferences about study findings

negative case-sampling

searching for case studies that challenge or disprove one's expectations or general findings. Used to reduce researcher bias.

Arrow (→):

sequential method (start with qual and then do quan or vice versa)

What is a sample?

small carefully chosen subgroup of a population to serve as a reference group for drawing conclusions

risk factors

something that has been found to be a determinant of a disease outcome or negative health benefits

Control Variables

special type of independent variable that researchers measure because they potentially influence the dependent variable.

Extended Fieldwork

spending enough time in the field to fully understand what is being studied

extended fieldwork

spending enough time in the field to fully understand what is being studied

Mediating variables

stan between indepnd/depend variables

Intervening or Mediating Variables

stand between the undefended and dependent variables, and they mediate the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

selective coding

starting from a core category, examine how it links to other categories. Storyline or hypothesis which explains relationships of paradigm.

Shared beliefs

statements or conventions that people sharing a culture hold to be true or false

Initiation

stimulates new research questions or challenges results obtained through one method

triangulation design

strands independent concurring timing equal prioritization mixes at interpretation

Methodology

strategy, process or design lying behind the choice of particular methods and linking these chosen methods to a desired outcome

Collective Case Study

study of multiple cases for the purpose of comparison

barker

study of the moonies- she used participant observation, questionnaires and in depth interviewing.

Collective Case Study Example

study of three individuals with intellectual disabilities who are placed in a general education class.

Within group design

study only one grp repeated measures design. assingned to diff. treatments at different times during experiment.

a study uses qualitative observation methods, followed by quantitative data analysis methods, this is an example of

synchronized

validity, trustworthiness, legitimation

synonyms used in quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method research respectively

Define 'research'

systematic process of collecting + analysing data in order to increase our understanding about the issue/question which we are interested in

Constant Comparative Method Glazer & Strauss 1967

taking data from new collection and comparing to emergent categories

Some detail of mixed research remaining to be worked out by research methodologists including problems of paradigm mixing how to interpret conflicting results and which of the following

techniques for qualitatively analyzing quantitative data

Problems with flat and elongated particles in mix

tend to break down during compaction, decrease workability, and lie flat after compaction

Triangulation

tests the consistency of findings obtained through different instruments

External Validity

the ability to generalize the findings to other people, settings, and times

Methodology

the application of particular procedures toward acquiring the answers to a wide variety of research questions

methodology

the application of particular procedures toward acquiring the answers to a wide variety of research questions

Etic perspective

the behavioral research approach is across various cultures to learn about the universality of behaviors

descriptive validity

the extent to which an account reported by a researcher is factually accurate

interpretive validity

the extent to which participants' viewpoints and meanings are accurately portrayed in a study

Multiple Validities

the extent to which the pertinent validities (quantitative, qualitative, and mixed) are addressed and resolved successfully

Descriptive Validity

the factual accuracy of the researcher's account

theoretical saturation

the final stage of grounded theory when no new concepts emerge from the data, the theory makes sense, and it is well validated

compatibility thesis

the idea that quantitative and qualitative research methods are compatible and can be used together in a single study

research problem

the issue being addressed, the researcher's personal experiences, and the audiences for the study

Interpretation in quantitative research

the researcher draws conclusions from the results for the research questions, hypothesis, and the larger meaning of the results. The interpretation involves several steps.

Theory development variant

the researcher identifies important constructs and develops a theory, taxonomy or classification system grounded in the in-depth data gathered in the qual phase, then the quan phase is used to test or explore the taxonomy or theory with a broader group formal hypothesis generated in the 1st phase are tested in a subsequent phase

pragmatic knowledge

the result of research that is planned and conducted based on what will best help the researcher answer the research questions

Exploratory sequential mixed methods

the reverse sequence from the explanatory sequential design. The researcher first begins with a qualitative research phase and explores the views of the participants. The data are then analyzed, and the information used to build into a second, quantitative phase.

A parallel relationship

the samples in the 2 strands are completely different, although they are drawn from the same or similar population

two-phase approach

the second part of the approach elaborates on the first

Important characteristics in asphalt binder selection for HMA mix design

the source, durability, rheology, purity, and potential modifying agents that can be added to the asphalt

Nomological causation

the standard view of causation in science; refers to causal relationships among variables

philosophy

the use of abstract ideas and beliefs that inform our research inquiry and philosophical framework

through the combination of more than one research methods in a single study researchers can ensure that what occurs

they will avoid making a mistake

Independent Variables

those that (probably) cause, influence, or affect outcomes. Also called treatment, manipulated, antecedent, or predictor variables.

Dependent Variables

those that depend on the independent variables; they are outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variables. Other names are criterion, outcome, effect, and response variables.

purposeful sampling

those that you specifically choose and then contain a certain element that will highlight and inform a particular aspect of the study, the sample is not random and may become subject to research bias

Cynical nature of action research

those who are more driven by the researcher's agenda and those more driven by participants; those who are motivated primarily by instrumental goal attainment and those motivated primarily by the aim of personal, organizational or societal transformation; and 1st-, to 2nd-, to 3rd-person research, that is, my research on my own action, aimed primarily at personal change; our research on our group (family/team), aimed primarily at improving the group; and 'scholarly' research aimed primarily at theoretical generalization or large scale change.[1] .

fundamental principle of mixed methods research

thoughtful mixing of methods, procedures, and other paradigm characteristics resulting in high-quality research, researchers should mix in a way that provides multiple (divergent and convergent) and complementary strengths (viewed broadly) and nonoverlapping weaknesses

Superpave Method

ties asphalt binder and aggregate selection into the mix design process, and considers traffic and climate as well. The compaction device is a gyratory compactor and the compaction effort in mix design is simulates expected traffic.

goal of analytic

to quantify the effect of exposures that occur during the induction period on eventual disease risk -identify the predictors of the disease outcome during the early phases of the natural history of the disease

triangulation design

to simultaneously collect both quantitative and qualitative data, merge the data, and use the results to understand a research problem, this is a one phase design and both types of research carry equal weight

empirical, transcendental or psychological phenomenology

transcendental or psychological phenomenology is focused less on the interpretations of the researcher and more on a description of the experiences of participants

Qualitizing

transforming quan data into qual form

intermethod mixing

two or more of the methods of data collection are used in a research study

Exploratory Sequential

two sequential phases but in opposite order. Qualitative data first followed by quantitative data to provide breadth for emergent relationships.

Explanatory Sequential

two sequential phases, quantitative data collected first followed by qualitative data

sequential validity

type of mixed methods validity that ensures the results of a study are not due to the sequence of its qualitative and quantitative components (e.g. interviews followed by testing giving different results than testing followed by interviews)

multiple validities

type of mixed methods validity that refers to the degree to which a researcher fulfills the relevant quantitative AND qualitative types of validity necessary to guarantee a strong study

sample integration validity

type of mixed methods validity that refers to the need to draw appropriate conclusions from the qualitative and quantitative samples in a study. (e.g. testing 1000 participants but interviewing only 10 of them. The interviews would be useful, but would not yield comparable/generalisable results)

Investigator Triangulation

use of multiple investigators to collect and interpret the data

Methods Triangulation

use of multiple research methods or methods of data collection

Data Triangulation

use of multiple sources of data

quant. theories

use of theory is deductive and is at beginning of study, with objective of testing theory rather than developing it. It becomes the framework for the entire study.

Integration

use of two or more approaches, methods, and purposes being combined in complex mixed methods designs

Instrument development model

used when data from the qual phase are used in the development of quan instruments

investigator triangulation

using multiple investigators to collect and interpret data. Can aid descriptive validity in a study

methods triangulation

using multiple research methods or methods of data collection; e.g. multiple interviews or observations in different settings

queer theory

variety of methods and strategies relating to individual identity social theory about gender identity and sexuality that emphasizes the importance of difference and rejects as restrictive the idea of innate sexual identity

Corbin and Strauss

verifiable coding

Feminist Perspective

view as problematic women's diverse situations and the institutions that frame those situations.

the order of the questions

what determines the priority of qualitative or quantitative methods?

determine the order, weight, how, and the theory

what do you do when you make decisions about a mixed method design

pragmatism

what is ultimately important and justified or "valid" is what works in particular situations in practice and what promotes social justice, focused on consequences and the ends that researchers value

Alternative Hypothesis

what the researcher really thinks is the cause of a phenomenon. H1: there is a significant difference between the Vitamin C group and the placebo group

peer review

when a researcher discusses their interpretations with their peers and colleagues

pattern matching

when a researcher makes a complex hypothesis and then determines if it is supported

low-inference descriptors

when a researcher uses descriptions that are very similar to a participant's own responses and language, or uses direct verbatim quotes

Why use a mixed methods design?

when quantitative + qualitative data together provide a better understanding of the research problem than either type by itself to provide a more complete picture of the research problem quantitative: trends and describing population qualitative: participants' words when you want to build from one phase of a study to another explore qualitatively then develop an instrument follow-up a quantitative study to obtain more detailed information, a more in-depth understanding

Concurrent

when the two types of data are collected at the same time; simultaneous or parallel

Sequential

when the two types of data are not collected at the same time

Bacon's Idols:

when we carry preconceptions into the data collection or analysis process we may influence our findings and interpretations. All of these risks also exist in the case of qualitative research, and for this reason there is no way to ensure that the development of understanding can occur completely from the data and not the researcher's own experience or knowledge.

Theoretical Lens or Perspective in qualitative research

which provides an overall orienting lens for the study of questions of gender, class, and race.

significant statements

words, phrases or sentences that vividly communicate a participant's subjective experience

quantitative research questions

write either a research question or hypothesis, not both, measure and write about the independent and dependent variables separately, link questions and hypotheses to the theory

Norms

written and unwritten rules specifying how people in a group are supposed to think and act

descriptive questions

written for each dependent and independent variable and any significant mediating variables in the study

Convergent mixed methods design

•A researcher collects both qualitative data and quantitative data at the same time (in parallel) •The researcher gives equal weight to the 2 types of data with the hope that both data sets will lead to similar conclusions

A Qualitative drive with a Supplementary Quantitative Component Design

•In this type of mixed methods design, a researcher will use a qualitative methodology and supplement with quantitative data •This design consists of two distinct phases: qualitative followed by quantitative •The quantitative data help to explain, or elaborate on, the qualitative results obtained in the first phase.

QUALITATIVE PURPOSE STATEMENT:

● A good qualitative purpose statement contains: ○ The central phenomenon ○ The participants ○ The research site ● Include language drawn from qualitative inquiry ● Use words such as purpose, intent, or objective to signal attention to this statement as the central controlling idea ● Focus on a single phenomenon, narrow the study to one idea to be explored or understood. This statement should acknowledge that the study may evolve into an exploration of relationships or comparisons among ideas

Concurrent Nested

● Characterized by: A nested approach that gives priority to one of the methods and guides the project, while another is embedded or "nested." ● Purpose: The purpose of the nested method is to address a different question than the dominant or to seek information from different levels.

Sequential Exploratory

● Characterized by: An initial phase of qualitative data collection and analysis followed by a phase of quantitative data collection and analysis. ● Purpose: To explore a phenomenon. This strategy may also be useful when developing and testing a new instrument

Sequential Transformative

● Characterized by: Collection and analysis of either quantitative or qualitative data first. The results are integrated in the interpretation phase. ● Purpose: To employ the methods that best serve a theoretical perspective

Sequential Explanatory

● Characterized by: Collection and analysis of quantitative data followed by a collection and analysis of qualitative data. ● Purpose: To use qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of a quantitative study.

Concurrent Transformative

● Characterized by: The use of a theoretical perspective reflected in the purpose or research questions of the study to guide all methodological choices. ● Purpose: To evaluate a theoretical perspective at different levels of analysis.

Concurrent Triangulation

● Characterized by: Two or more methods used to confirm, cross-validate, or corroborate findings within a study. Data collection is concurrent. ● Purpose: Generally, both methods are used to overcome a weakness in using one method with the strengths of another.

QUANTITATIVE PURPOSE STATEMENT:

● This statement differs from the qualitative purpose statement in terms of language and focus ● Focus on relating or comparing the variables and how these relate to ○ The participants ○ The research site ● Identify the proposed major variables in a study ● A good quantitative purpose statement includes: ○ Words to signal the major intent ○ Identify the theory, model, or conceptual framework ○ Identify the independent and dependent variables as well as any mediating, moderating, or control variables ○ Use words that connect the independent and dependent variables ○ Position the independent before the dependent variable ○ Mention the specific strategy of inquiry used ○ Mention the participants ○ Use the literature to define

3 HMA mix design methods

Hveem, Marshall and SuperPave methods

Name 2 Blue Drinks

Hypnotic and Blue Curacao

4 major qualitative research methods

1. phenomenology 2. ethnography 3. grounded theory 4. case study approach

Convergent (MM Research Design) Remember

"Converge the methodologies"

Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 6

"Does the study identify qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques clearly?"

Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 1

"Does the study include a rationale for using a mixed methods research design?"

Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 7

"Does the study use appropriate data analysis techniques for both qualitative and quantitative data?"

Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 3

"Does the study use both quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques appropriately?"

Qualitative Research Questions

"Open-ended, evolving, & non-directional" - Creswell, 1998 - Developed a inductively or iteratively

Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 5

"Was the study feasible given the amount of data to be collected and concomitant issues of resources, time, and expertise?"

Greene, Caracelli & Graham (1989)

"include at least one quantitative method (designed to collect numbers) and one qualitative method (designed to collect words) where neither type of method (technique or procedure) is inherently linked to any particular inquiry paradigm"

Five mixed-method designs

1) Convergent Parallel 2) Explanatory Sequential 3) Exploratory Sequential 4) Embedded Design 5) Multi-phase Design

Common Content Analysis Steps (recording unit and coding)

1) Define the recording unit (word, phrase, sentence, and paragraph). 2) Define the coding categories. 3) Test the coding by applying it to a sample of your collected data. 4) Assess the accuracy and reliability of this sample coding (perhaps using multiple coders to check for intercoder consistency). 5) Revise the coding rules and/or instructions to improve consistency and accuracy in coding. 6) Return to step 3 and run the cycle until you achieve sufficient consistency and accuracy in coding. 7) Code all data. 8) Assess overall consistency and accuracy of the codings

Reasons for Mixed-Methods

1) Enhancement: Building on findings from one method using evidence gathered from the other method 2) Triangulation: using findings from one method to verify or corroborate findings collected using the other method. The process of operationalizing and measuring constructs or variables in multiple ways to converge upon a more accurate observation or assessment. 3) Completeness: using both methods to more comprehensively examine an area or issue of interest than would be possible with one method used alone. 4) Illustration: using qualitative data to explain quantitative findings, or vice versa. 5) Sampling: using one method to help with the sampling of participants or cases in a targeted and focused fashion

5 step process of EBP:

1) Formulate an answerable clinical question 2) find the appropriate research evidence 3) Critically appraise the research evidence for validity + impact 4) Apply evidence if/as appropriate 5) Evaluate the process

What are the 5 steps of the research process?

1) Identify research question/problem 2) Design the study 3) Collect data 4) Interpret data 5) Report data

Challenges of Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research

1. A tendency to report only the qualitative or quantitative data, but not both. 2. A tendency to report findings for one method, followed by findings from the other, without any attempt at integration. 3. The perceived need to focus the presentation of results toward either a quantitatively or qualitatively focused audience. 4. A personal preference of comfort with one method over the other. 5. A research design that inhibits the integration of quantitative and qualitative data (the quantitative structure overly limits the qualitative follow-up. 6. The pressure to publish some results as quickly as possible, which might push the researcher to lean on one method more than the other.

What are the 3 threats to internal validity?

1. Chance - random variation (sample size) 2. Bias - systematic error in collecting/measuring/analysing data 3. Confounding - effects of additional variable that might be responsible

What are four key features of mixed methods research?

1. Collecting and analysing qualitative and quantitative data 2. Using rigorous methods 3. Combing quantitative and qualitative data using a specific type of mixed methods design 4. Framing the mixed methods design within a broader framework

Give 4 features of qualitative research?

1. Collects non-numerical data 2. Not concerned with mathematical probabilities or representativeness 3. It is an inductive approach, not a hypothesis-deductive approach (you don't start off with a hypothesis that you test, you build theories and try to understand why things happen/phenomena) 4. It can be combined with quantitative research methods. This would then be mixed method or multi-method research.

Creswell and Plano Clark (2011) distinguished four main types of mixed methods research designs with associated rationales. What are they?

1. Triangulation, Concurrent, or Parallel Design - which entails separate quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis within the same timeframe 2. Embedded Design - a concurrent design where a qualitative part is embedded in a quantitative study, or vice versa, so that the qualitative results are used to support or explain findings from the other method. 3. Exploratory Sequential Design - in which a qualitative study conducted in the first phase informs a quantitative study conducted in the second phase. 4. Explanatory Sequential Design - a sequential design in which a quantitative study conducted in the first phase informs a qualitative study conducted in the second phase.

What are the four ethical issues in health research?

1. Voluntary participation 2. No harm to participants 3. Anonymity and confidentiality 4. Deception

How is theory used in a QUALitative study

1. broad explanation for behaviors/attitudes 2. theoretical lens 3. as an endpoint

pragmatism

1. focus on the outcomes of the research-the actions, situations, and consequences of inquiry, rather than antecedent conditions (as in postpositivism), what works

Steps of inductive logic of a qual. research study

1. gather info 2. ask open ended questions 3.analyze data to form themes/categories 4. looks for patterns/generalizations/theories 5. poses generalizations or theories from past experiences and literature

What are the two types of phenomenology

1. hermeneutic phenomenology and 2. empirical, transcendental or psychological phenomenology

types of validity in mixed methods research

1. inside-outside validity 2. weakness-minimisation validity 3. sequential validity 4. sample integration validity 5. multiple validities

social constructivism

1. interpretive, individuals seeks understanding of the world in which they live and work

case study designs

1. intrinsic case study 2. instrumental case study 3. collective case study

transformative framework/postmodernism

1. knowledge is not neutral and it reflects the power and social relationships within society, and thus the purpose of knowledge construction is to aid people to improve society 2. knowledge claims must be set within the conditions of the world today and in the multiple perspectives of class, race, gender, and other group affiliations

What are the four philosophical assumptions made by researchers when they undertake qualitative study?

1. ontology 2. epistemology 3. axiology 4. methodology

What is the ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology for postpostitivsm (Creswell, 2007)

1. ontology = a single reality exists beyond ourselves, out there; researcher may not be able to understand it or get to it because of lack of absolutes 2. epistemology = reality can only be approximated. But it is constructed through research and statistics; interaction with research subjects is kept to a minimum; validity comes from peers, not participants 3. axiology = researcher's biases need to be controlled and not expressed in the study 4. methodology = use of scientific method and writing; object of research is toe create new knowledge; method is important; deductive methods are important, such as testing of theories, specifying important variables, making comparisons among groups

What is the ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology for social constructivism (Creswell, 2007)

1. ontology = multiple realities are constructed through our lived experiences and interactions with others 2. epistemology = reality is co-constructed between the researcher and the researched and shaped by individual experiences 3. axiology = individual values are honored, and are negotiated among individuals 4. methodology = more of a literary style of writing used; use of an inductive method of emergent ideas (through consensus) obtained through methods such as interviewing, observing, and analysis of texts

What is the ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology for transformative framework/postmoderism (Creswell, 2007)

1. ontology = participation between researcher and communities/individuals being studied; often a subjective-objective reality emerges 2. epistemology = co-created findings with multiple ways of knowing 3. axiology = respect for indigenous values; values need to be problematized and interrogated 4. methodology = use of collaborative processes of research; political participation encouraged; questioning of methods; highlighting issues and concerns

Associated philosophical beliefs of critical, race, feminist, queer, and disabilities interpretive frameworks

1. ontology = reality is based on power and identity struggles; privilege or oppression based on race or ethnicity, class, gender, mental abilities, sexual preferences 2. epistemology = reality is known through the study of social structures, freedom and oppression, power, and control; reality can be changed through research 3. axiology = diversity of values is emphasized within the standpoint of various communities 4. methodology = start with assumptions of power and identity struggles, document them, and call for action and change

What is the ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology for pragmatism (Creswell, 2007)

1. ontology = reality is what is useful, is practical, and works 2. epistemology = reality is known through using many tools of research that reflect both deductive (objective) evidence and inductive (subjective) evidence 3. axiology = values are discussed because of the way that knowledge reflects both the researchers' and the participants' views 4. methodology = the research process involves both quantitative and qualitative approaches to data collection and analysis

methods of data analysis in grounded theory

1. open coding: exploratory stage of noting important ideas and concepts 2. axial coding: narrowing and ordering concepts so they follow from each other and better suit the theory 3. selective coding: finalising and 'grounding' the theory

Action Research con't

Action research challenges traditional social science by moving beyond reflective knowledge created by outside experts sampling variables, to an active moment-to-moment theorizing, data collecting and inquiry occurring in the midst of emergent structure. "Knowledge is always gained through action and for action. From this starting point, to question the validity of social knowledge is to question, not how to develop a reflective science about action, but how to develop genuinely well-informed action - how to conduct an action science" (Torbert 2002 Why educational research has been so uneducational: the case for a new model of social science based on collaborative inquiry)[citation needed]. In this sense, performing action research is the same as performing an experiment, thus it is an empirical process

What are the advantages + disadvantages of qualitative research?

Advantages: - flexibility in thinking: less limey to be stuck in conventional ways of thinking - flexibility in research process: can adjust approach in interpretation of data - rich description: based on empathetic understanding of participants - compensation: can be used when quant methods are inappropriate - validity: draws on understanding of participants Disadvantages: - observer bias: researchers construct the categories - lack of consensus: disagreement among researchers - lack of focus: research question can be too broad - lack of generalisability: small number of participants - poor replication: not replicable - cost: costly in terms of time

What are some advantages + disadvantages of quantitative research?

Advantages: - measure: quantity is powerful tool in producing data - rigour: methods are transparent - internal validity: explain phenomena w/ cause + effect - generalisability: findings of study can be generalised to large population - replicability: able to be replicated by others Disadvantages: - social world different from natural world - measures are artificial (constructs, not life) - surveys only measure responses at single point in time - less effective at determining why people act as they do

SupePave aggregate properties to consider

Aggregate source, gradation and size, and blending. Properties are selected based on anticipated traffic loading as well as depth below surface.

Conducting Mixed Methods Research (Procedures)

All procedures to be used in a study must be reviewed by an IRB (Institutional Review Board) prior to data collection for that phase.

Mixed Methods Designs

Allow researchers to use two types of data to verify findings, to more deeply develop their theoretical frameworks; and to produce a richer dataset; use both qualitative and quantitative data

PCC mix design method

American Concrete Institute (ACI) mix design method

What is mixed methods?

An approach to research in the social, behavioral and health sciences in which the investigator gather both quantitative and qualitative data and integrates the two then draws interpretations based on the combined strengths of both sets of data

Emic perspective

An emic is a type of research study in which the focus is one single culture. This type of research attempts to study the behaviors of interest though the lens of a member of the culture. It involves looking at behaviors of a group from the perspective of one member of that group. An emic research study is the opposite of an etic study in which the behavioral research approach is across various cultures to learn about the universality of behaviors. Emic studies are common in social sciences.

Data analysis

Follow research steps for presenting how data will be analysed: -1.report info on return rate/participation rate of sample 2- What method is used to determine response bias (effect of nonresponses on survey estimate). Use wave analyisis 3-provide plan for descriptive analysis of data for all IV and DV of study (indicate mean, standard deviation and range of scores). 4-if the study uses an instrument with scales identify stats for its analysis (factor analysis) and checks for reliability and internal consistency of scales (Cronbach alpha stats). 5-identify stats or program for testing major inferential research questions/hypotheses (Hypotheses relate variables or compare groups in terms of variables so that inferences can be drawn from the sample to a population). 6- Present data in tables and draw conclusions (was the result significant/not significant, how did that answer the research question-did it support or not support hypothesis, explain why these results occurred, discuss implications)

Explanatory Design Follow-up explanations model:

Follow-up explanations model: Quan is there to help select participants; this is a participant selection model; helps for specific selection - specific criteria; if want homogeneity pick those who answer the same way; or hetero - pick variation; E.g. those who filled out Qs as being close to parents and acculturated or close to parents and not acculturated, etc.; so quan is just there to select pts;

Components of experimental method plan

Follows specific plan: -participants -materials -procedures -measures

Grounded theory, ethnography, phenomenology, & case study

Four categories of qualitative research

Credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability

Four concepts of trustworthiness (AKA rigor)

Embedded Design

Four different types of Mixed Design; This design is used when researchers need to answer questions from a different perspective and their research has primarily focused on one type of data.

Explanatory Design

Four different types of Mixed Design; a two-phase design where qualitative results are obtained first then the quantitative in order to inform the qualitative data.

External Validity

Generalizability of the results to a different context/larger population

What is external validity?

Generalize findings to wider population

What is transferability?

Generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings. Researcher must do a thorough job of describing the research context and the assumptions that were central to the research

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Frangelico

Hazelnuts from Italy, Tan

What does the mixed-method priority sequence model do?

Helps you to decide what methods to use.

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Galliano

Herbal black licorice, from France, Yellow

Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Midori

Honeydew, from Mexico (originally from Japan), Green

What is epistemology?

How do we know nature of reality?

epistemology

How is reality known?

methodology

How is the research conducted?

Collecting case study data Analyzing case study data Reporting case study data Reflective reporting Analytic reporting

The data collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded theory, interpretative phenomenological analysis, text interpretation, e.g. thematic coding) etc. All the approaches mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis and they are ideographic in their approach, i.e. they focus on the individual case without reference to a comparison group. The procedure used in a case study means that the researcher provides a description of the behavior. This comes from interviews and other sources, such as observation. The client also reports detail of events from his or her point of view. The researcher then writes up the information from both sources above as the case study, and interprets the information. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always make clear which information is factual description and which is an inference or the opinion of the researcher.

Weakness Minimization Validity

The degree researcher combines quantitative and qualitative approaches with non-overlapping weaknesses

What is the goal of qualitative research?

The development of concepts which help us to understand social phenomena in natural settings, giving due emphasis to the meanings, experiences and views of all the participants.

The Social Justice Design (Goal)

The goal of the researcher in implementing a social justice advanced design is to bring about positive change for an underrepresented group.

Content Analysis

The goal with content analysis is typically to quantify otherwise-qualitative data. Such quantification is often done to identify the qualitative content areas that are of highest importance or greatest prevalence.

In thematic coding Example: The meaning of ethnic identity was explored, with an emphasis on how this was associated with student's adjustments to college in ethnically diverse college settings.

the first task for a researcher is typically to get familiar with the data that have been collected. By sorting and labeling responses into thematic categories, the qualitative research can begin to make sense of the rich information that has been provided. • The goal in thematic coding is not necessarily to quantify the number of responses per category (although that is always an option), but rather to identify which categories are most prevalent and/or important to respondents and then to dig into the responses in those categories to start to make sense of whatever phenomenon is under study.

Key Characteristics of Grounded Theory

the newly constructed grounded theory should fit the data the theory must provide understanding of the phenomenon the theory should have some generality the theory should contribute to some control of the phenomenon

Pragmatism

the paradigm most often associated with MM research, the belief that it is the research question that should drive the inquiry and that the question is more important than the methods used; "whatever works best to arrive at good evidence is appropriate"

A nested relationship

the participants in the qual strand are a subset of the participants in the quant strand

emic perspective

the perspective of the insider

etic perspective

the perspective of the outside observer

Mixed methods research

the planned integration of qualitative and quantitative data within a single study or a coordinated series of studies; "research in which the investigator collects and analyzes data, integrates the findings, and draws inferences using both quantitative and qualitative approaches or methods in a single study or program of inquiry"

research approaches

the plans and procedures for research that span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation.

Follow-up explanations variant

the researcher collects qual data that can best help to explain the initial quan data emphasis on quan aspects of the study

Etic Perspective

the researcher's external or "objective outsider" perspective

Philosophical assumptions are embedded within what interpretive frameworks that are used when qualitative researchers conduct a study?

they are social science theories to frame their theoretical lens in studies (i.e., ethnography in leadership, attribution, political influence, etc.); they may also be social justice theories or advocacy/participatory theories seeking to bring about change or address social justice issues in our societies 1. postpositivism 2. social constructivism 3. transformative frameworks 4. postmodern perspectives 5. pragmatism 6. feminist theories 7. critical theory and critical race theory 8. queer theory 9. disability theories

Describe the Charmaz constructivist approach to grounded theory

• Charmaz constructivist approach - doesn't embrace the study of a single process or core category as in the Strauss Corbin approach - but advocates for a social constructivist perspective that includes emphasizing diverse local worlds, multiple realities, and the complexities of particular worlds, views, and actions (Creswell, 2013, p. 87) o Constructivist grounded theory lies squarely within the interpretive approach to qualitative research with flexible guidelines, a focus on theory developed that depends on the researcher's view, learning about the experience within embedded, hidden networks, situations, and relationships, and making visible hierarchies of power, communication, and opportunity (Creswell, 2013, p. 87) Charmaz places more emphasis on the views, values, beliefs, feelings, assumptions, and ideologies of individuals than on the methods of research, although she does describe the practices of gathering rich data, coding the data, memoing, and using theoretical sampling

Describe the features of phenomenological research

• Describes the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon • Focus on describing what all participants have in common as they experience a phenomenon (e.g., grief is universally experienced) • Basic purpose of phenomenology is to reduce individual experiences with a phenomenon to a description of the universal essence (a "grasp of the very nature of the thing,") • This description consists of "what" they experienced and "how they experienced it (Creswell, 2013, p. 76)

Explain concurrent embedded

• Different weightings given to qual and quan data • Can integrate or compare data

Most common mixed-methods approaches include:

• Either self-administered survey or questionnaire, or a structured or semi-structured interview

What is the definition and background of ethnographic research

• Ethnography focuses on an entire culture-sharing group; describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group • Ethnography involves extended observations of the group, most often through participant observation, in which the researcher is immersed in the day-to-day lives of the people and observes and interviews the group participants • Ethnographers study the meaning of the behavior; the language, and the interaction among members of the culture-sharing group

What are the defining features of ethnographic research

• Ethnography is not the study of a culture, but a study of the social behaviors of an identifiable group of people • In an ethnography, the researcher looks for patterns (also described as rituals, customary social behaviors, or regularities) of the group's mental activities, such as their ideas and beliefs expressed through language, or material activities, such as how they behave within the group as expressed through their actions observed by the researcher • This means the culture-sharing group has been intact and interacting for long enough to develop discernible working patterns (Creswell, 2013, p. 92) • In addition, theory plays an important role in focusing the researcher's attention when conducting an ethnography (Creswell, 2013, p. 92). • Using the theory and looking for patterns of a culture-sharing group involves engaging in extensive fieldwork, collecting data primarily through interviews, observations, symbols, artifacts, and many diverse sources of data

Theoretical lenses in qual. research

• Feminist perspective • Racialised discourses • critical theory • Queer theory • Disability inquiry

What's the definition and background of grounded theory

• Intent is to move beyond description and to generate or discover a theory - a unified theoretical explanation for a process or an action • Participants would all have experienced the process, and the development of the theory might help explain practice or provide a framework for further research ( • Theory development does not come "off the shelf," but rather is generated or "grounded" in data from participants who have experienced the process

Defining features of Narrative Research

• Narrative might be the phenomenon being studied, such as a narrative of illness, • As a method, it begins with the experiences as expressed in lived and told stories of individuals • Collects stories from individuals (and documents, and group conversations) about individuals' lived and told experiences (Creswell, 2013, p. 71) • These stories may emerge from a story told to the researcher, a story that is co-constructed between the researcher and the participant, and a story intended as a performance to convey some message or point (Creswell, 2013, p. 71)

Grounded Theory Methodology

• Perhaps the most well-known discussion of this inductivist approach to qualitative research is contained within explanations of the grounded theory methodology.. By definition, this orientation toward research implies that one develops the relevant theory for a study from the data as they are collected and analyzed in qualitative fashion.

Quantitative Research

• Pertains to numerical forms of data • Is focused on identifying the presence and magnitude of effects • Deductive Process

Define confirmability as a factor in Lincoln and Guba's criteria for good qualitative research

• Qualitative research tends to assume that each researcher brings a unique perspective to the study. Confirmability refers to the degree to which the results could be confirmed or corroborated by others. • There are a number of strategies for enhancing confirmability. The researcher can document the procedures for checking and rechecking the data throughout the study. Another researcher can take a "devil's advocate" role with respect to the results, and this process can be documented.

Explain concurrent triangulation

• Quan and Qual data collected at the same time • Used to validate findings generated by each method through evidence produced by the other

Describe the Strauss & Corbin systematic approach to grounded theory

• Strauss & Corbin systematic approach - investigator seeks to systematically develop a theory that explains process, action, or interaction on a topic (e.g., the process of developing a curriculum, the therapeutic benefits of sharing psychological test results with clients) (Creswell, 2013, p. 86) o Typically conduct 20 to 30 interviews based on several visits "to the field" to collect interview data to saturate the categories (or find information that continues to add to them until no more can be found) (Creswell, 2013, p. 86) A category represents a unit of information composed of events, happenings, and instances (Creswell, 2013, p. 86) Researcher also collects and analyzes observations and documents, but these data forms are often not used (Creswell, 2013, p. 86) While the researcher collects data, she or he begins analysis Data collection is like a "zigzag" process: out to the field to gather information, into the office to analyze the data, back to the field to gather more information, into the office, and so forth o Participants interviewed are theoretically chosen (theoretical sampling) to help the researcher best form the theory (Creswell, 2013, p. 86) o How many passes one makes to the field depends on whether the categories of information become saturated and whether the categories of information become saturated and whether the theory is elaborated in all of its complexity (Creswell, 2013, p. 86)

Qualitative Research

• Tends to include the "other" forms of data. • Emphasizes sense-making • Inductive process

Define credibility as a factor in Lincoln and Guba's criteria for good qualitative research

• The credibility criteria involve establishing that the results of qualitative research are credible or believable from the perspective of the participant in the research. • Since from this perspective, the purpose of qualitative research is to describe or understand the phenomena of interest from the participant's eyes, the participants are the only ones who can legitimately judge the credibility of the results.

Define dependability as a factor in Lincoln and Guba's criteria for good qualitative research

• The idea of dependability, on the other hand, emphasizes the need for the researcher to account for the ever-changing context within which research occurs. • The research is responsible for describing the changes that occur in the setting and how these changes affected the way the researcher approached the study.

What are the challenges of ethnographic research

• The researcher needs to have an understanding of cultural anthropology, the meaning of a socio-cultural system, and the concepts typically explored by those studying cultures • The time to collect data is extensive, involving prolonged time in the field • In much of ethnography, the narratives are written in a literary, almost storytelling approach, an approach that may limit the audience for the work and may be challenging for authors accustomed to more traditional approaches to scientific writing

Define transferability as a factor in Lincoln and Guba's criteria for good qualitative research

• Transferability refers to the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings. • From a qualitative perspective transferability is primarily the responsibility of the one doing the generalizing. • The qualitative researcher can enhance transferability by doing a thorough job of describing the research context and the assumptions that were central to the research. • The person who wishes to "transfer" the results to a different context is then responsible for making the judgment of how sensible the transfer is.

What are the types of case study research

• Types of qualitative case studies are distinguished by the size of the bounded case, such as whether the case involves one individual, several individuals, a group, an entire program or an activity (Creswell, 2013, p. 99) • They may also be distinguished I terms of the intent of the case analysis. Three variations exist in terms of intent: the single instrumental case study, the collective or multiple case study, and the intrinsic case study (Creswell, 2013, p. 99) o In a single instrumental case study - the researcher focuses on an issue or concern, and then selects one bounded base to illustrate this issue (Creswell, 2013, p. 99) o In a collective case study (or multiple case study), the one issue or concern is again selected, but the inquirer selects multiple case studies to illustrate the issue. The researcher might select for study several programs from several research sites or multiple programs within a single site (Creswell, 2013, p. 99) Often the inquirer purposefully selects multiple cases to show different perspectives on the issue (Creswell, 2013, p. 99) Yin (2009) suggests that the multiple case study design uses the logic of replication, in which the inquirer replicates the procedures for each case. As a general rule, qualitative researchers are reluctant to generalize from one case to another because the contexts of cases differ (Creswell, 2013, p. 99) • To best generalize, however, the inquirer needs to select representative cases for inclusion in the qualitative study. The final type of case study design is an intrinsic case study in which the focus is on the case itself (e.g., evaluating a program, or studying a student having difficulty) because the case presents an unusual or unique situation (Creswell, 2013, p. 99-100)

A Quantitative drive with a Supplementary Qualitative Component Design

•This design consists of two distinct phases: quantitative followed by qualitative. •The qualitative data help to explain, or elaborate on, the quantitative results obtained in the first phase.


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