Mixed Methods [COMB2]
Ethnography
"Its good if you can't tell if it is _______ or hanging out."
Phenomenology
Theory created by philosophers
How do you make house gingerale?
7-up with a splash of coke
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Creme De Almond
Almond, red in color
What is limitations to sequential explanatory model, and Sequential Exploratory Model
Amount of time it takes for data collection
Concurrent Transformative Model
Each method may have equal or unequal emphasis
Spuriousness
Outside effect - one that may not be known
Concurrent Triangulation Model
Shorter data collection time
ontology
What is the nature of reality?
intrinsic case study
a case study that provides in-depth description of a particular individual, organisation or event
Idiographic Causation
an action for a particular person in a local situation with an observable result
qualitative
an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem
multivariate questions
compare or relate variables
Plus sign (+) means:
concurrent method
Grounded theory v quantitative methods
critiques 'arm chair theorising', and also challenges assumption that theory can only come from theorising or from a deductive approach
philosophy is either?
pragmatic or tranformative
Explanatory Sequential Design
Quantitative method implemented 1st followed by qualitative method
What is a positivism paradigm?
Quantitative research
Multimethod Studies
Variables (dependent variables) are measured using MORE THAN 1 METHOD
mixed methods research
a research method that uses quantitative and qualitative techniques in the same study
Open Coding
first stage of data analysis in GT and its the most exploratory stage
research designs
procedures of inquiry
triangulation
the use of multiple methods to ensure that the data collected are trustworthy and accurate
Triangulation
the use of multiple methods to ensure that the data collected is trustworthy and accurate
Theory Triangulation
the use of multiple theories or perspectives to aid in interpreting the data
by combining two or more methods researchers can make it less likely that what will happen
they will cover every aspect and perspective
Group
Finding ideally represent the experiences of each individual participant AND the _____ as a whole --> convergence/divergence & commonality/individuality
Tools
Surveys, ethnographies, interviews Structured, semi-structured, unstructured
absolute risk
-chance of drawing a heart 13/52 (25%) -chance of drawing queen of hearts 1/52
convergent parallel
-strands independent -equal priority -mixes at interpretation
the 2 dimensions of mixed methods designs
1. time order 2. paradigm emphasis
Limited
Literature review is ________ a priori to minimize bias
Name a Red/Brown Drink
So Co
QUAN or QUAL means:
We are emphasizing that method (uppercase)
Independent variable
affect outcomes (treatment, etc)
sequential
one methodology follows the other
Expansion
provides richness and detail to the study exploring specific features of each method
Quantitative Research (2)
- Go into an experiment with a presumption of what the end result is - Already know what to expect - Everything is measurable - Positivism + Realism
other limitations of analytic research: observer bias
-data collection by interview -observer to blind to disease status
Data analysis
-descriptive stats - inferential stats (t test, ANOVA, MANOVA, ANCOVA) -indicate confidence interval
components of epidemiologic research
-distribution -determinants -application (translation of knowledge)
case control strengths
-efficient for studying relatively rare disease and conditions -enable hypothesis testing ex. multiple exposures for a single disease outcome -can be used to acquire exposure data in relatively great detail
cohort studies
-examines a large disease-free population over long period of time -baseline data used to categorize participants on some determinant (high, medium, low active) -follow up and track occurrence of health outcomes of interest (ex disease) -exposure-disease relationship expressed in absolute or relative terms (relative risk)
prevalence
-how many people are living with disease or health condition NOW
frequency
-how often disease occurs - measured in terms of prevalence, incidence or mortality rate
case-control studies
-identifies casually-related factors for disease outcome in populations with and without disease -cases (with the disease) matched to controls (similar characteristics but without disease) -retrospective -particularly useful in studying relatively rare diseases and conditions
primary prevention
-induction period disease onset
Threats to external validity
-interaction of selection and treatment (participants were selected too narrowly) -interaction of setting and treatment (setting is too specific and results cannot be generalized) - interaction of history and treatment ( results cannot be generalized into a later time span)
explanatory sequential design
-interactive stages -quantitative priority followed up w/ qualitative -sequential timing -mixed at data collection (ex/ rating feelings, then qual. to explain why)
cohort limitations
-limitations of any longitudinal study -cost -lose people -some disease outcomes too rare
What are the 4 ethical issues in research?
1) Voluntary participation 2) No harm to participants 3) Anonymity + confidentiality 4) Deception
What are the 5 considerations in designing a research study?
1) What is the research question? 2) What is the best research design to use? 3) Who will be the participants for the study? 4) How will the data be analysed? 5) What methods/procedures will be used + have ethical considerations been addressed?
5 factors in deciding on a design
1) matching the design to the research purpose 2) deciding level of interaction between strands 3) deciding on priority of the strands 4) deciding of timing of the strands 5) deciding on procedure for mixing strands
4 situations which mixed method approach is needed/ best
1) need both qual. & quan. 2) need to enhace study w/ 2nd source of data 3) need to explain results from quant. study 4)need to first explore qual.
What are the two types of grounded theory approaches
1) systematic approach (Strauss & Corbin) and 2) constructivist approach (Charmaz)
2 General Strategies
1. Convergent 2. Sequential
Nomenclature
1. Orientation: Whether the research is qual or quan oriented. 2. Dominance: Which aspect of the mixed methods design is dominant; uppercase: dominant, lowercase: less dominant. 3. Sequence: Whether mixed methods designs are conducted simultaneously, as designated by + or ->
Sequential Exploratory Model
1. Qual data collection ---> 2. Qual data analysis ---> 3. Quant data collection ---> 4. Quant data analysis --> 5. Interpretation of entire analysis
null value
1.0
paradigms
A set of assumptions, theories, and perspectives that make up a way of understanding social reality.
Whats it made from? What Color? Goldschlager
Cinnamon Tastes, clear
(1) Introduction
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research
QUAL + quan or QUAN + qual
Dominant status / concurrent
Orientation
Explanation, Expansion
Timing of data Explanatory:
Explanatory: Two phase (sequential) quan then qual
There is hierarchy of evidence for qualitative research. True or false?
False
Convergent (MM Research Design) Purpose
Find convergence and divergence
Johnson, Ongwuegbuzie, & Turner 2007 Meaning
First, a consensus about a definition by suggesting a composite understanding. Second a methodology and research design- that spanned viewpoints and a definition of mixed methods to a rationale for conducting it.
Purpose, priority, sequence, integration
Four mixed method design considerations
Name 3 yellow drinks
Galliano, Banna, back bar tequilla (gold)
axiology
How are values of the research expressed?
Literary Form Hypothesis
Hypothesis written so that it represent variables in the abstract
Holism
Idea that a whole, such as a culture, is more than the sum of its individual parts
Phenomenology
Idiographic philosophy
Case Study
In-depth description or analysis of a single unit
Responsive Interviewing
In-depth interview with main, follow-up, and probe questions Varying degree of success obtaining useful data
What does the plus sign indicate?
Indicates simultaneous or concurrent form of data collection
Feedback
Information about service delivery system outputs, outcomes, or operations that can guide program input.
What are qualitative data collection methods?
Interviews, naturalistic observation and analysis of documents / photos
Multiphase Design
Involves series of qualitative/quantitative designs Informs next phase
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Bailey's Irish Cream
Irish Whiskey based, from Ireland, Cream
What is merging?
Merged can occur after completion of qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis. The total findings are then interpreted to find complementary, convergence and divergence among data sets
What is the difference between method and methodology
Method is what we are doing and methodology is asking why we are doing what we are doing
Name 2 green drinks
Midori, and green cream de menthe
Exploratory Design Mixed:
Mixed: Results of qual help design quan methods
What is ontology?
Nature of being
Quantitative is beneficial because there is
Norm and generalizability
Quantitative for ontology, epistemology and goals
Ontology: One reality Epistemology: predictable (1+1=2 always) Goals: generalize to population
Paradigm
Patton (1990) - a World view - A General perspective
Final activity in mixed method research
Report data
Outliers
Scores distant from the mean/average
What is step 2?
Select the contrasting complementary method
Separate but Linked
Separate but linked research questions Example: One quantitative & one qualitative question that address separate non-overlapping constructs about the same phenomenon.
Sequential Explanatory Designs
Sequential Explanatory -you complete one, then go onto the next -you don't know what your research questions are in the second tradition because these questions depend on outcomes from the first tradition -first is usually QUANTITATIVE and second is usually QUALITATIVE ---qualitative provides a way to explain quantitative data -within qualitative and quantitative, you cold use any type of study design (experimental, survey, etc.)
Convergent Parallel Design
Simultaneous collection of quantitative and qualitative data, then margining the two together
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color?Drambuie
Sweet and Spicy Scotch, from Scotland, Tan
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color?Southern Comfort
Sweet whiskey, America, Reddish Brown
Sequential Validity
The degree researcher appropriately addresses and/or builds on findings from earlier quantitative and qualitative phases
Define chance.
The possibility of findings being due to random variation.
The Multistage Evaluation Design (Definition)
The systemic process of collecting and analyzing data about the quality, effectiveness, merit or value of programs, products or practices.
incompatibility thesis
an either-or position claiming mixing research methods is not possible or allowable (a problem is its failure to recognize that creative and thoughtful mixing of assumptions, ideas, and methods can be very helpful and can often best address your research question(s).
Theory in quantitative research
an interrelated set of constructs formed into propositions, or hypotheses, that specify the relationship among variables.
Qualitative Research
an open approach to the study of social phenomena; some aspects include: emergent design, grounded in the lived experiences of individuals, and drawing on multiple methods. Data is in narrative form.
Complementarity
clarifies and illustrates results from one method with the use of another method
Shared values
culturally defined standards about what is good or bad or desirable or undesirable
Embedded Design
data collection may be either concurrent or sequential. One form of data is embedded within another form, thus one form is supportive of the other.
which of the following mixed research purposes seek to broaden the breadth and range of inquiry by combining research methods
expansion
community trials
experimental design in which intervention takes place at the community level
experimental designs: clinical trials
experimental design in which intervention takes place on the individual level
3
providing quantitative guidance for the allocation of public health resources
Pragmatists
researchers emphasize the research problem and use all approaches available to understand the problem.
Development
results from one method shape subsequent methods or steps in the research process
Embedded Design Purpose:
(a.k.a. concurrent nested) Purpose: Different types of data are used to answer different Qs w/in a study
Triangulation Design Purpose:
(a.k.a. concurrent triangulation): Purpose: compare and contrast quan and qual data on the same topic
Explanatory Design Purpose:
(a.k.a. sequential explanatory) Purpose: Qual data is used to expand quan results;
humpherys
(example of triangulation) his participant observation caused qualitative data and questionnaires caused quantitative data. (gay sex in public bathrooms)
newby
(example of triangulation) studied suffolk farm workers- used census statistics, interviews and participant observation.
What exploratory verbs are used to match the four qualitative research designs (Creswell, 2007)
* Discover = grounded theory * Seek to understand = ethnography * Explore a process = case study * Report the stories = narrative
What are Pros & Cons of Exploratory MM Design?
+ Although this design typically emphasizes the qualitative aspect, the inclusion of a quantitative component can make the qualitative approach more acceptable to quantitative-biased audiences. _________________________________________________________ - Requires considerable time to implement - Researchers should discuss whether the same individuals will serve as participants in both the qualitative and quantitative phases, as this will affect internal review board decisions
What are Pros & Cons of Triangulation (Convergent) MM Design?
+ Data collection is concurrent; can lend to better understanding of POP + Same time frame for data collection ___________________________________________________________ - Separate analysis is required (time consuming) - Researchers need to consider the consequences of having different samples and different sample sizes when converging the two data sets. Different sample sizes are inherent in the design because quantitative and qualitative data are usually collected for different purposes (generalization vs. in-depth description, respectively).
What are the Pros & Cons of Embedded MM Design?
+ This design may be logistically more manageable for graduate students because one method requires less data than the other method. +This design may be appealing to funding agencies because the primary focus of the design is traditionally quantitative _____________________________________________________________ - For during-intervention approaches, the qualitative data collection may introduce potential treatment bias that affects the outcomes of the experiment. - Researcher needs to ensure that the qualitative data collection is carefully designed to match the intent for including qualitative data, such as to develop an instrument or shape the intervention.
The sequence of the research
+ means that they were conducted simultaneously (Ex: QUAN + qual) --> shows the sequence that they were conducted in
exploratory design
- 2 phase process -QUAL than QUAN -how QUAN results provide new and better instruments & intervention
explanatory design
- 2 phase process -QUAN than QUAL - how do QUAL results explain QUAN results
What is a research log?
- A diary to track recruitment, interviews, transcriptions, record filed notes + write analytic memos through to analysis
Quantitative Research (1)
- Cause and Effect - Reliability and Validity - Hypothesis driven (deductive) - Need lots of #s
Quantitative Research (3)
- Cause and Effect - What is seen only counts - What happens in the middle is irrelevant
What are the key features of mixed methods research?
- Collecting + analysing quant + qual data in response to research question - Using rigorous quant + qual methods - Integrating quant + qual data using specific types of mixed methods design - Framing mixed methods design within broader framework
What is the 3 phase design used to show?
- Data connected qual analysis informs quantitative data collection - Use to administer to large sample of population -Allows high contextual relevance
What does the 2 phase design used to show?
- Data connected quantitative analysis informs qualitative data collection - Used to explain and interpret quantitative results by collecting and analyzing qualitative data
Step 6: Strengthening Evaluation Design and Validity of the conclusions
- Internal validity and descriptive validity -Methods by which the information will be collected - questionnaires, interviews, observations, program documents, and official statistics -Validity — the extent to which a procedure measures what it is supposed to measure -face validity -content validity -construct validity -predictive validity -Reliability — stability and consistency of the results
Challenges of Mixed Methods
- Needing to understand both quantitative and qualitative research procedures. - Assumption about how research questions cannot be answered by a single (quan or qual) method.
Quantitative Research (5)
- Nomothetic Analysis - Trends/patterns by compiling responses - Numbers! Numbers! Numbers!
Quantitative Research (4)
- Objectivity - Reliability and Validity - Depersonalized - Overidentifying
Explain concurrent transformative
- One data collection phase - No predominant weighting - Must be guided by theoretical orientation
What are the key features of quantitative research?
- Reduces data collection to numbers + analyses using statistical techniques - Methodologies are based on principles of scientific methods - Objective stance (researchers are external to it) - Researcher deduces a hypothesis
Qualitative Research (1)
- Relationship building - Human-centred - Experiences (Inductive)
Mixed Methods Evaluation Research
- Since both quantitative and qualitative approaches have much to offer, evaluation research frequently employs the mixed methods approach, which is simply the planned use of different methods of data collection. -Three types: -QUAL-quan -QUAN-qual -QUAN-QUAL
Explain the rigour of qualitative data:
- Site - Permissions - Purposeful sampling - Reciprocity - Types of data - Protocol - Data preparation - Data analysis - Validity strategy - Reflectivity
Explain the rigour of quantitative data:
- Site - Permissions - Systematic sampling - Types of data - Instruments - Data cleaning - Statistics - Validity and reliability
Social Research
- Study of society - Attitudes, assumptions, beliefs - The relationship between one or more variables -- ie. gender & income
Quantitative Research (6)
- Theory - Hypothesis - Data Collection - Findings - Hypotheses confirmed/rejected - Possible revision of theory
when to use mixed methods
- a need exists for both qualitative and quantitative approaches - a need exists to enhance the study with a second source of data - a need exists to explain the results of a quantitative study - a need exists to first explore qualitatively
Qual. Reliability procedures
- check transcripts for errors - check and cross check codes - coordinate team communication ( inter-coder agreement) -
pragmatism
- consequences of actions - problem-centered - pluralistic - real-world practice oriented
postpositivism
- determination - reductionism - empirical observation and measurement - theory verification
narrative research
- explore the life of an individual - tell stories of individual experiences
methods for strengthening theoretical validity in qualitative research
- extended fieldwork - theory triangulation - pattern matching - peer review
what is epidemiologic research
- from word epidemic -study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specific populations and the application of this study to the control of health problems -how often disease occur in different groups of people and why -key=large scale
Instrumentation
- identify if instrument is designed for this research or modified,
Population and sample
- identify population (size, availability of sample) - identify if single stage or multistage (clustering) sample - identify selection process - identify if there is stratification of population before selecting a sample (identify characteristics of stratification) - identify procedures for selecting sample from list - identify number of people in sample
Components of survey design
- identify purpose of survey - indicate why survey as data collection procedure - identify if survey is cross sectional, data collected at one time or longitudinal - specify form of data collection ( self-administrered questionnaires, interviews, structured record reviews, structured observations, online).
choosing a design
- identify the type of mixed methods design - defines characteristics with this design (time, weighting, mixing decision) - overall purpose for using this design in the stiudy
methods for strengthening descriptive validity in qualitative research
- investigator triangulation
why is philosophy important?
- it shapes how researchers formulate problem and questions, how seek answers to research questions - assumptions deeply rooted in training and reinforced by the scholarly community -reviewers make philosophical assumptions about a study...need to be able to understand this
methods for strengthening interpretive validity in qualitative research
- participant feedback - low-inference descriptors
Pragmatism
- pluralistic (recognizes single and multiple realities) - problem centered - recognizes value of multiple methods to collect data - primary importance placed on research question
methods for strengthening internal validity in qualitative research
- researcher as detective - methods triangulation - data triangulation
epistemological assumption
- researcher relies on quotes as evidence from the - collaborate and spends time in field with participants - becomes an "insider"
"good" qualitative research
- rigorous data collection procedures - frames study w/in the assumptions and characteristics of qualitative approach - uses qualitative inquiry - begin with a single focus or concept being explored - detailed methods, rigorous approach to data collection, data analysis, report writing - analyze data using multiple levels of abstraction - write persuasively - study reflects the history, culture, and personal experiences of the researcher - ethical
Strengths of Mixed methods
- strengths of both approaches is combined - grounded theory can be generated and tested - broader research questions can be tested (more tools) - more insights with more then one approach
pros & cons of mixed methods
- strengths of both methods can be combined -ground theory can be tested/ generated -0broader research questions can be tested -more insight w/ more than one approach Cons... -labour intense -conflicting results can be difficult to resolve -mixed violates philosophical underpinnings (positivist & interpretivist)
What are the key features of qualitative research?
- subjectivity of research is acknowledged - knowledge is constructed by participants - seek to understand subjective meaning of the phenomenon - data is naturalistic + complex
Qual. validity procedures
- triangulate different sources of data to build coherent theme - member checking (check with participants for accuracy of report) -use rich, thick description -clarify researcher's bias (self-reflection) - present discrepant info -spend prolonged time in field -peer debriefing -external auditor
greene 5 reasons
- triangulation - complementarity - development -initation -expansion
Bryman 16 reasons
- triangulation - offset - completeness - process - different research questions - explanation - unexpected results - instrument development - sampling - credibility - context - illustration - utility - confirm and discover - diversity of views - enhancement
constructivism
- understanding - multiple participant meanings - social and historical construction - theory generation
limitations of mixed methods
- very labour intensive and may have to learn new methods - conflicting results can be difficult to resolve - mixing violates philosophical underpinnings (positivism vs constructivism)
exploratory sequential design
-2 interactive phases -qual. is priority -qual builds to quan. -mixed at data collection (can form ground theory)
multiphase iterative design
-3 or more phases -early ones provide foundational data on which later ones can build
What are advantages of using mixed methods research?
-A researcher can use the strengths of an additional method to overcome weaknesses in another method by (principle of complementarity) -Provides stronger evidence for conclusion through convergence/corroboration of findings (triangulation) -produces more complete knowledge necessary to inform theory and practice -Can be used to increase the generalizability of the results
Step 2: Budget Constraints
-Budget can dictate much about the evaluation design. -Many times, clients feel that evaluation is a relatively straightforward process, thereby allocating less dollars to the project. -It is essential for the evaluation team to discuss the impact of the low budget and to do so with the reality that all organizations have limited budgets.
Step 5: political influences
-Consider other potential "influencing bodies" -funding and regulatory agencies, public response, groups who are politically active on the topic at hand, and other stakeholders -To meet the political influences, the researcher should maintain positive relationships with all the stakeholders and be very transparent in all actions. -Explanation should delineate the shortcomings of the evaluation as well as the strengths with the caveat that the evaluation is only one source of information that can be used in decision-making
Step 7: Using the evaluation with clients
-Decision-makers -Involvement in the evaluation Commitment to use the findings of the project -If the groups that have a stake in the program receive information about the process and outcome of the program, then more appropriate decisions can be made concerning the program.
Sequential Transformative Design Example
-Effectiveness of a newly implemented classroom wide handwriting program ---quantitative (pre-post test design) -Experience of teachers and children ---qualitative (ethnography)
Sequential Exploratory Design Example
-How do individuals define their identify with regards to disability? (qualitative) ---phenomenology --> in-depth interviews -What is the prevalence of disability in the US? (quantitative) ---survey --> prevalence of disability
Behavioral objectives Evaluation
-It starts with a program's goals and collects data to determine if these goals were met. -The program's success is measured by the outcomes of the program in relation to the stated goals. -The behavioral objectives approach includes nine steps. -Weaknesses: Questions usually arise concerning who sets the goals and objectives, whose interests they represent, if goals are a complete set of the desired behaviors, goal measurement, and if important outcomes are reflected by the respecification of objectives. -Strengths: It provides validity and enables the evaluator to have a set plan of action by establishing predetermined steps to be taken
Real world Evaluation
-It takes budget, time, and data constraints into consideration, as well as the political environment surrounding the evaluation process. -It facilitates mixed evaluation techniques by combining quantitative and qualitative approaches. -It provides opportunities to strengthen the level of evidence.
Step 1: planning the evaluation
-Know and understand your client and the political context in which the research evaluation will be done. -Address the issues of time, budget, and data constraints. Select the appropriate methodologies. -Determine how the information will be disseminated and used.
Cost Analysis for Evaluation Research
-Public and private funding sources are not satisfied with just numbers of statistical importance. -It is essential to know what you get for costs as a program; one way to accomplish this is to determine cost-effectiveness, which refers to how effective the program is and at what cost. -Determine the ratio of monetary to non monetary program effects to choose the least expensive program that produces the same result. Determine benefits-cost ratio.
Qualitative Evaluation
-Research questions are more open-designed, searching for meaningful answers rather than quantitative data. -It is evidenced by words, photographs, and videos. -Inductive reasoning is used to develop more hypotheses and questions. -Data analysis emphasizes meaning and how things work.
I. Mixed methods
-The combination of quantitative and qualitative methods -gives us a better picture of the research problem
Step 4: Data Constraints
-The key issue is collecting the right data. -Quantitative — What to count, how to count it, and what you cannot do without need to be known. -Qualitative — What perceptions, opinions, and thoughts most impact the evaluation outcome need to be known. -There are issues and hard-to-reach participants. -Failure to get accurate information is a threat to validity. -Reconstructing baseline data or addressing missing data is challenging.
Step 3: Time constraints
-The link between "money and time" is important when considering the evaluation design. -Options for reducing time include using secondary data, reducing the sample size, selecting quicker data collection techniques, bringing on more people to help, and simplifying the overall design.
What are disadvantages of using mixed methods research?
-The researcher has to learn about multiple methods and approaches and understand how to appropriately mix them -It is more expensive and more time consuming. -Need to work out issues ahead of time (e.g., problems of paradigm mixing, how to qualitatively analyze quantitative data, how to interpret conflicting results)
ex. having several CT scans as child could make you 3x more likely to develop leukemia
-absolute risk of developing leukemia (0.6 per 10,000 children 0-9y.o) -increased risk would mean one additional case of leukemia for every 10,000 children given the scans
limitations of ecological design
-can lead to false findings -findings on group level rather than individual level -should be considered a first line of investigation only
measuring PA in epidemiologic studies
-can use any measure of PA -short assessment (questionnaires) are common -longer assessments (objective assessments) required to determine dose/response relationships
health risks of inactivity
-cardiovascular disease -osteoporosis -type 2 diabetes -obesity -depression/anxiety etc
experimental designs (randomized trials)
-clinical trials -community trials
mixed methods research
-combine quantitative and qualitative -can range from highly quantitative to highly qualitative -often requires team of researchers
3 designs of mixed methods
-convergent (parallel/concurrent) -explanatory -exploratory -embedded -multiphase iterative
study designs: descriptive
-cross sectional design -ecological design
embedded design
-either quan or qual emphasis (flexible) -concurrent (separate) or sequential -mixed at design level (ex/ survey, emergent)
multiphase design
-equal emphasis -often used in program evaluation -study 1 qual. -> study 2 quan. -> study 3 mixed methods
cross sectional designs
-examines relationships between health behaviours (PA) and health outcomes -often use known risk factors as endpoints (high BP rather than death from heart attack) -assemble distinct groups within the data (High active vs. low active) and compare on risk factor of interest -control for confounding variables with statistics
limitations to cross sectional
-exposure and outcome measured at the same time -does not allow for accural of outcome events
Example of a Sequential Explanatory design
-first tradition: Leisure pursuits of adults with serious mental illness (quantitative) ---uses surveys (hours, types of activities, social vs. solitary) -second tradition: Why do adults with severe mental illness participate in solitary leisure activities? (qualitative) ---phenomenology --> in-depth interviews
Sequential Transformative Design
-goal is to transform policy, ideology, or practice -qualitative or quantitative core -ex: effectiveness of program evaluation ---followed by interview from parents/teachers or observations of kids in the classroom in order to highlight how the new program is being perceived
constructivist worldview
-goes along with qualitative research -individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and work
postpositivist worldview
-goes along with quantitative research -represents the traditional form of research -scientific method or science research -hold a deterministic philosophy in which causes determine their outcome
mortality rate
-how many people die from a disease of health condition within a given time frame
Method section
-introduce variables (again) but this time relate them to the hypothesis/specific questions -table example p. 151 shows how IV, DV and ControlV can be identified and cross referenced
pragmatic worldview
-mixed methods approach goes along with it -arises out of actions, situations, and consequences -emphasize the problem and use all approaches available to to understand the problem
natural history of chronic disease
-most chronic disease takes 10-40 years to develop into a problem sufficient for clinical diagnosis
Types of Mixed Design Methods
-multimethod studies -mixed method studies
quantitative
-numbers -close ended questions -experiments -collecting data on instruments
pragmatism
-primary importance on research question -(problem centered) question drives the research -recognizes value of multiple methods -pluralistic
when to use qualitative research
-problem or issue needs to be explored -need a complex, detailed understanding of the issue -want to empower individuals -want to write in a literary flexible style that conveys stories or theater, poems... -help explain the mechanisms or linkages in causal theories or models -develop theories when partial or inadequate theories exist -quantitative measures and statistical analysis do not fit the problem
Mixed Method Study
-qualitative and quantitative are used in the same study; simultaneously or concurrently ---Qual + Quan or Qual --> Quan -one method can be the primary ---Quan --> qual
relative risk
-ratio of the probability of an event occurring (ex. developing heart disease) in an exposed group compared to the probability of the event occurring in a non-exposed group
case control limitations
-recall bias: -inability to recall accurately -bias from post-diagnosis recall selection bias: -controls are selected based on characteristics that match the cases so findings may not be generalizable to general pop. -interviewer knows if the person is case or control: may be biased to prompt certain questions
pluralistic
-recognizes single & multiple realities -gains multiple perspectives
note about absolute and relative risk
-relative risk is meaningless unless you know the absolute risk -if the initial risk is small, even a huge relative risk could be really smalle
how to interpret
-relative risk of 7.0 means that the event is 7 times more likely in the exposed than the non-exposed group
design considerations
-research question and hypothesis -design selection -sampling -data collection -evidence of good data -presentation of results
transformative design
-shaped by theoretical framework (make decisions based on a theory that you are working from) -ALL decisions based on qual & quan -emergent OR fixed
other threats affecting validity
-statistical conclusion validity (inaccurate inferences from data because of poor stats) - construct validity (poor definitions and measures of variables)
cohort studies strengths
-temporal sequence between exposure and outcomes clearly defined -ideal for rare exposures (can recruit a specific cohort) -can provide insight into multiple effects of a single exposure
analytic designs
-test specific hypothesis about casual links between exposures and mortality and incidence outcomes -use only observational research
Challenges of Mixed Method Design
-time and resource consuming -expertise in both methods -publication challenges
why mixed
-triangulation(brings data together to see if they support eachother) -offset weaknesses of each -completedness -different research questions answered as well -explanation (explained w/ other method) -unexpected results -instrument development (qual first w/ new instrument) - credibility -context -illustration (qual illustrates quan) -utility (easier to use results w/ comprehensive picture) -confirm & discover -diversity of views -enhancement
qual. write up
-use different types of quotes (short and long) -use original language in script (then translate for cultural sensitivity)
ecological designs
-use existing data sources (public health records etc) -compare and contrast rates of disease across population subgroups differing in characteristics of interest
how do you gain a deeper understanding of a problem in mixed method research?
-uses both QUAN & QUAL techniques for data collection and analysis
qualitative
-words -open ended questions -case study -collecting data by observation
Greene 2007 Defined
..that actively invites us to participate in dialogue about multiple ways of seeing and hearing, multiple ways of making sense of the social world and multiple standpoints on what is important and to be valued and cherished"
What 3 issues does qualitative researchers address?
1. Know about the CHARACTERISTICS of whatever phenomena you are addressing 2. Know about people's PERCEPTIONS of the causes of the phenomena you are addressing 3. What are the CONSEQUENCES of the phenomena you are addressing
Social Science Theory Key points
1. Place at beginning to guide hypotheses in study 2. Write how it is used then describe how it informs the qual/quan components of the study 3. include diagram of theory 4. provide framework for data collection 5. return theory @end of study to inform how findings and results compared w/use of theory
what are the 3 types of mixed methods research designs?
1. Qualitative before Quantitative - identifies key features to include in survey/questionnaire 2. Simultaneously - focus on different aspects 3. Quantitative before Qualitative
Sequential Explanatory Model
1. Quant data collection---> 2. Quant data analysis ---> 3. Qual data collection ---> 4. Qual data analysis ---> 5. Interpretation of entire analysis
What are 4 ways to enhance rigour?
1. Reflexivity - being aware of researchers attitudes/power/influence + accounting for mistakes 2. Member checking/respondent validation 3. Peer review of data analysis 4. Triangulation
Phases of Exploratory Sequential Design
1. Research begins by working inductively, collecting qualitative data (through observation/interview) from a purposive sample. Then coding/identifying themes and/or categories occurs. 2. Then quantitative data is collected with a large, randomly chosen sample.
Phases of Explanatory Sequential Design
1. Researcher formulates a hypothesis, collects quantitative data, and conducts data analysis. - Findings determine data collection method 2. Data collection, analysis, and interpretation of qualitative data.
List five other ethical considerations for health research?
1. Special populations in Australia 2. Risk balanced by expected benefits for wider community and participants 3. Conflicts of interest 4. Submission to multiple ethical review boards 5. Storage of data
Experimental procedures
1. pre-experimental (study single group, provide an intervention. No control group) 2. true experiment (random assingment) 3. quasi experiment (use of control and experimental grps, no random assignment of participants) 4. single subject design (also called N of 1 design, observe bx. of sngl. (or sml grp) individual over time)
What are some examples of enhancing qualitative rigour?
1. reflexivity - being aware of impact of researcher's attitudes, their power and influence 2. member checking or respondent validation 3. peer review of data analysis / concensus coding and 4. triangulation (e.g. data sources, types of data, data analysis)
postpositivism
1. scientific approach to research, utilize social science theoretical lens; 2. positivism-elements of being reductionistic, logical, empirical, cause-and-effect, oriented and deterministic based on a priori theories
Transformative Theory -applicable to what studies? -Common themes? -steps for theory?
1. study of community health or marginalized groups 2. Themes: - underlying assump. that rely on ethical stances of inclusion challenging opressive social structures - entry process w/commun. to build trust and make goals -disssemination of findings that encourages use of results to enhance social justice/human rights 3. Steps: -define problem/lit. rev -identify research design -find data sources -identify istruments/methods -analyze, interpret & report
Mixed methods theory use
1. used for deductive in quant. theory for testings/validity 2. used for emerging qual. theory/pattern 2 frameworks: social science and transformative
Embedded Design Mixed:
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vi. Participant selection model:
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Likert Item
A "Likert item" is a statement that the respondent is asked to evaluate in a survey. The table as a whole is the Likert scale.
Likert scale
A "Likert scale" is the sum of responses to several Likert items. These items are usually displayed with a visual aid, such as a series of radio buttons or a horizontal bar representing a simple scale.
Ethnography
A "key contact" or "gate keeper" is used to gain access to a community
Abstract
A brief review of the literature that summarizes major elements to enable a reader to understand the basic features of the article.
MIXED METHODS PURPOSE STATEMENT:
A good mixed methods purpose statement contains: •The overall intent of the study from a content perspective •Information about both the quantitative and qualitative strands of the study •A rationale for combining both quantitative and qualitative data •Guidelines include: •Use words and phrases that signal intent such as: purpose, intent of, or objective •Indicate the overall purpose of the study from a content perspective •Indicate the type of mixed methods design
Embedded advanced mixed methods
A one or more forms of data (quantitative or qualitative or both) within a larger design (e.g. a narrative study, an ethnography, an experiment)
Sample
A part of the population is called a sample. It is a proportion of the population, a slice of it, a part of it and all its characteristics. A sample is a scientifically drawn group that actually possesses the same characteristics as the population - if it is drawn randomly
Experimental Design
A quantitative design in which groups are chosen by the researcher based on the chosen independent variable. Group membership is randomly assigned. There is often a control group that does not receive any treatment/intervention and one or more experimental groups that do receive a treatment/intervention.
Hypothesis
A quantitative hypothesis contains a null and an alternative proposition that is either proved or disproved through statistical analysis. The process speculates that an independent variable affects a dependent variable and an experiment is conducted to see if there is a relationship between the two. This type of hypothesis is stated in numerical terms and has specific rules and limits.
Reasons for using mixed method
A researcher cannot fully address a research problem and sub-problems unless he or she collects, analyzes, and interprets both qualitative and quantitative data
Convergent parallel mixed methods
A researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data, analyze them separately, and then compares the results to see if the findings confirm or disconfirm each other
Conducting Mixed Methods Research (Literature Review)
A researcher needs to consider how and when to conduct a literature review, whether or not to let it guide hypotheses or other expectations for the study, and how to present it in a final report.
Rule for prospective mixed methods researchers
A researcher who is thinking about conducting a mixed methods study should only do so after he or she has had some experience with strictly qualitative studies and strictly quantitative studies (mixed methods requires more of the researcher's time and energy)
Multi-phase Design
A series of phases or separate studies, each of which may use a combination of sequential ad/or concurrent phases
Define bias.
A systematic error in the way we select our patients, measure our outcomes or analyse our data that lead to results that are inaccurate.
Needs assessment
A type of evaluation research that attempts to determine the needs of some population that might be met with a social program.
Cost-benefit analysis
A type of evaluation research that compares program costs with the economic value of program benefits.
By definition, quasi experimental design is
A type of quantitative research
What is typology? (4)
A way to clarify method choice and methodological approach This gives a map of priority and sequence of which method you will employ Explains which type of method emphasized or if they hold equal value Sorts out order of methods or if they work concurrently
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Qualitative Data?
ADVANTAGES - Detailed perspective of a few people - Hear voices of participants - Understand perspectives in context - Built from participants views DISADVANTAGES: - Limited generalizability - Few people studied - Interpretive
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Quantitative Data?
ADVANTAGES: - Draw conclusions for large number of people - Efficient data analysis - Demonstrate relationships - Bias control - Examine cause and effect DISADVANTAGES: - Impersonal - Limited understanding of context
Transformative designs: Purpose
ALL ABOUT ADVOCACY Purpose: bring about change - transform how society thinks about injustice
Challenges
Ability to set aside investigator self to be open to the emergent theory. Charmaz (2006) said this is impossible Researcher may have difficulty knowing when saturation is reach or richness of categories is detailed. Remedy of this is discriminant sampling (Creswell 2007?) by testing theory on people similar to original group to see if it matches.
What two questions are answered in ethnography (Creswell, 2013)
Analysis results in an understanding of how the culture-sharing group works, the essence of how it functions, the group's way of life. 1. What do people in this setting have to know and do to make this system work? 2. If culture, sometimes defined simply as shared knowledge, is mostly caught rather than taught, how do those being inducted into the group find their "way in" so that an adequate level of sharing is achieved?
Pragmatic worldview
Arises out of actions, situations and consequences rather than antecedent conditions. Focus is on what works for problem resolution. Instead of focusing on methods, concentrate on problem and use all approaches available to understand it. Use mixed methods. Truth is what works at the time.
Mixed Methods Research Purpose
Articulates the WHAT, WHY, & HOW of the phenomenon of interest.
Advocacy and participatory worldview
Based on belief that theories and laws do not fit marginalized individuals or issues of social justice. Research must be intertwined with politics. Researcher has action agenda for reform for change. Addresses specific issues. Researcher collaborates with participants to design questions, data collection or analysis.
When is sample selected?
Before study starts, some designs sample during
Quantitative Examples
Behavioral Observations: Counting Frequency, Rating Intensity Interviews: Rating specific responses of the interviewee to specific questions for quality and accuracy Survey: Gathering self-ratings of agreement or satisfaction with descriptive items and scales Case Study: Small-n or single participant study of changes in behaviors, attitudes, or other measurable variables
Qualitative Examples
Behavioral Observations: Describing process or actions. Highlighting perceived causes and effects Interviews: Recording and transcribing the entirety of the interview experience, including interviewer questions, interviewee responses, gaps in conversation, etc., viewing all as meaningful information and reflections of interviewees' own reality. Survey: Eliciting writing responses to open-ended questions or comment-request boxes Case Study: More in-depth review of individualizing cases, with goal of providing detail regarding context and process, rather than generalize quantified effects.
(4) Phenomenological Research Design
Best used when it is important to understand several individuals' common or shared experiences of a phenomenon or it would be important to understand these common experiences in order to develop practices or policies, or to develop a deeper understanding about the features of the phenomenon This turns on the lived experiences of individuals and how they have both subjective experiences of the phenomenon and objective experiences of something in common with other people
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Chambord
Black Raspberries, from France, its purple.
Mixed Methods Data Analytical Procedures - Blending
Blending Variable, category, or theme generated from one type of analysis is tested under another type of data or a variable, category, or factor is created by combining qualitative and quantitative data.
Blending
Blending into a single statement Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2006 Example: "What are the implications of the No Child Left Behind Act on parents?"
Mixed Methods
Blending of research tools, qualitative/quantitative, both in one study
Viewpoint
Both deductive & inductive, Multiple influences exist
What is depth vs breadth of info?
Both in different strands of the research design
Data Numerical
Both numerical (quantitative) and narrative/visual (qualitative)
Concurrent Designs
Both qualitative and quantitative data is collected simultaneously -neither design is a core (but need to maintain the integrity of both methods)
Why and how does feasibility of using mixed methods need to be assessed beforehand?
Both the RESEARCH QUESTION and the REQUIRED DATA will be the main determinants of the methods used. To a lesser extent, the choice of methods may be influenced by feasibility, the research team's skills and experience, and time constraints. Secondly, priority of methods will relate to the emphasis placed on each method in the study.
What does "blend" mean?
Build in a blender, then pour into glass
What does "shake and strain" mean?
Build in a mixing glass with ice, then strain in to chilled stemmed glass
How to tell which is the dominant design?
CAPS=the dominant design (QUAL or QUAN)
Mixed Method Research Designs Remeber
CEE
Ethnography
Can be "critical ______," which advocates for marginalized people...by sharing their story you are theoretically advocating for them
The Social Justice Design (Definition and Purpose)
Can be based on any of the 3 basic mixed methods design. Purpose: to address one or more injustices faced by some group in society and ultimately evoke societal change.
Limitations of Case Studies
Can't generalize the results to the wider population. Researchers' own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias). Difficult to replicate. Time consuming.
What is convenience sampling?
Captive sample - you ask everyone in the waiting room to fill out your survey Volunteer sample - you advertise your study (e.g. internet) and people self-select to participate
Name 3 Purple Drinks
Chambord, Blackberry Brandy, Creme de Cassis
Concurrent: Nested
Characterized by: A nested approach that gives priority to one of the methods and guides the project, while another is embedded or "nested." Purpose: The purpose of the nested method is to address a different question than the dominant or to seek information from different levels.
Sequential: Exploratory
Characterized by: An initial phase of qualitative data collection and analysis followed by a phase of quantitative data collection and analysis. Purpose: To explore a phenomenon. This strategy may also be useful when developing and testing a new instrument
Sequential: Transformative
Characterized by: Collection and analysis of either quantitative or qualitative data first. The results are integrated in the interpretation phase. Purpose: To employ the methods that best serve a theoretical perspective.
Sequential: Explanatory
Characterized by: Collection and analysis of quantitative data followed by a collection and analysis of qualitative data. Purpose: To use qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of a quantitative study.
Concurrent: Transformative
Characterized by: The use of a theoretical perspective reflected in the purpose or research questions of the study to guide all methodological choices. Purpose: To evaluate a theoretical perspective at different levels of analysis.
Concurrent: Triangulation
Characterized by: Two or more methods used to confirm, cross-validate, or corroborate findings within a study. Data collection is concurrent. Purpose: Generally, both methods are used to overcome a weakness in using one method with the strengths of another.
Member checks
Checking in with participants to make sure that what you're finding is accurate...see if there is anything misstated or anything that should be added
Name 5 Red Drinks
Cherry Brandy, Slow Gin, Creme De almond, dubonnet, Campari
Exploring Data in Quantitative Data Analysis
Conduct a descriptive analysis (e.g., mean, SD, & variance in responses) & examine quality of scores from data collection instruments to assess validity & reliability
(2) Research Paradigm
Consider various research paradigms, philosophies, and worldviews
Reliability
Consistancy of measures allowing for repititions yeilding the same result
Dependability
Consistency of results; would the results be the same if the study was repeated or is another researcher analyzed the data?; consistency
What is one of the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research?
Context- in quantitative research you strip out the context in order to be as objective as you possibly can whereas in qualitative research the context is really important.
Continuous Variable
Continuous variables can have an infinite number of different values between two given points. As shown above, there cannot be a continuous scale of children within a family. If height were being measured though, the variables would be continuous as there are an unlimited number of possibilities even if only looking at between 1 and 1.1 meters.
Mixed Method Research Designs List
Convergent Explanatory Exploratory
What design is it when qual and quan are used at the same time?
Convergent mixed methods design
What type of design is it if a researcher used qual and quant questions in a questionnaire
Convergent mixed methods design
Triangulation Design Convergent model:
Convergent model: Compare and contrast qual w quan results; do they tell us the same story? E.g. obtain self-ratings of health using a questionnaire as well as conduct a media HX E.g. Andrewson, Newell, and Kilcoyne (1999) motivation behind college plasma donors -Questionnaire and focus groups Emphasize both qual and quan
Sequential Designs
Data collected in 2nd tradition AFTER analysis of data collected in the 1st tradition -in sequential designs, one tradition follows the other, whereas in concurrent designs, the data are being collected simultaneously ---sequential designs: you have to wait in order to complete the second phase ---concurrent designs: you can do the second phase at the same time
Integration can occur at what stages of research process
Data collection, analysis, interpretation, knowledge translation
Concurrent Triangulation Design
Data from one tradition is used to verify, complement, and fortify findings from the other -role of social and physical environment in recovery from OA ---quantitative (cross-sectional survey) -Experience of patients with OA ---qualitative (phenomenology)
Triangulation Design Data transformation model:
Data transformation model: E.g. participants complete questionnaire in which they indicate the symptoms they exp and to what degree they exp those symptoms as well as open ended Qs regarding their health -Open ended Qs are transformed into quan data ---X number of people reported this symptom in the open-ended response
What is step 3?
Decide how the data will be used - This will help you to determine how to design the data collection aspect of your study Collect quantitative data, then qualitative data Collect qualitative data, then quantitative data Collect at the same time
Analyzing Data in Quantitative Data Analysis
Deductive; Confirmatory; Used to test theory Validate/check reliability of scores from past instrument use. current data & internal & external validity of results.
Types of Comparative Research
Descriptive & Analytic
Descriptive
Descriptive Quantify responses on one or more variables. For example, "What is the graduation rate of doctoral students in a distance education program?"
Sequential Explanatory
Design type order quantitative, then qualitative; collection and analysis or quantitative data followed by collection and analysis of qualitative data
What is the first step?
Determine whether research question is quantitative or qualitative
Slump
Determines how workable the mix will be. Ideal slump is a mix with the greatest stiffness that can still be placed adequately
Quantitative Research Questions
Developed a priori (deductive) Narrows the purpose by indicating specific variables to test Addresses WHAT & WHY questions Three categories: descriptive; comparative; relationship
Thematic Coding
Differs from other, more quantitatively oriented forms of content coding. The goal of thematic coding is typically to extract themes from a set of data. Typically, these data are verbal in nature, either collected via open-ended survey or interview questions, or extracted from communication records (e.g., e-mail, or Internet chat logs). Thematic coding also can be used with records of speeches or recorded dialogues between people. Or even video capturing a person's movements and nonverbal behaviors.
Define confounding.
Effects of an additional variable that might be responsible for the observed association.
Sequential Transformative Model
Either quant or qual first in the sequence, either being the priority or both having equal priority, integrating the two phases in the interpretation process.
Mixed Methods Research Questions
Embed quantitative & qualitative research questions in the same question. The wording of research questions identifies priority. (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998)
What is embedded?
Embedded occurs in studies with both primary and secondary research questions in which different methods are employed to address each question
Weighting Embedded
Embedded: Unequal emphasis
Timing of data Embedded:
Embedded: Usually One-phase (concurrent) but cld be two-phases (sequential)
Mixing: How are the quan and qual data sets related or mixed? Embedded:
Embedded: embedded (mix by embedding one in the other)
Weighting: Triangulation
Emphasis or priority of quan vs qual methods Triangulation: Usually equal emphasis
Triangulation
Enhance validity by using different types of data to measure the same phenomenon. Example : Questionnaire with quantitative closed and qualitative open-ended questions.
QUAN + QUAL
Equal status / concurrent
QUAN --> QUAL or QUAL --> QUAN
Equal status / sequential
(6) Ethnographic Research Design
Ethnography is appropriate if the needs are to describe how a cultural group works and to explore the beliefs, language, behaviors, and issues facing the group, such as power, resistance, and dominance.
Summative
Evaluates the final effects or benefits of a program, product, or practice. Looks at outcomes and impacts. -Outcomes, cost-effectiveness, cost-benefit analysis, impact, meta-analysis, and management system
Process evaluation
Evaluation research that investigates the process of service delivery.
Multilevel/Expansion Example
Ex: Cross-case comparisons of in-depth narratives or case studies of effective leaders or organizations - Kerrigan's study of community college's organizational capacity
Mixed Methods
Example: healthcare-related interventions, which are implemented in a highly complex environments, answering the question of why some interventions work while others fail is not easily done within a quantitative framework. Such a question can be more comprehensively addressed with the use of a qualitative or combo of qualitative and quantitative (mixed methods) strategy.
What is expansion?
Expanding the depth of the study by using different methods for different research components
Natural Science
Explain or clarify the rules of the natural world using scientific methods - Bio - Physics - Chem
Explanatory (MM Research Design) Remember
Explain the QUAN results with QUALity data
Mixed Methods Conclusions
Explain the anticipated & unanticipated contribution of quantitative & qualitative results to inform meta-inferences
Basic Mixed Methods Designs
Explanatory Sequential, Exploratory Sequential, Convergent
Mixing: How are the quan and qual data sets related or mixed? Explanatory
Explanatory: Connected
Weighting Explanatory
Explanatory: Quan followed by Qual - emphasize quan ususally
Exploratory Design Purpose
Exploratory Design (a.k.a. sequential exploratory) Purpose: Use qual methods to help develop quan methods -If doing an exp where there is no questionnaire out there, e.g. an instrument to measure buddies for anorexia
Transformative Mixed Methods
Exploratory sequential, explanatory sequential, or convergent approaches are incorporated within a social justice framework
Mixing: How are the quan and qual data sets related or mixed? Exploratory
Exploratory: Connected
Weighting Exploratory
Exploratory: Qual followed by Quan usually emphasize the qualitative
Timing of data Exploratory:
Exploratory: Two phase (sequential) qual then quan
Exploratory (MM Research Design) Remember
Explore the QUAL data for better QUAN
What is the generalizability of MMS?
External validity or transferability
Qualitative Data Techniques
Field Notes • Observation-focused • Comprehensive: complete; including all or nearly all elements or aspects of something. "A comprehensive list of sources" of or relating to understanding. Behavioral observation, interviews, Case studies, surveys
Conditional Matrix
Final and optional step of study process to create matrix of theory in context of historical, cultural, social and economic conditions which influence the central phenomenon. Theory from the smallest to broadest perspective. Grand theory level
Ethnography
Findings describe the shared beliefs, practices, rituals, artifacts, and/or behaviors of a group
open coding
First step- segmenting collected data into categories. Each category has properties and look for data to dimensionalize properties.
Case Study
Focus is on trying to better understand a unique or exemplary unit or a standard typical unit
What is the Focus Method Question Reasoning Sampling Method Strength of quantitative research
Focus: How Methods: experiment & survey Question: how many? Reasoning: deductive/logic Sampling method: statistical Strength: reliability
What is the Focus Method Question Reasoning Sampling Method Strength of qualitative research
Focus: what and why Methods: observation and interview question: what is x, why is x? Reasoning: iterative Sampling method: theoretical Strength: validity
Multivariate Questions
Follow descriptive questions; compare or relate variables
Post-positivism
Traditional research form, als called scientific method, or postitivist research, and empirical science. It challenges the notion of absolute truth of knowledge, we cannot be "positive" about claims of knowledge. Based on Comte, Mill, Newton, Locke and Durkheim. Problems studied reflect need to identify causes that influence outcome. It is reductionistic, meaning to reduce idea into small discrete set of ideas to test. Knowledge gathered is based on observations. As laws and theories govern the world, these need to be tested and verified. Begins with theory, data collection supporting or refuting theory. Instead of saying they proved a theory they "fail to reject the hypothesis".
Operational Form Hypothesis
Hypothesis written so that it represent specific information about the variables in the study
Analyzing and Interpreting Mixed Methods Data
Ideally, a researcher will make a decision before he or she collects the data about whether he or she will: give the qualitative data and quantitative data equal weight or give a higher importance to one form of data over another
What is an extreme case analysis?
Identified from either qual or quan and further examined using complementary data collection and analysis to further explore the nature of the outliers and refine your interpretation of the results - quant outliers are identified and their qual data is explored - extreme cases identified in constant comparative analysis of qual data are further examined in quan analysis to refine interpretation of qual data
Variables of experimental method design
Identify independent variables. One IV must be treatment variable others can simply be used as measurements. Identify dependent variable. (the response to the criterion).
Strengths of Mixed Methods
Triangulation, comprehensiveness, enhancing generalization
Mixed Methods Research can take many forms, and many decisions need to be made including:
Implementation sequence (timing) Priority (weighting) Integration
What is the difference between sampling for quantitative vs. qualitative studies?
In QUALITATIVE study, sampling involves the intentional selection of participants who have experienced a central phenomenon, condition, or concept. In QUANTITATIVE study, sampling requires that selection include a large number of individuals who are representative of the population or a segment of the population.
What does "Up" mean when requested?
In a a stemmed Glass, Shake and strain method.
A meta-matrix
In a meta-matrix, researchers array information from qual and quan data sources; in a typical meta-matrix the rows correspond to cases (individual participants) and data from multiple sources are entered into the column
How does one analyze data in ethnography (Creswell, 2013)
In an analysis of this data, the researcher relies on the participants' views as an insider emic perspective and reports them in verbatim quotes, and then synthesizes the data filtering it through the researchers' etic scientific perspective to develop an overall cultural interpretation. This cultural interpretation is a description of the group and themes related to the theoretical concepts being explored in the study
What is the arrow symbol?
Indicates a sequential form of data collection with one form of data building on the other
What does capitalization mean?
Indicates weight or priority data
How does mixed methods take into account the different disciplinary approaches discussed in your study's lit review?
Individual Response:
Stakeholders
Individuals and groups who have some basis of concern with the program.
multiphase design
Interactive • Combines sequential and concurrent strands • Equal emphasis • Mixing at design level - first one study, which informs a second, which then informs a third mixed methods study
Qualitative Conclusions
Interpretations on how the qualitative data explained quantitative results with inferences that extend the data
Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity (Rice Specific Gravity)
It is Gmm and is the specific gravity excluding air voids. The rice density is obtained by multiplying Gmm by the density of water.
Evaluation Research
It is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing data about the quality, effectiveness, merit, or value of programs, products, or practices
What are the uses of qualitative research in practice?
It is useful for exploring new topics without preconceptions, it facilitates the discovery of information relevant to the research topic that the researcher might never have considered, it enables greater insight into and understanding of phenomena than quantitative methods alone, and it is increasingly required by funders of Health Service Research (HSR).
Timing of data: Triangulation
Triangulation: One-phase; concurrent; happens simultaneously
Mixing: How are the quan and qual data sets related or mixed? Triangulation
Triangulation: merged; we merge either in analysis or interpretation
Even though participants can't be told the true purpose of the study prior to participating, there is usually no reason they can't be told afterwards. True or false?
True
Participants must be given an opportunity to withdraw from the study with no implication. True or false?
True
exploratory design
Two Interactive phases • Qualitative priority • Sequential timing • Mixing at data collection
explanatory design
Two interactive phases • Quantitative priority (follow-up explanation) • Sequential timing • Mixing at data collection
Mixed Methods
Type of research in which a researcher or team of researchers combines elements of qualitative or quantitative research approaches for the broad purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and collaboration
Typical
Type of sampling in which you look for typical characteristics of the groups that you're wanting
Unique/examplary/extreme
Type of sampling in which you may be looking for non-traditional students or students with a 4.0 in undergrad or something
Maximum variation
Type of sampling in which you mix it up in terms of education, location, undergrad, wait or list, for example...
Phenomenology
Typically a small sample size; depth of knowledge vs. breadth of knowledge
Explanatory (MM Research Design) Purpose
Use QUAL results to explain QUAN results
Exploratory (MM Research Design) Purpose
Use QUAL to create a better QUAN tool
Explanatory (MM Research Design) Sample group for QUAL
Use a small number of people from QUAN data for QUAL
Researcher who used mixed methods must
Use both qual and quant
Triangulation
Use of multiple sources, bringing in more viewpoints
What is Complementarity?
Use one method to elaborate, illustrate, enhance, or CLARIFY the results from another method, AKA COMPLIMENT another
What is triangulation?
Use qual and quant = support hypothesis
Asphalt binder with lower stiffness
Used to increase a mixture's fatigue life by providing greater flexibility.
How do you control bias through a study design?
Using a hierarchy of evidence. Study designs are structures in a sequence starting with research designs that potentially have the least bias to those with greater potential for bias when answering a particular type of question.
What is triangulation?
Using different methods to measure the same phenomenon and increase confidence in the conclusions reached.
What is initiation?
Using one method to discover paradoxes and contradictions in findings from another method that suggest reframing research questions -- Basically the other method finds things that make you reconsider your research question
What is development?
Using results from one method to inform another
Development
Using results from one method to inform another method. Example : Observations or interview data followed by the development and pilot testing of an instrument.
Nesting
Usually means that embedded method answers a different question or seeks info from a different level than the dominant method
Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research
It is your research question that should drive the method you use, not the other way around. You may want to ask a question that requires less quantification and more qualification, fewer numbers and statistics and more detail and description. In these cases, a qualitative and/or combined qualitative and quantitative method for data collection and analysis may be useful to you.
Glaser critique of strauss and corbin
It relates the fractured codes at a much earlier level. This forces the data - it is too structured and deductive. Introduces preconceived ideas while pretending to be a grounded theory
Sequential Explanatory Model, Sequential Exploratory Model, Concurrent Triangulation Model, Concurrent Nested Model
May or may not have a particular theoretical perspective
Concurrent Transformative Model
May use either concurrent triangulation approach or the concurrent nested approach
Mixed Methods Design
Mixed Methods design is different from mixed design and mixed factor (these two are both quantitative) -mixed methods design is an integration of qualitative and quantitative methods -overcomes limitations associated with either tradition ---however, usually very time consuming and resource-consuming -Motivation/Choice of method ---appropriate for the RQ/purpose ---identify purpose and unique contribution of each method ---avoid muddling of methods
Sequential Exploratory
Mixed method research design that is focused on discovery
Explain the philosophical stance of mixed methods:
Mixed method researchers have looked for one underlying philosophy that informs both quantitative and qualitative data collection
Mixed Methods Data Collection: Sampling
Mixed method sampling procedures use various approaches to combine a traditional quantitative - probability approach - to sampling with a qualitative - purposeful approach - Creamer, 2017
Concurrent triangulation
Mixed methods research design that is focused on cross-validation within a single study--looking at two forms of data and hopefully getting similar information/answers
Sequential Explanatory
Mixed methods research design that is focused on explaining or confirming quantitative results by exploring certain results in more detail or by helping to explain unexpected results
Johnson, Ongwuegbuzie, & Turner 2007 Definition
Mixed methods research is the type of research in which a researcher or team of researchers combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches - e.g., use of qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis, inference techniques - for the broad purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration
Validity/Refers to overall trustworthiness of data and overall study.
Mixed methods studies must have strong quantitative & qualitative validity. Trustworthiness of study overall; see module 13 for specific types
How do mixed methods strengthen the validity of research findings? (Onwuegbuzie & Johnson, 2006)
Mixed methods, can capitalize on the respective strengths of each approach. Pairing quantitative and qualitative components of a larger study can achieve various aims, including corroborating findings, generating more complete data, and using results from one method to enhance insights attained with the complementary method. Quantitative Validity: ensure scores or ratings on participants are meaningful and accurate indicators of the construct being measured; that scores are consistent and stable over time; and that multiple coders produce similar results during observations (fidelity of implementation on participants, fidelity of implementation on training of coders, and inter-rater reliability on coders).
Explanatory Design Mixed:
Mixed: -Qual expands quan -Quann used to select participants for qual phase
Triangulation Design Mixed:
Mixed: Analysis and interpretation (we mix at the analysis phase or interpretation phase)
Teddlie & Tashakkori 2009
Mixing is the linking, merging, or embedding of qualitative and quantitative strands of a mixed methods study.
Fully-Integrated Mixed Methods Study
Mixing occurs across the four phases of the research process. It is not present when the strands -qualitative and quantitative -of a mixed study are kept parallel or distinct
Planning Mixed Methods Research: Integration
Mixing or purposeful integration of quantitative and qualitative components
Instruments/ Methods of data collection
Mixture of instruments & methods.
Marshall HMA mix design method
Most widely used HMA mix design method. It was designed in US army and designed to stress the entire sampler rather than just a proportion of it, it facilitates rapid testing with minimal effort, compact, light and portable.
Basic Mixed Methods Design
Mostly used in education; usually used as a starting point for educational researchers.
Triangulation Design: Multilevel model:
Multilevel model: collecting w/in an organization, different levels of quan and qual data; then we look at the overall interpretation E.g. Level of achievement of Rosemead students -qual - interview a select group of students (high low achievers) -quan - analyze the achievements of a cohort -quan - have all students complete questionnaire A level could be size and classification of sample A level could be interviewing all on an assembly line, then giving the bosses a questionnaire, the interviewing ?? Interview Faculty, give students Q, interview ??
Single subject design
Multiple observation os single individual . Target bx is established over time and referred as baseline bx. Baseline bx is assessed , treatment provided and then trmt is withdrawn. Baseline A 0--0--0--0 Tmt B x--x--x Baseline A 0--0--0--0
(3) Narrative Research Design
Narrative research is best for capturing the detailed stories or life experiences of a single individual or the lives of a small number of individuals; Narrative inquiry is stories lived and told
Embedded Mixed Methods
Nests one or more forms of data within a larger design
When can mixed method researcher choose to disregard data?
Never
What does "straight-up" or Neat mean?
No Ice, may be room temperature when stirred with ice and strained
Levels of Participation in Ethnographies
Non-participation, Passive Participation, Moderate Participation, Active Participation
Quantitative Data Collection: Probability Sampling
Numbers Characterized by large sample size Designed to capture breadth & prioritizes the value of a randomly collected sample Sample size of 50 units recommended for representativeness Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009
Pre-experimental designs
One shot case study: Grp A X------O One grp pre test post test design: GrpA 01----X----02 Static grp comparison or post test only with nonequivalent grps: grp A X----0 grp B ----0 alternative treatment post test only with nonequivalent grps design: grp A X1----0 grp B X2----0
Grounded Theory Questions Creswell 2007 Corbin & Strauss 1990
Open coding: What is the process? what are the steps in the process? How did X unfold? For Axial coding (more detail): What caused x to occur?- causal conditions/ What was central to the process? -core phenomenon/ What strategies were incurred through the process - strategies/ What effect occurred? - consequences
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Grand Marnier
Orange Flavored Cognac, from france, tan
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Blue Curacao
Orange taste, France? blue
What does PICO stand for?
P - a population being considered I - an intervention C - A comparator (if relevant) O - An outcome of interest
What are the four considerations when forming a clinical question?
P - population being considered I - intervention, prognostic factor, assessment etc. C - comparator (if relevant) O - outcomes of interest
p value
P values evaluate how well the sample data support the devil's advocate argument that the null hypothesis is true. It measures how compatible your data are with the null hypothesis. How likely is the effect observed in your sample data if the null hypothesis is true? High P values: your data are likely with a true null. Low P values: your data are unlikely with a true null. A low P value suggests that your sample provides enough evidence that you can reject the null hypothesis for the entire population.
Strategies for Achieving Interpretive Validity
Participant Feedback and low inference descriptors
What does informed consent involve?
Participants basing their voluntary participation in research on a full understanding of the possible risks involved.
External audit
Peer review by someone not involved in teh study
Focus
Pluralistic Multi-lens
Discussion
Portion of the research article where the integration of qualitative and quantitative data is seen most
In which paradigm do researchers take an objective stance in the research process as they are external to it?
Positivism
What are the 2 different paradigms in health research? (+ describe the differences)
Positivism (quantitative) vs Interpretivism (qualitative) knowledge is objective vs subjective hard data vs meaning has action can be measured vs relies on interpretation natural + social world are same vs social world is diff to natural world
Philosophical worldview (aka paradigms, epistemologies, ontologies).
Post-positivism, Soc. Constructivism, Advocacy/Participatory, Pragmatism
What does "Layer" Mean?
Pour alcohol so that it is separated, creating layers
What is concurrent sampling strategy for MM?
Probability and purposive sampling used at the same time Allows researchers to integrate results from QUAL and QUAN parts of research which allows for confirmation & cross-validation of results Purposively drawn sample a subset of probability sample Data are collected at the same time
Transformative designs: Procedure
Procedure: any of the 4 mixed methods designs: triangulation, embedded, explanatory, or exploratory; Use the one that best fits and maximizes change e.g. Reearcher approaches all aspects thru the paradigm (lens) of advocacy.
Embedded Design Procedures:
Procedures: Quan and Qual data sets are combinded at the design level; when designing the exp you are embedding qual or quan aspects to it;
Explanatory Design Procedures:
Procedures: Two-phase design -Phase 1: collect quan data - ususally emphasis is here -Phase 2: collect qual data
Triangulation Design Procedures:
Procedures: one-phase design in which quan and qual are collected simultaneously and are given equal weight; interpretation is based on both results (equal wt) e.g. I give them a questionnaire and ? right afterward
Formative evaluation
Process evaluation that is used to shape and refine program operations.
Salkind described research as?
Process through which new knowledge is discovered
Representing Data in Qualitative Data Analysis
Provide evidence by including subthemes, subcategories, cite specific quotes, & use different sources of data to cite multiple items of evidence
Strengths of Case Studies
Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information. Provides insight for further research. Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.
Phenomenology
Purpose is to better describe and understand a phenomenon that can only be understood from the perspective of those that experience it (insider)
Ethnography
Purpose is to describe a culture from the perspective of an insider
Grounded Theory
Purpose is to generate theory from the data that explains a process, action, or interaction
Convergent Design
QUAL + QUAN -Both are equally important and done at the same time -The most challenging mixed methods design
Exploratory Sequential
QUAL + quan -Qualitative data is collected first and is weighed more heavily than quantitative
Exploratory Sequential Design
QUAL -> quan - Qualitative data are collected first and given more emphasis or attention than the quantitative data.
Explicitly labeled mixing question - Creamer & Ghoston, 2014
QUALITATIVE: What values, skills, and outcomes are identified in mission statements in colleges/schools of engineering...? MIXED: Do the values endorsed in mission statements differe between institutions with lower-and higher-than-average enrollment of women?
Convergent Parallel Design
QUAN + QUAL - Quantitative and qualitative data are given equal attention and emphasis and are collected concurrently throughout the same study.
Explanatory Sequential
QUAN + qual -Quantitative data is collected first and is weighed more heavily than qualitative
Explanatory Sequential Design
QUAN -> qual - Quantitative data are collected first and are more heavily weighted than are qualitative data.
What is the sequence of MM sampling strategies?
QUAN->QUAL or QUAL->QUAN Information from the first sample needed to draw the second sample Commonly used in health and behavioural sciences research
What is exploratory?
Qual data and results -> building -> quan data and results -> compare/relate interpret
Qual phase followed by a quan phase?
Qual design with supplementary quan
Cross-Case Comparison
Qualitative and quantitative data are consolidated by creating profiles that are then used to test or expand upon qualitatively or qualitatively derived themes for the purposes of comparison
Explain relative timing:
Qualitative and quantitative data collection (concurrent of sequential)
Embedded mixed-methods design
Qualitative and quantitative methods are used concurrently in the research but one is given priority.
Integrated mixed-methods design
Qualitative and quantitative methods are used concurrently, and both are given equal importance
Staged mixed-methods design
Qualitative and quantitative methods are used in sequence in the research and one is given priority.
Interviews, focus groups, document analysis, participant observation
Qualitative data
Mixed Methods Data Analytical Procedures - Converting
Qualitative data is converted to quantitative data or vise versa so that they can be analyzed together.
What is purposive sampling?
Qualitative designs Selecting specific participants based on the purposes of the study Example: Research question aims to describe treatment experiences in younger and older depressed and non-depressed people Purposive sampling based on clinical diagnosis or cutoff on validated measure of depression
Exploratory Sequential Design
Qualitative implemented 1st, then quantitative
What is an interpretivism paradigm?
Qualitative research
How are stakeholders' concerns addressed through decision of research methodology? (Mertens, 2007)
Qualitative research often answers questions of community perspective, whereas quantitative research provides specific outcomes. Combining both provide deeper/ more honest perspectives on an issue.
What is the context of qualitative research?
Qualitative researchers study things in their natural setting, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
Sequential Exploratory Model
Qualitative then Quantitative with qualitative being the priority, integrating the two method in the interpretation phase.
In what paradigm order would you conduct a mixed methodology research to identify key features to include in a survey?
Qualitative then quantitative
Three types of research design (plan or proposal to conduct research, which involves intersection of philosophy, strategies of inquiry and specific methods).
Qualitative, Quantitative, Mixed Method
Convergent Parallel Design
Qualitative/Quantitative methods implemented at the same time. Findings integrated/interpreted together
Explain what is meant by convergent design:
Quan and Qual data merge to form interpretation
What is explanatory?
Quan data & results -> follow up-> qual data& results -> compare/relate interpret
Based on quan results, researchers ask subjects to form focus groups to discuss process?
Quan design with supplementary qual
What is triangulation/convergent?
Quant (data and results) -> compare/relate interpret <- qual data and results
Priority and Timing
Quantitative Dominant, Qualitative Dominant, or equal dominance. Timing is either Concurrent or Sequential
Meta-Analysis
Quantitative analysis of published research on a specific topic
Concurrent Triangulation
Quantitative and qualitative research occurring simultaneously
Questionnaires, performance tests, heart rate, cytokines
Quantitative data
What is probability sampling?
Quantitative designs - Randomly select a large sample from a population so as to minimize the chance of drawing a representative sample
What is Reliability? Why is it important to report in your study?
Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. While reliability is necessary, it alone is not sufficient. For a test to be reliable, it also needs to be valid.
Dictates Research Design
Research Question
Philosophical World Views Dictate the
Research Question
How do you link research questions to the mixed methods data analysis procedures? (Onwuebuzie & Leech, 2006)
Research goals/purpose shape research questions by taking these first steps of analysis : 1.) What is goal? 2.) What are objectives? 3.) What is your rationale for mixing methods per research questions? 4.) What sampling design will you use? 5.) Decision on design
What is a research paradigm?
Research paradigms associated with both sides of the debate, e.g. quantitative: positivism, qualitative: interpretivism or constructivism
Mixed methods
Research that combines qualitative and quantitative methods in an investigation of the same or related research question(s).
What is the epistemological stance of qualitative research?
Research using methods such as participant observation or case studies which result in a narrative, descriptive account of a setting or practice.
Convergent Parallel Design
Researcher collects quantitative and qualitative data at the same time, analyzes them separately, and then compares results to see if the findings confirm (or disconfirm)
Convergent
Researcher converges qualitative and quantitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis
Ethnography
Researcher immerses themselves in a culture by either being a participant observer or a total participant (researcher should remain detached enough to reflect accurately on experience)
What is an advantage to using mixed methods?
Researcher incorporates the strengths of qual+quan
How do multiple perspectives tie in with mixed methods?
Researcher needs to acknowledge the theoretical/philosophical views , identify their components, and then relate them to the mixed methods questions, as well as results.
Phenomenology
Researcher reflects on and identifies personal beliefs/biases about this phenomenon and "brackets" those beliefs so they will not interfere with understanding
Sequential
Researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand the findings of one method with the other
Multiphase Mixed Methods
Researchers conduct several mixed methods projects
Transformative mixed methods
Researchers incorporate elements of the convergent, explanatory sequential, or exploratory sequential approaches within a social justice framework to help a marginalized group
How should a researcher determine which methods and data collection to use?
Researchers should aim for PERSUASIVE QUALITATIVE data procedures, and RIGOROUS QUANTITATIVE data analysis.
Quant/Qual research and theory
Researchers use theory in quant. res. to provide an explanation or prediction about the relationship among variables in the study. A theory explains how and why variables are related. in Qual res. theory is a broad explantation , may also be a theoretical lens that raises questions.
Grounded Theory
Sample size is relatively large since you're trying to generate a theory (> 20 participants is not uncommon); looking for breadth vs. depth of knowledge
Complementarity
Seeking elaboration and clarification of the results from one method with results from the other method - explanatory design. Example: Merging both types of data in one data set.
Purpose is to use the qual data results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings from a primarily quantitative study. Goal is to explain to interpret relationships
Sequential Explanatory Model
Purpose is to use quantitative data and results to assist in the interpretation of qualitative findings. Goal is to explore phenomenon.
Sequential Exploratory Model
Name 3 sequential models
Sequential explanatory, sequential exploratory, sequential tranformative
Transferability
Similar to external validity; can you relate the participants' experiences to your experiences?; can the findings be applied to other situations?
Credibility
Similar to internal validity; can you believe the results?
Concurrent Nested Model
Simultaneous data collection, one method predominates and guides the project, the less dominant method is nested within the more dominant method
Concurrent Mixed Methods Sampling
Single sample of participants Qualitative and Quantitative data collected simultaneously and around the same time point
Convergent (MM Research Design) Procedure
Study QUAL and QUAN at the same time; compare the studies of both, and look for similarities and differences
Exploratory (MM Research Design) Procedure
Study QUAL first, and then use the QUAL to create a better QUAN tool
Explanatory (MM Research Design) Procedure
Study QUAN results first and if there's an outlier, then do QUAL results
Rheology
Study of deformation and flow of matter. HMA pavement that deforms and flows to much (not stiff enough) is susceptible to rutting and bleeding. If to stiff (does not deform much), pavement susceptible to fatigue cracking
Sequential Mixed Methods Sampling
Subsequent sampling strategy is directly linked to the results of analytical procedures earlier in the study
What kind of relationship is between quantitative and qualitative data collection?(concurrent or sequential)
Temporal relationship
Pilot-testing
Testing a smaller sample of the population in order to work out any flaws in the design.
What is the core assumption for using a mixed methods study?
That when an investigator combines both statistical trends and stories, that this combination provides a better understanding of the problem than either trends or stories alone.
What is validity? Why is it important to report in your study?
Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure. More specifically, validity applies to both the design and the methods of your research. Validity in data collection means that your findings truly represent the phenomenon you are claiming to measure. Valid claims are solid claims. Validity is the best available approximation to the truth of a given proposition, inference, or conclusion. Measures, samples and designs don't 'have' validity -- only propositions can be said to be valid. Technically, we should say that a measure leads to valid conclusions or that a sample enables valid inferences. It is a proposition, inference or conclusion that can 'have' validity.
Outcomes
The impact of the program process on the cases processed.
Emic Perspective
The insider's perspective
Qualitative research
The means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. Process involves emerging questions and procedures, data collected in the participant's setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes and researcher makes meaning of data. Report has flexible structure. Strategy of inquiry: Ethnography, Grounded theory, case study, phenomenological, narrative.
Quantitative Research Purpose
Variable oriented - offers breadth Addresses WHAT & WHY questions Testing & validating already constructed hypotheses & theories
Quantitative theory
Variables (aka constructs) (characteristic of an individual or organization than can be measured or observed and varies among people). Differ in temporal order ( one variable precedes another in time..one variable causes another). Independent probably cause outcome. Dependent depend on independent variable and are the result aka criterion/outcome/effect. Intervening variable/mediating v. stands between dependent and independent v. Moderating variables are constructed by researcher by taking one variable and multiplying it by another to determine the joint impact of both: age X attitudes toward quality of life)
Implementation Sequence
Varies based on the needs of the study - Equal Status Simultaneous, Equal Status Sequential, Different Weight Simultaneous, Different weight sequential
Literary Alternative Hypothesis
The more first-generation college students use student support services, the more they will persist academically.
Operational Alternative Hypothesis
The more that first-generation college students use the academic advising center, the more they will persist at college after their freshman year.
What do you need to determine to ensure research validity / rigour?
Was the association between variables in the quantitative research not to some other factor? Could be chance, bias or confounding factors.
The first Tub is filled with hot detergent, The second with water to rinse, whats in the third tub?
Water plus Sanitizer
Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis (H0) is a hypothesis which the researcher tries to disprove, reject or nullify. The 'null' often refers to the common view of something. H0: there is no difference between the Vitamin C group and the placebo group
Explain weighting:
Weight or priority given to quantitative or qualitative research (equal or one given greater emphasis)
My Qualitative Research Example
What are the ways in which students describe their learning experiences in their mathematics classes?
The Multistage Evaluation Design (Use)
When a researcher wants to evaluate the impact of a program using both qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques.
What is expansion?
When different methods are used to assess different phenomena to expand scope/range of study.
What is complementarity?
When different methods are used to investigate different aspects/dimensions of the same phenomena to deepen/broaden interpretations and conclusions.
What is initiation?
When different methods are used to investigate different aspects/dimensions of the same phenomenon.
What is development?
When results from one method are used to inform development of other methods.
When to use mixed methods
When the research question cannot be answered adequately using either quantitative or qualitative alone
What is anonymity?
When the researcher and the people who read about the research cannot link any given response to any given participant.
What is confidentiality?
When the researcher can identify a given person's response but essentially promises not to do so publicly.
When to use grounded theory? Creswell 2007
When there is no theory yet to use at all, not far enough reaching, or was based on populations other than who you'd want tested. Also theory may be needed to explain how people experience a phenomenon. Creswell says phenonmenology is better for policy and practice needs however I would disagree and say that GT is better for creating content for policy vs phenom which helps give rise to need for the policy or the evaluation of a policy but does not provide information useful for policy development strategies or actors.
What Drinks are brown?
Whiskey, scotch, dark rums, amaretto, brown cream de cacao, cognacs, kailua, drambuie, Jager, Tia Maria, Godiva, Brandy
Packer critique (Wittgenstien)
Wittgenstien - words have only applied meaning, we use patterns to give words very context-specific meanings. Cannot see words as distinct from activity and context
Qualitative Data Collection: Purposeful Sampling
Words Guided by expert judgement rather than concerns for random selection. Designed to pursue depth & complexity (Teddlie & Yu, 2007) A purposeful sample is smaller than 30 cases (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009)
Thomas Kuhn "paradigm" (5)
Worldview, general perspective, way of understanding complex world, tells us what is important/legit/reasonable, paradigms are essential to scientific inquiry
Conducting Mixed Methods Research (Research Question)
Your research question(s) dictate whether a mixed methods study is appropriate for your research, and the decision about whether one type of data will be primary and one will be secondary determines the basic design.
Theoretical Sampling Glazer & Strauss 1967
The process of developing sampling based on emerging theory of study. To select participants based on addressing areas of need from study and may increase sampling size according to need of direction of study growth. Also use deviant sampling to interview someone different from your sample that may challenge your theory not just support already made conclusions. Search for observational data is active and dynamic to emerging theory until saturation. Begins first with homogenous sampling then after theory move to heterogenous sampling to confirm or disconfirm theory.
What is the constant comparative method of data analysis in grounded theory (Creswell, 2013)
The process of taking information from data collection and comparing it to emerging categories is called the constant comparative method of data analysis
Glaser Grounded Theory
The process: basic description, conceptual coding, theorising
Script for a quantitative purpose statement
The purpose of this ......................... [experiment? survey?] study is [was? will be?] to test the theory of ......................... that ......................... [describes outcomes] or [compares? relates?] the ......................... [independent variable] to ......................... [dependent variable], controlling for ......................... [control variables] for ......................... [participants] at ......................... [research site]. The independent variable(s) ......................... will be defined as ......................... [provide a definition]. The dependent variable(s) ......................... will be defined as .................... [provide a definition], and the control and intervening variable(s) ......................... [identify the control and intervening variables] will be defined as ......................... [provide a definition].
Abstract
a brief review of the literature that summarizes major elements to enable a reader to understand the basic features of the article.
instrumental case study
a case study in which a specific case is studied only to gain an understanding of a broader phenomenon or event
Ordinal
a clear ordering of the variables. For example, suppose you have a variable, economic status, with three categories (low, medium and high). In addition to being able to classify people into these three categories, you can order the categories as low, medium and high. Now consider a variable like educational experience (with values such as elementary school graduate, high school graduate, some college and college graduate). These also can be ordered as elementary school, high school, some college, and college graduate. Even though we can order these from lowest to highest, the spacing between the values may not be the same across the levels of the variables. Say we assign scores 1, 2, 3 and 4 to these four levels of educational experience and we compare the difference in education between categories one and two with the difference in educational experience between categories two and three, or the difference between categories three and four. The difference between categories one and two (elementary and high school) is probably much bigger than the difference between categories two and three (high school and some college). In this example, we can order the people in level of educational experience but the size of the difference between categories is inconsistent (because the spacing between categories one and two is bigger than categories two and three). If these categories were equally spaced, then the variable would be an interval variable.
Triangulation
a major purpose of mixed methods research that seeks convergence, correspondence, and corroboration of results from different methods
Complementarity
a major purpose of mixed methods research that seeks elaboration, enhancement, illustration, and clarification of the results from one method with the results from the other method
Initiation
a major purpose of mixed methods research that seeks the discovery of paradox and contradiction, new perspectives and new frameworks, and the recasting of questions or results from one method with questions or results from the other method
Expansion
a major purpose of mixed methods research that seeks to extend the breadth and range of inquiry by using different methods for different inquiry components
Ethnography
a qualitative design of inquiry coming from anthropology and sociology in which the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time.
Phenomenological Research
a qualitative design of inquiry coming from philosophy and psychology in which the researcher describes the lived experiences of individuals about a phenomenon as described by participants.
Case Study
a qualitative design of inquiry found in many fields, especially evaluation, in which the researcher develops an in-depth analysis of a case, often a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals.
Grounded Theory
a qualitative design of inquiry from sociology in which the researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of participants.
Narrative Research
a qualitative design of inquiry from the humanities in which the researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide stories about their lives.
phenomenology
a qualitative research method that attempts to describe a participant's "subjective" experience; e.g. their emotions, feelings, reactions or thoughts. Akin to getting inside their head. - data collection: interviews and open-ended questionnaires - analysis/reporting: detailed narrative
case-study research
a qualitative research method that involves an intensive and detailed description and analysis of one or more cases, and the environment in which they exist/occur. - data collection: multiple sources - interviews, documents, questionnaires, tests - analysis/reporting: each case is intensively analysed as a separate entity that is then integrated into the broader literature
grounded theory
a qualitative research method used specifically to discover or generate a theory from a set of empirical data. Used mainly in social, behavioural, and clinical sciences - data collection: interviews and observations - analysis/reporting: (analysis) 3 stage process of open coding, axial coding, selective coding (reporting) descriptive and detailed
Experimental Research
a quantitative method that seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome. The researchers assesses this by providing a specific treatment to one group and withholding it from another and then determining how both groups scored on an outcome.
Survey Design
a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population.
Define qualitative research
a situated activity that locates the observer in the world; consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible; these practices transform the world; they turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to self; involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world; these researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of,m or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them
Confounding Variables
a spurious variable that is not actually measured or observed in a study.
collective/comparative case study
a study of two or more cases for the purpose of comparison
Sample
a subset of the larger population
explanatory design
a two phase mixed methods design in which qualitative data help explain initial quantitative results. this design can be ideal for researchers who are looking for additional qualitative data to explain quantitative results
exploratory design
a two-phase design where qualitative results are obtained first, followed by the quantitative in order to inform the qualitative data. this design is used when there are no measurements or instruments available to guide the study, when the variables are unknown, and when the study has no guiding framework or theory in use.
qualitative research
a type of empirical research that relies on qualitative data such as words, pictures and images. Focuses on: - individual people - subjective, non-generalisable results - intensive case studies
theoretical generalization
a type of generalisation in which theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theory
inside-outside validity
a type of mixed methods validity referring to the degree to which a researcher accurately understand and presents the participants' subjective view as well as the objective outsider view
weakness-minimisation validity
a type of mixed methods validity that refers to the degree to which the researcher combines qualitative and quantitative approaches to compensate for the weaknesses in each
Mixed Methods Research Design
a type of research design where the researcher employs both quantitative and qualitative research methods to collect and analyze data, and report research findings in a single study
nomological causation
a view of causation that seeks to determine generalised, non-specific relationships between variables
idiographic causation
a view of causation that seeks to determine what caused a particular event in a particular situation at a particular time
Literature Map
a visual picture of groupings of the literature on the topic that illustrates how your particular study will contribute to the literature, positioning your study within the larger body of research.
null hypothesis
a written statement that predicts that there is no difference, or no relationship, between groups related to a particular variable
Null Hypothesis
a written statement that predicts that there is no difference, or no relationship, between groups related to a particular variable.
4 Major Types of Mixed Methods
a. Triangulation Design (a.k.a. concurrent triangulation): b. Embedded Design (a.k.a. concurrent nested) c. Explanatory Design (a.k.a. sequential explanatory) d. Exploratory Design (a.k.a. sequential exploratory)
3 Practical implication for choosing a research design:
a. What is the overarching Question I want answered? Use a design that best answers this question b. Evaluate your expertise - get experience and knowledge before you do it c. Consider the time required
Interpretive Validity
accurately portraying the participants' subjective viewpoints and meanings
dialectical approach
advocates a dynamic back-and-forth listening to multiple perspectives and multiple forms of data
Important characteristics in aggregate selection for HMA mix design
aggregate source, gradation and size, toughness and abrasion resistance, durability and soundness, shape and texture, and even cleanliness
Glaser and Strauss grounded theory
aimed to mix strengths of quantitative research with qualitative approaches.
Convergent design
aka: triangulation design obtains different but complementary data about the central phenomenon under study qualitative and quantitative data are collected simultaneously and with equal priority
Qualitative Research
an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem.
quantitative
an approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables
Quantitative Research
an approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables.
Mixed Methods Research
an approach to inquiry involving collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks.
Research focus (mixed methods research)
an assumption that includes a multilens focus
Script for a qualitative purpose statement
The purpose of this ......................... [strategy of inquiry, such as ethnography, case study, or other type] study is [was? will be?] to ......................... [understand? explore? develop? discover?] the ......................... [central phenomenon being studied] for ......................... [the participants, such as the individual, groups, organization] at ......................... [research site]. At this stage in the research, the ......................... [central phenomenon being studied] will be generally defined as ......................... [provide a general definition].
Prior to conducting any research study, where do researchers gain approval from?
The relevant institutional ethics review boards
Accessing Participants' Life World
The research participant's inner world of subjective experience
Explanatory sequential mixed methods
The researcher collects quantitative data in the first phase, analyzes the results, and then uses the results to plan (or build on to) the second, qualitative phase
Multiphase mixed methods
The researcher conduct several mixed methods projects
Exploratory sequential mixed methods
The researcher first begins by exploring with qualitative data and analysis and then uses the findings in a second quantitative phase.
What is "restorying" in narrative research (Creswell, 2013)
The researcher may take an active role and "restory" the stories into a framework that makes sense • Restorying is the process of reorganizing the stories into some general type of framework; o During the process of restorying, the researcher provides a causal link among ideas.
What is a sequential mixed methods design?
The researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand the findings of one method with another method Explanatory: priority is on QUAN data collection and analysis Triangulation: Priority is on both QUAN and QUAL data Exploratory: Priority is on QUAL data collection and analysis
What is the fundamental principle of mixed methods research?
The researcher should mix quantitative and qualitative research methods, procedures, and paradigm characteristics in a way the resulting micture or combination has complementary strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses
Inputs
The resources, raw materials, clients, and staff that go into a program.
Outputs
The services delivered or new products produced by the program process.
Culture
The shared beliefs, values, practices, language, norms, rituals, and material things that the members of a group use to interpret and understand their world
Ethnography
Theory introduced by sociologists
Grounded Theory
Theory introduced by sociologists
Data Collection: Sampling
There are pronounced differences between quantitative & qualitative approaches to sampling. The sampling plan is important because it determines the types of statistical procedures - Collins 2007
Study purpose according the creswell + Script
There is a need for a theory on this topic that explains this process because exisiting literature is incomplete, or in need of modification" The purpose of this grounded theory study is to develop/generate a substantive theory of the process of (ex developing health literacy) for (population) at (site). At this stage in the research, (health literacy) will be generally defined as (give general definition)
Literary Null Hypothesis
There is no relationship between student support services and the academic persistence of first generation college students.
Operational Null Hypothesis
There is no relationship between the number of hours first generation students use the academic advising center and their persistence at college after their freshman year.
View of Thought and Behavior (mixed methods research)
an assumption that includes dynamic, complex, partially predictable, multiple influences (i.e. environment/nature, biology/nature, free will/agency, and chance/fortuity
Ontology- Nature of Reality/truth (mixed methods research)
an assumption that includes pluralism, appreciation of objective, subjectivism, and intersubjective realities with their interrelations
Epistemology - Theory of Knowledge (mixed methods research)
an assumption that includes pragmatism, pragmatic justification of what works for whom in specific contexts, and a mixture of universal and community-specific needs-based standards
Population
an entire unit or group; includes all units of interest in the study (i.e., all students, all clients, all employees)
Optimum asphalt binder content
asphalt binder content that results in 4 percent air voids.
Define axiology as a philosophical assumption in qualitative study (Creswell, 2007)
axiology = what is the role of values, how are values of the research expressed?; researcher acknowledges that research is value-laden and that biases are present; researcher openly discusses values that shape the narrative and includes his or her own interpretation in conjunction with the interpretations of participants
Experimental survey design
basic intent is to test impact of treatment (intervention) on an outcome, controlling for all other possibly influencing factors
Social Constructivists
believe that individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and work. These individuals develop subjective meanings of their experience.
single-phase approach
both qualitative and quantitative questions can be identified as one set of questions that does not rely on the others
intramethod mixing
both quantitative and qualitative data are obtained through the creative use of a single method of data collection
What does "on the Rocks" Mean?
build in the rocks glass with ice
researcher bias in qualitative research
can be reduced by: - reflexivity - negative case sampling
secondary prevention
case -diagnosis
Intrinsic Case Study
case study in which the researcher is only interested in understanding the individual case, organization, or event
Instrumental Case Study
case study in which the researcher studies a case in order to understand something more general than the particular case or insight into an issue or to develop, refine, or alter some theoretical explanation
Cross case analysis
cases are compared and contrasted for similarities or patterns or differences
feminist research approaches
center on and make problematic women's diverse situations and the institutions that frame those situations
Variable
characteristic of an individual/organization that can be measured or observed (aka also known as construct)
Creswell & Plano Clark 2011
characterize mixed methods research as having a set of guiding philosophical assumptions and a method where the qualitative and quantitative strand are mixed at one phase in the study
Threats to internal validity
Threats to researchers ability to draw correct inferences from the data about the population : -History -Maturation -Regression -Selection -Mortality -Diffusion of treatment (participants of control and experimental grp talk to each other ) -Compensatory/resentful demoralization (only experimental grp gets trmt, which demoralizes control grp) -Compensatory rivalry (cntrl grp feels devalaued) -Testing (participants become familiar with outcome measure and remember responses) -instrumentation
Challenges of Mixed Methods
Timelines and resources, sampling and analysis decisions, blending philosophical world views
Timing, weighting, and mixing of data (3 things that distinguish mixed methods) Timing:
Timing: What is the timing of quan and qual methods? When employed?
Purpose
To Confirm To Explore To Expand breadth & scope of research
What is the chief responsibility of ethical boards?
To ensure that the risks faced by human participants in research are minimal
Initiation
To examine extreme or negative cases or explore unexpected or contradictory findings. Example: Testing competing hypotheses
Evaluation/Intervention
To examine the effectiveness of an intervention; provide contextual understanding. Example: Collect process or outcome participant data in order to design & measure FOI & outcomes.
What is the purpose of qualitative research?
To find out how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world.
Multilevel/Expansion
To study multilevel systems such as a school or medical system. To examine nested designs (e.g. students within classrooms, schools within districts, teachers within schools).
What are three components that need to be included in a researchers log?
Tracking, field notes and memos
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Kahlua
coffee with chocolate, from Mexico, Dark Brown
methodological pluralism
combining research methods in order to build up a fuller picture of what is being studied.
Multiphase mixed methods
common in the fields of evaluation and program interventions; concurrent or sequential strategies are used in tandem over time to best understand a long-term program goal.
Between subject design
compare tow or more grps factorial design is very similar. uses tow or more treatment variables to examine effects on outcome.
Greene 2007 Meaning
conceptualized the form of inquiry as a way of looking at the social world as a paradigmatic stance that embraces a more thorough saturation of the intent
critical theory
concerned with empowering human beings to transcend the constraints placed on them by race, class, and gender
Critical Theory
concerned with empowering human beings to transcend the constraints placed on them by race, class, and gender.
Equal status vs dominant status
concerns whether a particular type of data will be emphasized more or equally to the other type of data
Name 3 Concurrent models
concurrent triangulation, concurrent nested, concurrent tranformative
pragmatism
consequences of actions, problem centered, pluralistic, real-world practice oriented
Pattern Matching
construction and testing of a complex hypothesis
charmaz
constructivist grounded theory
mixed methods research design
convergent exploratory sequential transformative, embedded or multiphase
What is a concurrent mixed method design?
converges quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem collects both forms of data at the same time during the study and then integrates the information in the interpretation of the overall results nests one form of data within another, larger data collection procedure in order to analyze different questions
Data transformation
converting qualitative data into quantitative or vice versa
Coding process of constructivist grounded theory
create descriptive codes, line by line. Raise codes to concepts through drawing on theoretical knowledge, rereading data and comparing and contrasting the codes.
concurrent time orientation
data are collected for the quantitative phase and qualitative phase of the study at the same or during approximately the same time period
Key features of Glaser and Strauss
data collection and analysis occur at the same time; codes and categories constructed from the data; constant comparison; memo-writing to elucidate categories; non-random theoretical sampling; theoretical saturation; completing the literature review after analysis
Which analysis procedure focuses on taking the quantitative and qualitative data findings and building a coherent whole?
data integration
What is a limitation to concurrent nested model?
data needs to be transformed in some way in order to integrate the data at the analysis stage, little written about how to do this
sequential time orientation
data obtained from the sample during the first phase of the study are used to shape or structure the sample selection of the next phase of the study
which analysis procedure focuses on decreasing the number of dimensions in the quantitative and or qualitative data
data reduction
Validity strategies used in research
data triangulation, extended fieldwork, external audit, investigator triangulation, low inference descriptors, methods triangulation, negative case sampling, participant feedback,
Theoretical Validity
degree to which theory or explanation fits data
qualitative sampling
depends on the purpose of the study and the information that will be most useful, the larger the number of participants, the less depth and detail that can go into the data collection with each, the number is based on this approach used in the study
descriptive studies
describe -magnitude of a health problem -adversely affected population sub-groups -identify risk factors
phenomenological research
describes the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or phenomenon - tell stories of individual experiences
distribution
description of the frequency and patterns of diseases and or negative health outcomes
Essence
description or structure of an individual(s) experience
Low-Inference Descriptors
descriptions that are very close to participants' words or are direct verbatim quotes
case study
detailed and in depth examination of one particular case
postpositivist
determination, reductionism, empirical observation and measurement, theory verification
Which of the following mixed research purposes seek to use the results from one method to inform the other method by including sampling and implementation
development
which mixed research purposes seek to use the results from one method to inform the other method by including sampling and implementation
development
Random Sample
each individual in the population has an equal probability of being selected
quantitative research questions
emphasizes measurement and variables, questions are directional, reflect the relationship variables, but place this information in the form of a question
Inference transferability
encompasses the quan term external validity and the qual term transferability; the degree to which the MM conclusions can be applied to other similar people, context, settings, time periods and theoretical representations of the phenomenon
Define epistemology as a philosophical assumption in qualitative study (Creswell, 2007)
epistemology = what counts as knowledge, how is reality known? how are knowledge claims justified? what is the relationship between the researcher and that being researched?; subjective evidence from participants; researcher attempts to lessen distance between himself or herself and that being researched; researcher relies on quotes as evidence from participants; collaborates, spends time in field with participants, and becomes an insider
benefits of mixed methods design
expand understanding, help clarify and assist in answering difficult questions, allows researcher to use two types of data to verify findings, produce richer data
ethnographic research
explain the shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language of a culture sharing group
Purpose is either?
exploratory or confirmatory
case study research
exploring an issue or problem in a single case - the case is bounded by time/place
Achieve Theoretical Validity
extended fieldwork; theory triangulation; pattern matching; peer review
Gatekeepers
group members who control a researcher's access to the group
embedded data
have a larger (quantitative or qualitative) study with another smaller study within it
hermeneutic phenomenology
hermenutical phenomenology - research as oriented toward lived experience (phenomenology) and interpreting the "texts" of life (hermeneutics)
Postpositivists
hold a deterministic philosophy in which causes determine effects or outcomes. These problems reflect the need to identify and assess the causes that influence outcomes.
Transformatives
holds that research inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and a political change agenda to confront social oppression at whatever level it occurs.
transformative worldview
holds that research inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and political change agenda to confront social oppression at whatever level it occurs
there are still some details of mixed research which remain to be worked out by research methodologists, including all except?
how to interpret conflicting results
3 types/forms of theories in quantitative research
hypotheses if-then logic statements visual models
Effect Size
identifies the strength of the conclusions about group differences or the relationship among variables in quantitative studies.
2
identifying factors that cause the disease or health problem -capitalize on naturally occurring differences in a population
Case studies are
in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews). The research may also continue for an extended period of time, so processes and developments can be studied as they happen. The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies. Most of this information is likely to be qualitative (i.e. verbal description rather than measurement) but the psychologist might collect numerical data as well.
qualitative research questions
includes broad, open ended questions that answer the how or what about a particular phenomenon. example; how does college counseling impact the coping mechanisms of college freshman?
mixed methods research
incorporates elements of both quantitative an qualitative approaches
Moderating Variables
independent variables that affect the direction and/or the strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables. Typically found in experiments.
vales below 1.0
indicate reduced risk
Qualitative methods
instead of relying on numbers, counts, and frequency-type data, qualitative research will often involve the collection and analysis of detailed observations, stories or narrative histories, sounds, picture or video. • Qualitative methods often bring a fresh or new perspective to existing research in fields of science that have been dominated by quantitative methods. • When combined with quantitative techniques, qualitative strategies can often help researchers to more strongly support their research design choices and final inferences.
meta-inferences
integrative inferences or conclusions based on qualitative and quantitative data and findings
A multilevel relationship
involves selecting samples from different levels of hierarchy, usually this means sampling from different but related populations
misclassification of exposure
measurement error (particularly as a result of accurate recall)
Participant Feedback
member checking to see if participants agree with the researcher's statements, interpretations, and conclusions
Researcher - as Detective
metaphor applied to researcher looking for the local cause of a single event
Case Study Research
method in which the researcher provides a detailed description and account of one or more cases
Define methodology as a philosophical assumption in qualitative study (Creswell, 2007)
methodological = what is the process of research, how is the research conducted? what is the language of research; researcher uses inductive logic, studies the topic within its context, and uses an emerging design; researcher works with particulars (details) before generalizations, describes in detail the context of the study, and continually revises questions from experiences in the field
parallel
methodologies occur currently in the study
Grounded Theory
methodology for generating and developing a theory that is grounded in the particular data
characteristics of qualitative inquiry
natural setting researcher as key instrument multiple methods complex reasoning through inductive and deductive logic participants meanings emergent design reflexivity holistic account
Qualitative Research
non-numeric research such as words, pictures, images, etc. . .
Reactive Effect
non-typical behavior of participants because of the presence of the researcher
Aspects of a good narrative
o Focuses on a single individual (or two or three individuals) o Collects stories about a significant issue related to this individual's life o Develops a chronology that connects different phases or aspects of a story o Tells a story that reports what was said (themes), how it was said (unfolding story), and how speakers interact or perform the narrative o Reflexively brings him/her self into the study
(5) Grounded Theory Research Design
o Grounded theory is a good design to use when a theory is not available to explain or understand a process; o The literature may have models available, but they were developed and tested on samples and populations other than those of interest to the qualitative researcher; o Theories may be present, but they are incomplete because they do not address potentially valuable variables or categories of interest to the researcher; o On a practical side, a theory may be needed to explain how people are experiencing a phenomenon, and the grounded theory developed by the researcher will provide such a general framework (Creswell, 2013, p. 88)
Creswell's criteria for good case study research
o Is there a clear definition of the "case" or "cases" in the study? o Is the "case" (or are the "cases") used to understand a research issue or sued because the "case" has (or "cases" have) intrinsic merit? o Is there a clear description of the "case"? o Are themes identified for the "case"? o Are assertions or generalizations made from the "case" analysis? o Is the researcher reflexive or self-disclosing about his or her position in the study?
Challenges of narrative research
o Need to collect extensive information about the participant o Need to have a clear understanding of the context of the individual's life o Takes a keen eye to identify in the source material that gathers the particular stories to capture the individual's experiences o Active collaboration with the participant's stories as well as be reflective about their own personal and political background, which shapes how they "restory" the account (Creswell, 2013, p. 76)
Non interview forms of data collection
observations, documents, audiovisual
Theoretical Saturation
occurs when no new information relevant to the GT is emerging from the data and the GT has been sufficiently validated
analyzed using odds ratio:
odds ratio= an estimate of the relative risk null=0 >1.0= increased risk <1.0= reduced risk
time order
one of the two dimensions of a mixed methods design Time order has two levels: 1. concurrent (the qual and quan parts are conducted concurrently; e.g QUAL + QUAN) 2. sequential (the qual and quan parts occur one after the other; e.g. QUAL > QUAN)
Time Order
one of two dimensions used in MM design matrix and its levels are concurrent and sequential
Paradigm Emphasis
one of two dimensions used in MM matrix and its levels are equal status and dominant status
Categorical (Nominal)
one that has two or more categories, but there is no intrinsic ordering to the categories. For example, gender is a categorical variable having two categories (male and female) and there is no intrinsic ordering to the categories. Hair color is also a categorical variable having a number of categories (blonde, brown, brunette, red, etc.) and again, there is no agreed way to order these from highest to lowest. A purely categorical variable is one that simply allows you to assign categories but you cannot clearly order the variables. If the variable has a clear ordering, then that variable would be an ordinal variable, as described below.
mediating variable
one that mediates the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable
Temporal order
one variable affects/causes another variable
Researcher bias
only noticing data that support one's prior expectations
Define ontology as a philosophical assumption in qualitative study (Creswell, 2007)
ontology = what is the nature of reality? ; reality is multiple as seen through many views; researcher reports different perspectives as themes develop in the findings
Qualitative for ontology, epistemology and goals
ontology: many realities Epistemology: varied sample Goals: Understanding and discovery
substantive coding part 2
open codes are connected to core categories
Substantive coding part 1
open coding or fracturing. immersion in the words of the data. line by line analysis generating as many codes as possible. constantly comparing until possible overarching theme emerges
Strauss and corbin process
open coding, axial coding, selective coding
Objectives of HMA mix design
optimize deformation resistance, fatigue resistance, low temperature cracking resistance, durability, moisture damage resistance, skid resistance, and workability
embedded design
places one type of data in the lead role with the other type of data acting as a "supporting" actor. is used when researchers need to answer questions from a different perspective and their research has primarily focused on one type of data. useful when the researcher needs to insert a qualitative component within a quantitative design
which of the following is best represented by both quantitative and qualitative data being analyzed by quantitative dat analysis techniques in the same study
practical theory
when a researcher can use the strengths of an additional method to overcome the limitations in another method this is know as what?
principle of nonoverlapping weaknesses
aims of constructivist grounded theory
prioritises the studied phenomenon rather than the methods of studying it. Researcher looks at their own assumptions and implicit meanings. More interpretive, meaning co-created.
Dominance
priority given to quantitative or qualitative approach
What is evidence based practice?
process of making informal professional decisions Integration of: - clinical expertise - best available research evidence - patient's values + circumstances - info from practice context
Style manuals
provide guidelines for creating a scholarly style of a manuscript, such as a consistent format for citing references, creating headings, presenting tables and figures, and using nondiscriminatory language.
Survey design (quant)
provides a quant or numeric description of trends, attitudes or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. From the sample results, researcher generalizes claims about the population.
Survey Research
provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population.
survey research
provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population.
Mixed methods research
provides a way to investigate the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of human thought and behavior in its various contexts
What is the purpose of MMS?
purpose: generate sample that will address research question
converge data
put together findings from qualitative and quantitative to determine results
Shorthand notation
qual = Qualitative quan = Quantitative
What is incompatibility thesis?
qualitative and quantitative research paradigms, including their associated methods, cannot and should not be mixed Pragmatism has been suggested
Interpretive integration
quan data analyzed in quan form, qual data analyzed in qual form, interpretation developed by comparing the 2 sets of data, interpretation is simply at a narrative level
Parallel databases variant
quan data are collected and analyzed in parallel with the collection and analysis of qual data the 2 separate analyses are compared and contrasted goal is to develop internally confirmed conclusions about a single phenomenon
Data collection in quantitative vs qualitative research
quant - measures of variable of interest qual - different approaches for different types
Sampling in quantitative vs qualitative research
quant - want to make generalisations to population qual - transferability is important
goals of epidemic research 1
quantifying the magnitude of a health problem
compatibility thesis
quantitative and qualitative approaches can be used together in a single research study as long as researchers respect the assumptions associated with quantitative and qualitative research and construct a thoughtful combination that will help to address their research question(s)
if a mixed research study uses a nested concurrent sampling design, then which of the following best represents this design
quantitative and qualitative data are collected at the same time but with qualitative sample being a subset of the quantitative sample
if a mixed research study uses a nested sequential sampling design then which of the following best represents this design
quantitative and qualitative data are collected one after the other, but with the quantitative sample being a subset of the qualitative sample
Mixed method research
quantitative and qualitative data techniques are combined in a single research study
Sequential Explanatory Model
quantitative then qualitative with qualitative being the priority, integrating the two methods in the interpretation phase.
Research Question
questions that the researcher seeks to answer.
Racialized Discourse
raises important questions about the control and production of knowledge, particularly about people and communities of color.
true experimental design
random assignment of participants to both grps pre test post test control grp design Grp A R----0---x---0 Grp B R---0------0 Post test only control grp Grp A R----x---0 Grp B R-------0 Solomon four grp Grp A R----0---x---0 Grp B R---0-----0 Grp C R------x---0 Grp D R--------0
What does sand equivalent test measure
rapid field test that shows relative proportions of fine dust or clay like materials in fine aggregate or granular soils. Excessive dust or plastic fines (clay-like fine particles) in HMA aggregate can contribute to a lack of stability (rutting or shoving) or moisture damage and stripping. Higher sand equivalent values indicate cleaner or less fine dust or clay like aggregate.
parallel sample relationship criterion
samples for quantitative and qualitative components are different, but drawn from the same population
Negative Case Sampling
searching for cases that challenge one's expectations or one's current findings
Axiel coding
second stage of data analysis in GT its focus on making concepts more abstract and ordering them into the theory.
experimental research
seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome
Data transformation variant
separate but concurrent quan and qual data collection and then analysis transforms the qual data into quan form and then comparing and interrelating the data sets
What quantitative and qualitative study parts are performed one after the other, this is considered which of the following? concurrent, sequential, synchronized
sequential
Exploratory designs
sequential designs with qual data collected in the first phase usually the first phase is focused on detailed exploration of a little-researched phenomenon, and the second phase is focused on measuring or classifying it
Explanatory designs
sequential designs with quan data collected in the first phase, followed by qual data in the second phase either types of data can be given a stronger priority data from the 2nd phase are used to build on or describe data from the first phase
This model will ALWAYS have theoretical perspective that guides the research
sequential transformative model
Theory
set of variables/constructs prevent a view of a phenomenon w/purpose of explaining it
embedded design
similar to convergent design but one general approach dominates
Meta-inference
the conclusion generated by integrating inferences obtained from the results of qualitative and quantitative strands of an MM study
Sociopolitical Validity
the degree a mixed researcher addresses the interests, values, and viewpoints of multiple stakeholders in the research process
internal validity
the degree to which a researcher can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study
external validity
the degree to which a researcher can generalise the results of a study to a wider population. The least-used type of validity in qualitative research.
theoretical validity
the degree to which a researcher's explanations or theory about a phenomenon fits the data
Commensurability Approximation Validity
the degree to which meta-inferences made in a mixed research study reflect a mixed worldview
Conversion Validity
the degree to which quantitizing or qualitizing yields high-quality meta-inferences
Paradigmatic / Philosophical Validity
the degree to which the mixed researcher clearly explains his or her philosophical beliefs about research
Sample Integration Validity
the degree to which the mixed researcher makes appropriate conclusions, generalizations, and meta-inferences from mixed samples
Inside - Outside Validity
the degree to which the researcher accurately understands, uses, and presents the participants' subjective insider (emic) views and the researcher's objective outsider (etic) view
by combining two or more research methods in a research study researchers can make it less likely that what will happen
they will make a mistake
Reflexivity
thinking critically about one's interpretations and biases
Selective Coding
third and final stage of data analysis in GT in which the theory is finalized
constructivist
understanding, multiple participant meanings, social and historical construction, theory generation.
Category Strauss & Corbin 1990
unit of information containing events, happenings and instances
theory triangulation
using multiple theories or perspectives to help interpret and understand the data
Examining multiple levels
using one method at one level and the other method on a different level
monomethod research
using only quantitative or qualitative methods - limiting
Instrument development
using qualitative data to construct quantitative instruments
multilevel sample relationship criterion
using quantitative and qualitative samples obtained from different levels of population under study
Scatterplot
values along the vertical axis were internality scores, those along the horizontal axis were externality scores
participant feedback
when a researcher discusses their findings with participants to see if they agree with the researcher's statements, interpretations and conclusions
Purposeful Sampling
you specifically choose and that contain a certain element that will highlight and inform a particular aspect of the study.
What are the defining features of case study research
• Case study research begins with the identification of a specific case. o The case may be a concrete entity, such as an individual, a small group, an organization, or a partnership o At a less concrete level, it may be a community, a relationship, a decision process, or a specific project o The key is to define a case that can be bounded or described within certain parameters, such as a specific place and time o Typically, case study researchers study current, real-life cases that are in progress so that they can gather accurate information not lost by time o A single case can be selected or multiple cases identified so that they can be compared
What are Pros & Cons of Explanatory MM Design?
+ Methods implemented sequentially (1. quan 2. qual) so as to explain the quantitative results (single researcher can do this) + The final report can be written in two phases + This design appeals to quantitative researchers, because it often begins with strong quantitative orientation. ____________________________________________________ - This design requires a lengthy amount of time for implementing the two phases. - It can be difficult to secure internal review board approval for this design because researcher cannot specify how participants will be selected for second phase until the initial findings are obtained.
Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 2
"Is the correct type of mixed methods research design used?"
Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 4
"Is the priority given to quantitative and qualitative data collection and the sequence of their use reasonable given the research question?"
qualitative study requires
* extensive time in the field * engage in the complex, time-consuming process of data analysis * write long passages * does not have firm guidelines
advocacy/policy
- political - empowerment issue-oriented - collaborative - change-oriented
indicidence
-how many people are newly diagnosed within a given timeframe
6 broad types of research situations that are especially well suited for MM research:
1. Concepts are new and poorly understood 2. Neither method by itself is adequate in addressing the complexity of the research problem 3. Findings from one method can be greatly enhanced with a second source of data 4. The quantitative results are puzzling and difficult to interpret, and qualitative data can help explain the results 5. A particular theoretical perspective might require both qualitative and quantitative data 6. A multiphase project is needed to attain key objectives, such as the development and assessment of an intervention
What are Lincoln and Guba's criteria for validation and evaluation equivalents for qualitative research
1. Credibility 2. Transferability 3. Dependability 4. Confirmability
What is Creswell's criteria for assessing the quality of phenomenology
1. Does the author convey an understanding of the philosophical tenets of phenomenology? 2. Does the author have a clear "phenomenon" to study that is articulated in a concise way? 3. Does the author use procedures of data analysis in phenomenology, such as the procedures recommended by Moustakas or van Manen? 4. Does the author convey the overall essence of the experience of the participants? Does this essence include a description of the experience and the context in which it occurred? 5. Is the author reflexive throughout the study? (Creswell, 2013, p. 260)
Give 3 qualitative methods of data collection which are commonly used in social sciences...
1. Ethnography (e.g. participant observation) 2. Life Histories 3. Direct Observation
What are five advantages of qualitative research?
1. Flexibility in thinking 2. Flexibility in the research process 3. Rich description 4. Compensation (can be used to investigate areas where quantitative methods are inappropriate or where little is known) 5. Validity (draw understanding of research participants)
Outline the five step process of evidence based practice.
1. Formulate an answerable clinical question 2. Find the appropriate research evidence 3. Critically appraise the research evidence for validity and impact 4. Apply evidence if appropriate 5. Evaluate the process
Describe the 5 stages of the research cycle in order...
1. Identify research area 2. Design research study 3. Carry out research 4. Analyse research results 5. Publish research results.
What are the defining features of phenomenology
1. In some forms of phenomenology, the researcher brackets himself out of the study by discussing personal experiences with the phenomenon. 2. A phenomenology ends with a descriptive passage that discusses the essence of the experience for individuals incorporating "what" they have experienced and "how" they experienced it. The "essence" is the culminating aspect of a phenomenological study (Creswell, 2013, p. 79)
Give 2 qualitative methods of data collection which are commonly used in health service research...
1. Interviews 2. Focus Groups
Outline the four key points of positivism.
1. Knowledge is objective 2. Hard data 3. Can be measured 4. Natural and social world are the same
Outline the four key points of interpretivism.
1. Knowledge is subjective 2. meaning has action 3. Relies on interpretation 4. Social world is different to natural world
What are five advantages of quantitative research?
1. Measurement (being able to demonstrate quantity) 2. Rigour (methods are transparent) 3. Internal validity (methods have independent and dependent variables and therefore can show cause and effect) 4. Generalisability 5. Replicability
Name all 7 terms used for mixed/multi-method research...
1. Multi-methods 2. Mixed-methods 3. Multi-methodology 4. Mixed methodology 5. Multiple methods 6. Combined methods 7. Integrated methods
What are six disadvantages of qualitative research?
1. Observer bias 2. Lack of consensus 3. Lack of focus (research questions can sometimes be too broad) 4. Lack of generalisability 5. Poor replication 6. Time cost
What are four disadvantages of quantitative research?
1. The social world is different from the natural world 2. Measures are artificial 3. Surveys only measure response at a single point in time 4. Less effective at determining why people act as they do
Give 6 qualitative methods of data analysis...
1. Thematic Analysis 2. Framework Analysis 3. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) 4. Grounded Theory 5. Narrative Analysis 6. Discourse Analysis/Conversation Analysis
Identifying Studies Using Mixed Method Designs
1. Title has quan. and qual, mixed methods, convergent parallel, explan., explor., simult., and sequential. 2. Purpose statement or research questions indicate mixed methods 3. Combo of quan. and qual. were used to collect and analyze data.
types of validity in qualitative research
1. descriptive validity 2. interpretive validity 3. theoretical validity 4. internal validity 5. external validity
3 key questions for mixed methods
1: when should each approach occur in the design? 2: What priority or weighting in each approach is given? 3: at what stage in the design does the mixing occur?
Participant selection variant
1st stage quan data are in the service of the 2nd phase qual component info about the characteristics of the large group in the first phase is used to purposively select participants in the 2nd dominant phase
Quasi Experimental designs
> experimental and control grp not randomly selected Non equivalent (pre-test and post- test) control grp design: grp. A 0----X---0 grp B 0----------0 single grp interrupted time-series design grp. A 0--0---0--x---0----0---0 control grp interrupted time series desing
What is a sample?
A carefully chosen subgroup of a population that serves as a reference group for drawing conclusions about the population.
(7) Case Study Research Design
A case study is a good approach when the inquirer has clearly identifiable case with boundaries and seeks to provide an in-depth understanding of the cases or a comparison of several cases
Hypothesis
A declarative statement of the relationship between two or more variables.
Descriptive Research
Account of the nature of processes - WHAT/HOW questions
Population
All members of a defined group that researcher is studying or collecting information on for data driven decisions.
Interval
An interval variable is similar to an ordinal variable, except that the intervals between the values of the interval variable are equally spaced. For example, suppose you have a variable such as annual income that is measured in dollars, and we have three people who make $10,000, $15,000 and $20,000. The second person makes $5,000 more than the first person and $5,000 less than the third person, and the size of these intervals is the same. If there were two other people who make $90,000 and $95,000, the size of that interval between these two people is also the same ($5,000).
Meta-Synthesis
Analysis and synthesis of qualitative research
Analytic Research
Analysis of operations - WHY questions
What occurs during typology development?
Analysis of qual or quant data reveals set of categories that is then used as a framework to analyze the complementary data - Factor analysis of the quan data results in categories that are used in the analysis of the qual data - Categorical coding of qual data results in typology for use in quant hypothesis testing
Impact evaluation (or analysis)
Analysis of the extent to which a treatment or other service has an effect; also known as summative evaluation.
It is common to converge/merge the data at the _________
Analysis phase
What occurs during data comparison in MM?
Analyze qualitative and quantitative data separately then compare findings
Variable
Any entity that can take on different values.
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Campari
Aperitif wine-semi-bitter-itally-red
Types of Evaluation Research
Applies social research techniques to assess conceptualization, design, implementation, and utility of social intervention programs
Forms of theories (qual)
As part of an : • interconnected hypotheses (if then logic) • If then statements that explain influence of independent variables on dependent variable • visual model (causal modeling)
HMA mix design process
Basic HMA mix design always involves aggregate selection, asphalt binder selection, and optimum asphalt binder content determination
Why does voluntary participation go against several scientific concerns regarding generalisability?
Because results are often swayed by the type of person who volunteers for research.
Benefits (advantages) of Mixed Methods Research
Benefits (advantages) • In many, dare we say most cases the researcher can learn the most about a phenomenon by using a combined, mixed-methods approach • The researcher can also successfully apply principles of data triangulation (The process of operationalizing and measuring constructs or variables in multiple ways to converge upon a more accurate observation or assessment) to ensure you are gaining the clearest possible understanding of the phenomenon you are studying.
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Sambuca
Black Licorice from Italy, clear with a hint of vanilla bean
Qualitative Research Purpose
Case & process oriented - offers depth Can also address HOW questions Exploration & emerging understanding of a complex phenomenon
PCC mix design procedure
Choice of: Slump, max aggregate size selection, mixing water and air content selection, water-cement ratio, cement content, coarse aggregate content, fine aggregate content, and adjustments for aggregate moisture
Evidence based practice is the integration of what four things?
Clinical expertise, the best available research evidence, patient's values and circumstances and information from the practice context.
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Couvoisier, Hennessey, Remy Martin
Cognac From France, amber to brown
Exploratory Sequential Design
Collect qualitative data in the first phase, analyze results, and then use the results to plan the second quantitative phase
Explanatory Sequential Design
Collect quantitative data in the first phase, analyze results, and then use the results to plan the second qualitative phase
Mixed-methods purpose
Collect, analyze, and interpret both qualitative and quantitative data and then Integrate conclusions from all of this data into a cohesive whole
embedded design
Collects and analyzes both quantitative and qualitative • Either quantitative and qualitative emphasis • Either concurrent or sequential • Mixes at design level
Problems
Combination harms the best of either kinds of research, expensive & time consuming, scarcity of skilled researchers
Data Analysis
Combination of techniques. Statistical techniques used for numerical data; Qualitative techniques used for narrative/visual data
Mixed methods
Combines both qual and quant approach. Involves philosophical assumptions as well . strategy of inquiry: Sequential mixed methods, concurrent mixed methods, transformative mixed methods.
Mixed Methods Research
Combines quantitative and qualitative research within the same study to fully understand phenomena
Purposive
Common sampling method for qualitative design; involves deliberately choosing individuals, groups of individuals, or institutions towards the goal of best answering the research question
Comparative
Compare two or more groups on an outcome variable For example, "What is the effect of cooperative learning techniques on the academic achievement of middle school students?"
Context
Compatibility; both perspectives important. Holistic & complex
Results
Comprehensive Thorough, complete. Pragmatic knowledge
Reflexivity
Concept of acknowledge and being sensitive to assumptions/biases related to the research topic; ongoing process through all phases of a study--may do a paper or a journal; promotes transparency
Relationship:
Concerned with trends between two or more variables. For example "What is the relationship between age & job satisfaction between nurses?"
Purpose is to gain a broader perspective of the phenomenon under study, can utilize the different methods to study different groups
Concurrent Nested Model
sometimes called a multilevel design
Concurrent Nested Model
Purpose is to confirm, cross validate or corroborate findings within a single study, uses both types to offset the weakness of each method
Concurrent Triangulation Model
quant/qual data collection-->quant/qual data analysis--> interpretation
Concurrent Triangulation model
What is an ethical consideration regarding deception?
Conduct a debriefing interview with participants post-experiment
What does creswell tell us about mixed methods?
Creswell tells us mixed methods 1. Collecting and analyzing data 2. Rigour 3. Integrate 4. Framing within a greater framework
Concurrent Triangulation Model
Data collection is concurrent , ideally given equal priority, results of each compared to each other in the interpretation phase.
Concurrent Nested Model
Data is mixed during the analysis phase
Sequential Exploratory
Design type order qualitative, then quantitative; collection and analysis of qualitative data followed by collection and analysis of quantitative data
Exploring Data in Qualitative Data Analysis
Develop a qualitative codebook.
QUAL --> quan or QUAN --> qual
Dominant status / sequential
Concurrent Transformative Design
Goal is transformation of thinking -e.g. focus groups to identify client needs, followed by implementation of EBP -goal is to change practice, ideology, or policy -either qualitative or quantitative -both are being done simultaneously
Reduce
Goal of data analysis is to ______ data from whole into themes, theories, and/or models
Concurrent Transformative Model
Guided by the use of a specific theoretical framework. theory guides the definition of the problem, the purpose of the study, the research questions, the research design and methods, data collection methods, types of anaylsis, interpretation of results, reporting results.
Superpave specimen compaction
Gyratory compactor works by heating each sample to the anticipated mixing temperature, aged for a short time, and then compacted. Device applies pressure to sample through hydraulically or mechanically operated load. Desired mixing and compacting temperatures are based on different asphalt binder properties to ensure compaction occurs at the same viscosity level for different mixes
Advanced Mixed Methods Research Designs
Have emerged in recent years because mixed methods research has become more common within many social and health science disciplines.
So when should you consider qualitative or mixed-methods research methods?
In general, when your research questions are more in line with developing understanding than identifying differences, some form of qualitative inquiry may be helpful.
Mixed Methods Data Analysis
In mixed methods research, the goal of analysis is "to identify, compare, and consolidate thematically similar results by using more than one source or form of data - Creamer 2017
The Experimental Design
In the experiment mixed methods design, the quantitative element of the study is ALWAYS an experimental design. Primary data is quantitative and secondary (supportive) data is qualitative.
What design did you select for your POP and why? What are the pros and cons of the design you used (e.g., embedded, exploratory, etc.) in your particular study?
Individual Response:
Social Constructivis
Individuals seek understanding of the world and develop subjective meanings of their experiences, directed towards certain objects of things. Toal of research is to rely as much as possible on the participants' views of the situation. Questions are broad and general so participants can construct meaning. Addresses the process of interaction among people and context. Researchers own background shapes interpretation is acknowledged. Researchers generate theory as they go along.
Analyzing Data in Qualitative Data Analysis
Inductive; Context-bound; Exploratory Involves coding the data, dividing the text into small units , assigning labels to each unit, & then coding into themes.
Meta-inferences
Inferences that link, compare, contrast, or modify inferences generated by the qualitative and quantitative strands.
confounding variable
Influence cannot be directly detected
Steps
Initial inquires, assembling research team, literature survey, question formulation, choice of methods, IRB approval
Qualitative Research Questions
Insights into social processes that exist in specific contexts - Connolly, 1998 - Address the WHAT & HOW
Concurrent Transformative Model
Integrates methods at both the analysis and interpretation phases
Can occur at various stages of research process
Integration
Quantitative Conclusions
Interpretations & inferences that extend the data
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Tia Maria
Light coffee, from Jamaica, Dark
One limitation to sequential transformative model?
Little is written about this approach
What is looked for when looking at results of concurrent triangulation model?
Looking for convergence or lack of convergence
Typical water/cement ratio for PCC mix design. Why is it important
Lower ratio's produce stronger, more durable PCC. Most state DOT's set max water-cement ratio at 0.40 to 0.50. It is important in determining the desired compressive strength. Used to calculate required cement content
Grand tour
Main, open-ended question that guides an interview and is followed by follow-up questions, prompts, and probes
What type of data is collected?
Numeric and narrative
Embedded Design
Occurs when primary method is qualitative/quantitative but researcher adds other component - gain additional insight
Grounded Theory
Often provide results in the form of a visual representation of the theoretical model
Concurrent Nested Design
One core tradition, and the second is nested within the core -e.g. content analysis of daily diaries within an RTC -build a small study into a larger study -usually it is a qualitative nested within a quantitative
Choosing a study design ...
One of three approaches: qual, quant or mixed Methods are strategies to gather info Methods refer to data collection, analysis and interpretation that researchers use
Explain the three phase sequential explanatory design:
Phase 1 is Qual data collection which builds into phase 2 of quan phase instrument/intervention design and phase 3 which is the same as phase 2 followed by inferences
Explain the two phase sequential explanatory design:
Phase 1 is quantitative data collection and analysis which is explained by phase 2 which is the qualitative data collection and analysis followed by inferences
Exploratory Design Procedures;
Procedures: Two phase-design -Phase 1: qual -Phase 2: quan
participants of experimental method design
Random (all have equal chance of selection) or nonrandom (convenient) If nonrandom then the procedure is a quasi-experiment If random the procedure is a true experiment. Identify if participants are matched on a certain trait/characteristics Use power analysis to determine size of sample size (based on level of significance of alpha=.05, power=.08 and effect size =.05) according to table.
Confirmability
Reduction of researcher bias; is bias acknowledged and considered?; neutrality
Internal Validity
Relation between variables
How can a researcher access or ensure trustworthiness of qualitative data? (Creswell & Plano, 2011)
Reliability and validity remain appropriate concepts for attaining rigor in qualitative research. Qualitative researchers must take responsibility for reliability and validity by implementing verification strategies integral and self-correcting during the conduct of inquiry itself. Qualitative Trustworthiness depends on the following (Nastasi et al., 2005): credibility (INTERNAL VALIDITY); transferability (EXTERNAL VALIDITY); dependability (RELIABILITY); and confirmability (OBJECTIVITY).
Representing Data in Quantitative Data Analysis
Representing the findings in statements summarizing the statistical results. -Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011
How is sample size selected in MMS?
Sample size calculation and/or expert judgment
Conducting Mixed Methods Research (Sampling)
Sampling is a particularly important consideration when conducting a mixed methods study because sampling for each phase of the study (qualitative and quantitative) must be compatible with the assumptions belonging to that part of the design.
Formative
Sometimes called process evaluation, it assesses program implementation or examines program delivery and/or organizational context, all with the goal to improve the program, product, or practice. -Needs assessment, program implementation, program delivery or technology, program fidelity, and program staff and personnel
The Multistage Evaluation Design (Aim of study)
Stages can be done sequentially or concurrently; can be built off of any three basic designs. *Each stage can require qualitative, quantitative or both.
What is basic sampling strategy for MM?
Stratified purposive sampling Divide population of interest into strata (e.g. low income, middle income, high income) Use purposive sampling to select small number of people in each strata to describe similarities and differences across strata
Exploratory Design Taxonomy development model
Taxonomy development model: We are developing a taxonomy or theory for testing (see chart) Theory is the main focus; quan is there to test the theory; we are developing theories that do not exist, then we use quan to test them
Mixed Methods Research Design
The collection, analysis, and "mixing" of quantitative and qualitative research designs to understand a research problem.
Program process
The complete treatment or service delivered by the program.
Substantive Level Theory & Components
The level of theory that is applied to a specific group or situation. Not grand theory. For a specific level of inquiry. Central phenomenon, causal conditions, strategies, conditions and context, & consequences
Dependent variable
The measured outcome from changing the independent variable. Examples: attitude survey scores, growth, test scores.
Independent variable
The variable the researcher chooses. The researcher has the power to manipulate this. Examples: grade level, level of education, gender, hair color, age.
Transformative Design
Theoretical perspective with social justice focus - improve well-being of vulnerable population
Underlying Philosophy
Things are complex; Facts matter but so do situations/opinions/personal understanding
Example of Mixed Methods Purpose Statement
This study addresses ___________ [content aim]. The purpose of this exploratory sequential design will be to first qualitatively explore with a small sample and then to determine if the qualitative findings generalize to a large sample. The first phase of the study will be a qualitative exploration of ___________ [the central phenomenon] in which ___________ [types of data] will be collected from ___________ [participants] at ___________ [research site]. From this initial exploration, the qualitative findings will be used to develop assessment measures that can be administered to a large sample. In the tentatively planned quantitative phase, ___________ [instrument data] will be collected from ___________ [participants] at ___________ [research site].
What occurs during data transformation?
Transformation/conversion of one type of data into another so that both can be analyzed together Qualitative data are coded and proportion of people endorsing each theme calculated (qual-> quant) Quantitative data are transformed into narrative and included with qualitative data in thematic analysis (quant-> qual)
Sequential Exploratory Design
Trying to identify or explore a concept first before you do a study -usually explore a concept first using qualitative methods, then collect quantitative data ---Qual --> Quan
Qualitative analysis
Two Core Approaches are: 1) Content Analysis 2) Thematic Coding
Qualitative Purpose Statements
Use action verbs such as describe, understand, develop, examine the meaning of, or discover to convey how learning will take place Use neutral words and phrases, nondirectional language such as "self-expression experiences of individuals" Provide a general working definition of the central phenomenon or idea, particularly those not typically understood by a broad audience Include words that indicate the strategy of inquiry to be used in data collection, analysis and the process of research Mention the participants in the study Identify the site for the research Delimit the scope of participation or research sites in the study
Main Purpose of Mixed Methods Research
Use advantages of both quantitative and qualitative research designs.
What are the features of mixed methods?
Uses rigorous methods that are both qualitative and quantitative - Specific types of mixed method designs for the combination and interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data - Design may be framed within a theory/broader framework
Grounded Theory
Uses the constant comparative model method of data analysis, which is "iterative". It starts when first data is collected. New data continually informs data collection process and initial development of a theoretical model. Data collection continues until "saturation" is reached.
What is sample size of MMS?
Varies
Operationalization
When concepts become measurable variables
Concurrently
When two or more things happen at the same time, they occur concurrently. If the concerts you want to attend are happening concurrently, you have to choose one — unless you know how to be in two places at the same time.
Define Build
When you pour the alcohol into the glass it is served, most often with ice
hypothesis
a declarative statement of the relationship between two or more variables
Transformative mixed methods
a design that uses a theoretical lens drawn from social justice or power as an overarching perspective within a design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data.
key terms: determinant
a factor that changes a characteristic
Convergent parallel mixed methods
a form of mixed methods design in which the researcher converges or merges quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem.
Fieldwork
a general term for data collection in ethnographic research
Purposeful Sample
a group of individuals who have experience with the phenomenon under study
purposeful sample
a group of individuals who have experience with the phenomenon under study
Development
a major purpose of mixed methods research that seeks to use the results from one method to develop or inform the other method, where development is broadly construed to include sampling and implementation as well as measurement decisions
researcher as detective
a metaphor applied to researcher looking for the local cause of a single event
mixed methods research
a method and a methodology for conducting research that involves collecting, analyzing, and integrating quantitative and qualitative research in a single study
mixed methods
a methodology for conducting research that involves collecting, analyzing, & integrating (mixing0 qualitative & quantitative research (&data) in a single study or a longitudinal program of inquiry
What is mixed methods
a methodology involving quantitative and qualitative research in a single study or longitudinal program
Grounded theory
a methodology of systematic but flexible guidelines for collecting and analysing data to construct theories 'grounded' in the data themselves
Multiphase timing
a multiphase project that includes several sequential and/or concurrent substudies over a program of study
Lifeworld
a person's subjective inner world of experience
life world
a person's subjective inner world of experience
ethnography
a qualitative research method that attempts to discover and describe the "culture" of a person or group of people - data collection: in-depth interviews and participant observation - analysis/reporting: descriptive narrative
naturalistic generalisation
a type of generalisation based on the context of a study and similarity of participants
disability theories
addresses the meaning of inclusion in schools and encompasses administrators, teachers, and parents who have children with disabilities
Disability Inquiry
addresses the understanding this population's sociocultural perspectives allowing them to take control over their lives rather than a biological understanding of disability.
reflexivity
an ability to think critically about one's interpretations and biases. Can reduce researcher bias in qualitative studies.
qualitative research
an open approach to the study of social phenomenon; some aspects include emergent designs, being grounded in the lived experiences of individuals, and drawing on multiple methods. data are in narrative form
Research Design
an outlined plan for data collection and analysis; the purpose of the study determines the design that will be used
research design
an outlined plan for data collection and analysis;the purpose of the study determines the design that will be used
Inference quality
an overarching criterion for evaluating the quality of conclusions and interpretations made on the basis of mixed methods findings; incorporates notions from both internal validity and statistical conclusion validity within a quant framework and credibility within a qual framework; refers to the believability and accuracy of the inductively and deductively derived conclusions from an MM stud
Descriptive Questions
are written for each independent and dependent variable and any significant mediating variables in the study.
analytic
cohort -case control studies
Quantitizing
converting qual data into various codes than can be analyzed quantitatively
research methods
data collection, analysis, and interpretation
Peer Review
discussing your interpretations with one's peers and colleagues
concurrent
doing both research and figuring out results at the same time - no adapting the study
sequential
doing research then determining results - adapting study throughout
mixed research considers human thought and behavior to be partially predictable and have many sources of influence. Which of the following is also a view of behavior held by mixed research? dynamic, dialectical pragmatism, pluralism
dynamic
Summary: Glaser
emergent concepts
Finding a sample size that is "just right"
finding the ideal sample size depends on the method of data collection in use.
2 major forms of mixed methods
fixed- predetermined & planned emergent- arises due to issue discovered (flexible)
disability interpretive lens
focus on disability as a dimension of human difference and not as a defect as a human difference, its meaning is derived from social construction and it is simply one dimension of human difference
Corbin and strauss grounded theory
focused more on verification with strict coding process. advocated going back and forward between inductive and deductive process.
Queer Theory
focuses on individuals calling themselves lesbians, gays, bisexuals, or transgendered people.
Ethnography
focuses on the discovery and description of the culture of a group of people
critical race theory
focuses theoretical attention on race and how racism is deeply embedded within the framework of American society
Exploring outliers
follow up with unusual cases in order to understand why they deviate from the norm
Tenant of constructivist grounded theory Charmez (2006)
from symbolic interactionist perspective, observer cannot be neutral. researcher is acknowledged as an active player in analysis and approaches field with theoretical perspective
Examples of variable in a study
gender, age, SES, atittudes, racism, political power etc.
Naturalistic Generalization
generalization based on similarity, made by the reader of a research report
Theoretical Generalization
generalization of a theoretical explanation beyond the particular research study
reciprocity
giving back to participants for their time and efforts
critique of grounded theory
glaser and strauss have strong positivist thread run through their work. it glosses over epistemological assumptions in minimising relationship to sociological theory
values above 1.0
indicated increased risk
Descriptive Analysis
indicates the means, standard deviations, and range of scores for the variables.
Onwuegbuzie and Johnson's Nine Mixed Research Validities
inside/outside, paradigmatic/philosophical, commensurability approximation, weakness minimization, sequential validity, conversion validity, sample integration, sociopolitical, and multiple
grounded theory
intent is to create a theory about something -focuses on action that has distinct phases over time
Modified stem leaf plot
internality behaviors from unstructured data sources are listed on one side and the identification numbers from individuals who exhibited those behavior were listed on the right
charmaz
interpretive, flexible, acknowledge taken for granted processes and researchers as co-creating meaning.
Definition of a theory
interrelated set of constructs formed into propositions (hypotheses), that specify the relationship among variables.
Where are theories placed in quantitative studies
introduction lit review after hypotheses/research questions as a rationale in a seperate section
Action Research
investigation or analysis that is directed in the direction behind a useful objective, typically a growth in a specific function or system, in comparison to strictly trial and error studies. In company growth and advancement, it comprises not just methodically gathering information regarding a company but additionally supplying evaluations to the company, taking actions to improve the company mainly based on the evaluations, and consequently reviewing the feedback behind these behaviors, ACTION RESEARCH: "The action research methods would lead scientists to provide further proof of the drug's efficacy."
Strategies for Achieving Descriptive Validity
investigator triangulation
Embedded mixed methods
involves as well either the convergent or sequential use of data, but the core idea is that either quantitative or qualitative data is embedded within a larger design and the data sources play a supporting role in the overall design.
Iterative analysis
involves ongoing interpretive feedback loops
Inductive reasoning (Qualitative Research)
is a logical process in which multiple premises, all believed true or found true most of the time, are combined to obtain a specific conclusion. Inductive reasoning is often used in applications that involve prediction, forecasting, or behavior.
Quantitative research
is also typically designed to test predetermined hypothesis that are formed on the based on existing theory (a deductive process), while qualitative research often functions to develop theory from the data that are collected (an inductive process). With these two distinctions in mind it is also often suggested that qualitative research tends to focus more on rich description of a phenomenon than on its qualifications.
A case study
is one type of observational data collection technique in which one individual is studied in-depth in order to identify behavioral, emotional, and/or cognitive qualities that are universally true, on average, of others. Case studies often include face-to-face interviews, paper and pencil tests, and more. Sigmund Freud conducted case studies.
before deciding to design a mixed study what is a crucial point to consider?
is the panned study feasible
triangulation
it involves combining methods that result in quantitative and qualitative data in order to check and verify the reliability and validity of data.
Ethnocentric
judgment of people in other cultures based on the standards of your culture
Memo writing
key method of organizing thoughts and emergent theory progresses
Validity of qualitative research is often questioned because
lack of rigor findings are largely dependent on the researcher (researcher bias)
Further Packer critique
line by line is not how words are experienced; arbitrary to split line by line instead of by meaning; glaser's reliance on emergence underplay's researchers role in interpreting; bracketing assumptions problematic
connect data
look at qualitative and compare to quantitative to determine results
what consideration is important before making the final decision to design a mixed study
make sure the study being planned is feasible
which is important before making the final decision to design a mixed study
make sure the study being planned is feasible
Sequential Validity
making sure that the ordering of quantitative and qualitative components in a sequential design does not bias the results
Multiple Validities
making sure your mixed methods study meets appropriate quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods validity types
reasons for mixed methods
match the design to research purpose and questions be explicit about reasons for mixing methods
Statistical Significance
mathematical tool that is used to determine whether the outcome of an experiment is the result of a relationship between specific factors or merely the result of chance
Quantitative research
means for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables. Data is analyzed using stats. Final written report has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory, methods, results and discussion. Strategy of inquiry: Survey, experimental
4
monitoring the effectiveness of prevention strategies using population wide surveillance programs
all of the following are types of mixed data except? monodata-mulitanalysis, multidata-monoanalysis, momodata-momoanalysis
monodata-monoanalysis
Data Collection
most common methods of data collection are interviews and observations
axial coding
moving from abstraction to reconnection by connecting categories to other categories. focusing on one open code as a core phenomenon and creates coding paradigm/logic paradigm (visual model of core, cause, strategies, intervening conditions & consequences)
qualitative and quantatitive data analyzed using qualitative techniques within a single study
mulitdata-mmonoanalysis
qualitative research design
narrative research phenomenology grounded theory ethnographies case study
Does having both quantitative and qualitative data available but not combining them still count as mixed methods?
no
Fieldnotes
notes taken by the researcher during (or immediately after) one's observations in the field
What is Creswell's criteria for good ethnography
o Clear identification of a culture-sharing group o The specification of a cultural theme that will be examined in light of this culture-sharing group o A detailed description of the cultural group o Themes that derive from an understanding of the cultural group o The identification of issues that arose "in the field" that reflect on the relationship between the researcher and the participants, the interpretive nature of reporting, and sensitivity and reciprocity in the co-creating of the account o An explanation overall of how the culture-sharing group works o A self-disclosure and reflexivity by the researcher about her or his position of research (Creswell, 2013, p. 263)
An identical relationship
occurs when exactly the same people are in both components of the study
Explanatory sequential mixed methods
one in which the researcher first conducts quantitative research, analyzes the results, and then builds on the results to explain them in more detail with qualitative research.
paradigm emphasis
one of the two dimensions of a mixed methods design Paradigm emphasis has two levels: 1. equal status (the qual and quan parts are given equal emphasis; e.g. QUAL+QUAN) 2. dominant status (either the qual OR quan part is given primary emphasis; e.g. qual+QUAN)
Dependent variable
outcomes/results of the influence of the independent variable
Going Native
over-identification with the group being studied so that one loses any possibility of objectivity
nested sample relationship criterion
participants selected for one phase represent a subset of participants selected for another phase
Significant statements
participants words, phrases, or sentence length that vividly communicates the participants experience
4 major qualitative research methods
phenomenology, ethnography, grounded theory, case study research
What 3 elements are research designs composed of?
philosophical assumptions, stages of inquiry and research methods
Pragmatism
philosophy focusing on what works as the criterion of what should be viewed as tentatively true and useful in research and practice
transformative
political, power and justice oriented, collaborative, change-oriented
Compatibility Thesis
position that quantitative and qualitative research methods and philosophies can be combined
inside-outside validity
present when the researcher both the inside and objective outsider perspectives
Weakness- Minimization Validity
present when the researcher compensates for the weaknesses of one approach through the use of an additional approach
Warranted assertibility
present when you have good evidence about your research claim (John Dewey)
which phrase refers to a researcher providing stronger evidence for a conclusion through convergence and corroboration of findings
principle of triangulation
paradigm/research-approach emphasis
refers to whether the qualitative and quantitative parts of the study are given approximately equal emphasis, or if one part is considered primary and more strongly emphasized
Delaying literature review
reinventing the wheel
operational form
represent specific information about the variables in the study
literary form
represent variables in the abstract
quantitative research
research that employs the use of predetermined instruments in order to measure and observe; some aspects include experiments, and the collection of survey data via predetermined instruments. data are in numerical form
Quantitative Research
research that employs the use of predetermined instruments in order to measure and observe; some aspects include: experiments and the collection of survey data via predetermined instruments. Data is in numerical form.
Phenomenology
researcher attempts to understand and describe how one or more participants experience a phenomenon
Participant Observation
researcher becomes an active participant in the group being investigated
Qualitative validity
researcher checks for the accuracy of the findings
convergent design
researcher collects both QUAN & QUAL data usually at the same time, see results of both, merge for hope of same conclusions about phenomenon
axiological assumption
researcher openly discusses values that shape the narrative and includes his/her own interpretation in conjunction with participants
ontological assumption
researcher reports different perspectives as themes develop in findings
What is a mixed methods study?
researcher tends to base knowledge claims on pragmatic grounds (e.g. consequence oriented, problem-centered, and pluralistic). - It employs strategies of inquiry that involve collecting data either simultaneously or sequentially to best understand research problems. - The data collection also involves gathering both numeric information (e.g. on instruments) as well as text information (e.g. on interviews) so that the final database represents both quantitative and qualitative information
methodological
researcher works with details before generalizations - continually revises questions from experiences in the field
qualitative reliability
researcher's approach is consistent across different researchers and different projects
Sample Integration Validity
researchers must not treat the quantitative and qualitative samples as equals, but, instead, draw appropriate conclusions from each sample
The compatibility thesis states that quantitative and qualitative approaches can be used together in a single research study as long as researches construct a thoughtful combination that will help to address their research question as well as adhere to which of the following
respect for the assumptions of each method equally
Problems with to high asphalt binder content
results in mix that has greater tendency to deform elastically rather than fracture under repeated loading. However, needs to be high enough to prevent excessive fatigue cracking
Theoretical coding
rethink and revise how substantive codes relate to each other
relative chance (risk)
risk of drawing a heart compared to risk of drawing queen of hearts 12.5
identical sample relationship criterion
same people participate in both the quantitative and qualitative phases of investigation
quantitative sampling
sample needs to be large enough to perform the statistical procedures you use to make inferences about study findings
negative case-sampling
searching for case studies that challenge or disprove one's expectations or general findings. Used to reduce researcher bias.
Arrow (→):
sequential method (start with qual and then do quan or vice versa)
What is a sample?
small carefully chosen subgroup of a population to serve as a reference group for drawing conclusions
risk factors
something that has been found to be a determinant of a disease outcome or negative health benefits
Control Variables
special type of independent variable that researchers measure because they potentially influence the dependent variable.
Extended Fieldwork
spending enough time in the field to fully understand what is being studied
extended fieldwork
spending enough time in the field to fully understand what is being studied
Mediating variables
stan between indepnd/depend variables
Intervening or Mediating Variables
stand between the undefended and dependent variables, and they mediate the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
selective coding
starting from a core category, examine how it links to other categories. Storyline or hypothesis which explains relationships of paradigm.
Shared beliefs
statements or conventions that people sharing a culture hold to be true or false
Initiation
stimulates new research questions or challenges results obtained through one method
triangulation design
strands independent concurring timing equal prioritization mixes at interpretation
Methodology
strategy, process or design lying behind the choice of particular methods and linking these chosen methods to a desired outcome
Collective Case Study
study of multiple cases for the purpose of comparison
barker
study of the moonies- she used participant observation, questionnaires and in depth interviewing.
Collective Case Study Example
study of three individuals with intellectual disabilities who are placed in a general education class.
Within group design
study only one grp repeated measures design. assingned to diff. treatments at different times during experiment.
a study uses qualitative observation methods, followed by quantitative data analysis methods, this is an example of
synchronized
validity, trustworthiness, legitimation
synonyms used in quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method research respectively
Define 'research'
systematic process of collecting + analysing data in order to increase our understanding about the issue/question which we are interested in
Constant Comparative Method Glazer & Strauss 1967
taking data from new collection and comparing to emergent categories
Some detail of mixed research remaining to be worked out by research methodologists including problems of paradigm mixing how to interpret conflicting results and which of the following
techniques for qualitatively analyzing quantitative data
Problems with flat and elongated particles in mix
tend to break down during compaction, decrease workability, and lie flat after compaction
Triangulation
tests the consistency of findings obtained through different instruments
External Validity
the ability to generalize the findings to other people, settings, and times
Methodology
the application of particular procedures toward acquiring the answers to a wide variety of research questions
methodology
the application of particular procedures toward acquiring the answers to a wide variety of research questions
Etic perspective
the behavioral research approach is across various cultures to learn about the universality of behaviors
descriptive validity
the extent to which an account reported by a researcher is factually accurate
interpretive validity
the extent to which participants' viewpoints and meanings are accurately portrayed in a study
Multiple Validities
the extent to which the pertinent validities (quantitative, qualitative, and mixed) are addressed and resolved successfully
Descriptive Validity
the factual accuracy of the researcher's account
theoretical saturation
the final stage of grounded theory when no new concepts emerge from the data, the theory makes sense, and it is well validated
compatibility thesis
the idea that quantitative and qualitative research methods are compatible and can be used together in a single study
research problem
the issue being addressed, the researcher's personal experiences, and the audiences for the study
Interpretation in quantitative research
the researcher draws conclusions from the results for the research questions, hypothesis, and the larger meaning of the results. The interpretation involves several steps.
Theory development variant
the researcher identifies important constructs and develops a theory, taxonomy or classification system grounded in the in-depth data gathered in the qual phase, then the quan phase is used to test or explore the taxonomy or theory with a broader group formal hypothesis generated in the 1st phase are tested in a subsequent phase
pragmatic knowledge
the result of research that is planned and conducted based on what will best help the researcher answer the research questions
Exploratory sequential mixed methods
the reverse sequence from the explanatory sequential design. The researcher first begins with a qualitative research phase and explores the views of the participants. The data are then analyzed, and the information used to build into a second, quantitative phase.
A parallel relationship
the samples in the 2 strands are completely different, although they are drawn from the same or similar population
two-phase approach
the second part of the approach elaborates on the first
Important characteristics in asphalt binder selection for HMA mix design
the source, durability, rheology, purity, and potential modifying agents that can be added to the asphalt
Nomological causation
the standard view of causation in science; refers to causal relationships among variables
philosophy
the use of abstract ideas and beliefs that inform our research inquiry and philosophical framework
through the combination of more than one research methods in a single study researchers can ensure that what occurs
they will avoid making a mistake
Independent Variables
those that (probably) cause, influence, or affect outcomes. Also called treatment, manipulated, antecedent, or predictor variables.
Dependent Variables
those that depend on the independent variables; they are outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variables. Other names are criterion, outcome, effect, and response variables.
purposeful sampling
those that you specifically choose and then contain a certain element that will highlight and inform a particular aspect of the study, the sample is not random and may become subject to research bias
Cynical nature of action research
those who are more driven by the researcher's agenda and those more driven by participants; those who are motivated primarily by instrumental goal attainment and those motivated primarily by the aim of personal, organizational or societal transformation; and 1st-, to 2nd-, to 3rd-person research, that is, my research on my own action, aimed primarily at personal change; our research on our group (family/team), aimed primarily at improving the group; and 'scholarly' research aimed primarily at theoretical generalization or large scale change.[1] .
fundamental principle of mixed methods research
thoughtful mixing of methods, procedures, and other paradigm characteristics resulting in high-quality research, researchers should mix in a way that provides multiple (divergent and convergent) and complementary strengths (viewed broadly) and nonoverlapping weaknesses
Superpave Method
ties asphalt binder and aggregate selection into the mix design process, and considers traffic and climate as well. The compaction device is a gyratory compactor and the compaction effort in mix design is simulates expected traffic.
goal of analytic
to quantify the effect of exposures that occur during the induction period on eventual disease risk -identify the predictors of the disease outcome during the early phases of the natural history of the disease
triangulation design
to simultaneously collect both quantitative and qualitative data, merge the data, and use the results to understand a research problem, this is a one phase design and both types of research carry equal weight
empirical, transcendental or psychological phenomenology
transcendental or psychological phenomenology is focused less on the interpretations of the researcher and more on a description of the experiences of participants
Qualitizing
transforming quan data into qual form
intermethod mixing
two or more of the methods of data collection are used in a research study
Exploratory Sequential
two sequential phases but in opposite order. Qualitative data first followed by quantitative data to provide breadth for emergent relationships.
Explanatory Sequential
two sequential phases, quantitative data collected first followed by qualitative data
sequential validity
type of mixed methods validity that ensures the results of a study are not due to the sequence of its qualitative and quantitative components (e.g. interviews followed by testing giving different results than testing followed by interviews)
multiple validities
type of mixed methods validity that refers to the degree to which a researcher fulfills the relevant quantitative AND qualitative types of validity necessary to guarantee a strong study
sample integration validity
type of mixed methods validity that refers to the need to draw appropriate conclusions from the qualitative and quantitative samples in a study. (e.g. testing 1000 participants but interviewing only 10 of them. The interviews would be useful, but would not yield comparable/generalisable results)
Investigator Triangulation
use of multiple investigators to collect and interpret the data
Methods Triangulation
use of multiple research methods or methods of data collection
Data Triangulation
use of multiple sources of data
quant. theories
use of theory is deductive and is at beginning of study, with objective of testing theory rather than developing it. It becomes the framework for the entire study.
Integration
use of two or more approaches, methods, and purposes being combined in complex mixed methods designs
Instrument development model
used when data from the qual phase are used in the development of quan instruments
investigator triangulation
using multiple investigators to collect and interpret data. Can aid descriptive validity in a study
methods triangulation
using multiple research methods or methods of data collection; e.g. multiple interviews or observations in different settings
queer theory
variety of methods and strategies relating to individual identity social theory about gender identity and sexuality that emphasizes the importance of difference and rejects as restrictive the idea of innate sexual identity
Corbin and Strauss
verifiable coding
Feminist Perspective
view as problematic women's diverse situations and the institutions that frame those situations.
the order of the questions
what determines the priority of qualitative or quantitative methods?
determine the order, weight, how, and the theory
what do you do when you make decisions about a mixed method design
pragmatism
what is ultimately important and justified or "valid" is what works in particular situations in practice and what promotes social justice, focused on consequences and the ends that researchers value
Alternative Hypothesis
what the researcher really thinks is the cause of a phenomenon. H1: there is a significant difference between the Vitamin C group and the placebo group
peer review
when a researcher discusses their interpretations with their peers and colleagues
pattern matching
when a researcher makes a complex hypothesis and then determines if it is supported
low-inference descriptors
when a researcher uses descriptions that are very similar to a participant's own responses and language, or uses direct verbatim quotes
Why use a mixed methods design?
when quantitative + qualitative data together provide a better understanding of the research problem than either type by itself to provide a more complete picture of the research problem quantitative: trends and describing population qualitative: participants' words when you want to build from one phase of a study to another explore qualitatively then develop an instrument follow-up a quantitative study to obtain more detailed information, a more in-depth understanding
Concurrent
when the two types of data are collected at the same time; simultaneous or parallel
Sequential
when the two types of data are not collected at the same time
Bacon's Idols:
when we carry preconceptions into the data collection or analysis process we may influence our findings and interpretations. All of these risks also exist in the case of qualitative research, and for this reason there is no way to ensure that the development of understanding can occur completely from the data and not the researcher's own experience or knowledge.
Theoretical Lens or Perspective in qualitative research
which provides an overall orienting lens for the study of questions of gender, class, and race.
significant statements
words, phrases or sentences that vividly communicate a participant's subjective experience
quantitative research questions
write either a research question or hypothesis, not both, measure and write about the independent and dependent variables separately, link questions and hypotheses to the theory
Norms
written and unwritten rules specifying how people in a group are supposed to think and act
descriptive questions
written for each dependent and independent variable and any significant mediating variables in the study
Convergent mixed methods design
•A researcher collects both qualitative data and quantitative data at the same time (in parallel) •The researcher gives equal weight to the 2 types of data with the hope that both data sets will lead to similar conclusions
A Qualitative drive with a Supplementary Quantitative Component Design
•In this type of mixed methods design, a researcher will use a qualitative methodology and supplement with quantitative data •This design consists of two distinct phases: qualitative followed by quantitative •The quantitative data help to explain, or elaborate on, the qualitative results obtained in the first phase.
QUALITATIVE PURPOSE STATEMENT:
● A good qualitative purpose statement contains: ○ The central phenomenon ○ The participants ○ The research site ● Include language drawn from qualitative inquiry ● Use words such as purpose, intent, or objective to signal attention to this statement as the central controlling idea ● Focus on a single phenomenon, narrow the study to one idea to be explored or understood. This statement should acknowledge that the study may evolve into an exploration of relationships or comparisons among ideas
Concurrent Nested
● Characterized by: A nested approach that gives priority to one of the methods and guides the project, while another is embedded or "nested." ● Purpose: The purpose of the nested method is to address a different question than the dominant or to seek information from different levels.
Sequential Exploratory
● Characterized by: An initial phase of qualitative data collection and analysis followed by a phase of quantitative data collection and analysis. ● Purpose: To explore a phenomenon. This strategy may also be useful when developing and testing a new instrument
Sequential Transformative
● Characterized by: Collection and analysis of either quantitative or qualitative data first. The results are integrated in the interpretation phase. ● Purpose: To employ the methods that best serve a theoretical perspective
Sequential Explanatory
● Characterized by: Collection and analysis of quantitative data followed by a collection and analysis of qualitative data. ● Purpose: To use qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of a quantitative study.
Concurrent Transformative
● Characterized by: The use of a theoretical perspective reflected in the purpose or research questions of the study to guide all methodological choices. ● Purpose: To evaluate a theoretical perspective at different levels of analysis.
Concurrent Triangulation
● Characterized by: Two or more methods used to confirm, cross-validate, or corroborate findings within a study. Data collection is concurrent. ● Purpose: Generally, both methods are used to overcome a weakness in using one method with the strengths of another.
QUANTITATIVE PURPOSE STATEMENT:
● This statement differs from the qualitative purpose statement in terms of language and focus ● Focus on relating or comparing the variables and how these relate to ○ The participants ○ The research site ● Identify the proposed major variables in a study ● A good quantitative purpose statement includes: ○ Words to signal the major intent ○ Identify the theory, model, or conceptual framework ○ Identify the independent and dependent variables as well as any mediating, moderating, or control variables ○ Use words that connect the independent and dependent variables ○ Position the independent before the dependent variable ○ Mention the specific strategy of inquiry used ○ Mention the participants ○ Use the literature to define
3 HMA mix design methods
Hveem, Marshall and SuperPave methods
Name 2 Blue Drinks
Hypnotic and Blue Curacao
4 major qualitative research methods
1. phenomenology 2. ethnography 3. grounded theory 4. case study approach
Convergent (MM Research Design) Remember
"Converge the methodologies"
Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 6
"Does the study identify qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques clearly?"
Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 1
"Does the study include a rationale for using a mixed methods research design?"
Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 7
"Does the study use appropriate data analysis techniques for both qualitative and quantitative data?"
Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 3
"Does the study use both quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques appropriately?"
Qualitative Research Questions
"Open-ended, evolving, & non-directional" - Creswell, 1998 - Developed a inductively or iteratively
Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study Question 5
"Was the study feasible given the amount of data to be collected and concomitant issues of resources, time, and expertise?"
Greene, Caracelli & Graham (1989)
"include at least one quantitative method (designed to collect numbers) and one qualitative method (designed to collect words) where neither type of method (technique or procedure) is inherently linked to any particular inquiry paradigm"
Five mixed-method designs
1) Convergent Parallel 2) Explanatory Sequential 3) Exploratory Sequential 4) Embedded Design 5) Multi-phase Design
Common Content Analysis Steps (recording unit and coding)
1) Define the recording unit (word, phrase, sentence, and paragraph). 2) Define the coding categories. 3) Test the coding by applying it to a sample of your collected data. 4) Assess the accuracy and reliability of this sample coding (perhaps using multiple coders to check for intercoder consistency). 5) Revise the coding rules and/or instructions to improve consistency and accuracy in coding. 6) Return to step 3 and run the cycle until you achieve sufficient consistency and accuracy in coding. 7) Code all data. 8) Assess overall consistency and accuracy of the codings
Reasons for Mixed-Methods
1) Enhancement: Building on findings from one method using evidence gathered from the other method 2) Triangulation: using findings from one method to verify or corroborate findings collected using the other method. The process of operationalizing and measuring constructs or variables in multiple ways to converge upon a more accurate observation or assessment. 3) Completeness: using both methods to more comprehensively examine an area or issue of interest than would be possible with one method used alone. 4) Illustration: using qualitative data to explain quantitative findings, or vice versa. 5) Sampling: using one method to help with the sampling of participants or cases in a targeted and focused fashion
5 step process of EBP:
1) Formulate an answerable clinical question 2) find the appropriate research evidence 3) Critically appraise the research evidence for validity + impact 4) Apply evidence if/as appropriate 5) Evaluate the process
What are the 5 steps of the research process?
1) Identify research question/problem 2) Design the study 3) Collect data 4) Interpret data 5) Report data
Challenges of Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research
1. A tendency to report only the qualitative or quantitative data, but not both. 2. A tendency to report findings for one method, followed by findings from the other, without any attempt at integration. 3. The perceived need to focus the presentation of results toward either a quantitatively or qualitatively focused audience. 4. A personal preference of comfort with one method over the other. 5. A research design that inhibits the integration of quantitative and qualitative data (the quantitative structure overly limits the qualitative follow-up. 6. The pressure to publish some results as quickly as possible, which might push the researcher to lean on one method more than the other.
What are the 3 threats to internal validity?
1. Chance - random variation (sample size) 2. Bias - systematic error in collecting/measuring/analysing data 3. Confounding - effects of additional variable that might be responsible
What are four key features of mixed methods research?
1. Collecting and analysing qualitative and quantitative data 2. Using rigorous methods 3. Combing quantitative and qualitative data using a specific type of mixed methods design 4. Framing the mixed methods design within a broader framework
Give 4 features of qualitative research?
1. Collects non-numerical data 2. Not concerned with mathematical probabilities or representativeness 3. It is an inductive approach, not a hypothesis-deductive approach (you don't start off with a hypothesis that you test, you build theories and try to understand why things happen/phenomena) 4. It can be combined with quantitative research methods. This would then be mixed method or multi-method research.
Creswell and Plano Clark (2011) distinguished four main types of mixed methods research designs with associated rationales. What are they?
1. Triangulation, Concurrent, or Parallel Design - which entails separate quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis within the same timeframe 2. Embedded Design - a concurrent design where a qualitative part is embedded in a quantitative study, or vice versa, so that the qualitative results are used to support or explain findings from the other method. 3. Exploratory Sequential Design - in which a qualitative study conducted in the first phase informs a quantitative study conducted in the second phase. 4. Explanatory Sequential Design - a sequential design in which a quantitative study conducted in the first phase informs a qualitative study conducted in the second phase.
What are the four ethical issues in health research?
1. Voluntary participation 2. No harm to participants 3. Anonymity and confidentiality 4. Deception
How is theory used in a QUALitative study
1. broad explanation for behaviors/attitudes 2. theoretical lens 3. as an endpoint
pragmatism
1. focus on the outcomes of the research-the actions, situations, and consequences of inquiry, rather than antecedent conditions (as in postpositivism), what works
Steps of inductive logic of a qual. research study
1. gather info 2. ask open ended questions 3.analyze data to form themes/categories 4. looks for patterns/generalizations/theories 5. poses generalizations or theories from past experiences and literature
What are the two types of phenomenology
1. hermeneutic phenomenology and 2. empirical, transcendental or psychological phenomenology
types of validity in mixed methods research
1. inside-outside validity 2. weakness-minimisation validity 3. sequential validity 4. sample integration validity 5. multiple validities
social constructivism
1. interpretive, individuals seeks understanding of the world in which they live and work
case study designs
1. intrinsic case study 2. instrumental case study 3. collective case study
transformative framework/postmodernism
1. knowledge is not neutral and it reflects the power and social relationships within society, and thus the purpose of knowledge construction is to aid people to improve society 2. knowledge claims must be set within the conditions of the world today and in the multiple perspectives of class, race, gender, and other group affiliations
What are the four philosophical assumptions made by researchers when they undertake qualitative study?
1. ontology 2. epistemology 3. axiology 4. methodology
What is the ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology for postpostitivsm (Creswell, 2007)
1. ontology = a single reality exists beyond ourselves, out there; researcher may not be able to understand it or get to it because of lack of absolutes 2. epistemology = reality can only be approximated. But it is constructed through research and statistics; interaction with research subjects is kept to a minimum; validity comes from peers, not participants 3. axiology = researcher's biases need to be controlled and not expressed in the study 4. methodology = use of scientific method and writing; object of research is toe create new knowledge; method is important; deductive methods are important, such as testing of theories, specifying important variables, making comparisons among groups
What is the ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology for social constructivism (Creswell, 2007)
1. ontology = multiple realities are constructed through our lived experiences and interactions with others 2. epistemology = reality is co-constructed between the researcher and the researched and shaped by individual experiences 3. axiology = individual values are honored, and are negotiated among individuals 4. methodology = more of a literary style of writing used; use of an inductive method of emergent ideas (through consensus) obtained through methods such as interviewing, observing, and analysis of texts
What is the ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology for transformative framework/postmoderism (Creswell, 2007)
1. ontology = participation between researcher and communities/individuals being studied; often a subjective-objective reality emerges 2. epistemology = co-created findings with multiple ways of knowing 3. axiology = respect for indigenous values; values need to be problematized and interrogated 4. methodology = use of collaborative processes of research; political participation encouraged; questioning of methods; highlighting issues and concerns
Associated philosophical beliefs of critical, race, feminist, queer, and disabilities interpretive frameworks
1. ontology = reality is based on power and identity struggles; privilege or oppression based on race or ethnicity, class, gender, mental abilities, sexual preferences 2. epistemology = reality is known through the study of social structures, freedom and oppression, power, and control; reality can be changed through research 3. axiology = diversity of values is emphasized within the standpoint of various communities 4. methodology = start with assumptions of power and identity struggles, document them, and call for action and change
What is the ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology for pragmatism (Creswell, 2007)
1. ontology = reality is what is useful, is practical, and works 2. epistemology = reality is known through using many tools of research that reflect both deductive (objective) evidence and inductive (subjective) evidence 3. axiology = values are discussed because of the way that knowledge reflects both the researchers' and the participants' views 4. methodology = the research process involves both quantitative and qualitative approaches to data collection and analysis
methods of data analysis in grounded theory
1. open coding: exploratory stage of noting important ideas and concepts 2. axial coding: narrowing and ordering concepts so they follow from each other and better suit the theory 3. selective coding: finalising and 'grounding' the theory
Action Research con't
Action research challenges traditional social science by moving beyond reflective knowledge created by outside experts sampling variables, to an active moment-to-moment theorizing, data collecting and inquiry occurring in the midst of emergent structure. "Knowledge is always gained through action and for action. From this starting point, to question the validity of social knowledge is to question, not how to develop a reflective science about action, but how to develop genuinely well-informed action - how to conduct an action science" (Torbert 2002 Why educational research has been so uneducational: the case for a new model of social science based on collaborative inquiry)[citation needed]. In this sense, performing action research is the same as performing an experiment, thus it is an empirical process
What are the advantages + disadvantages of qualitative research?
Advantages: - flexibility in thinking: less limey to be stuck in conventional ways of thinking - flexibility in research process: can adjust approach in interpretation of data - rich description: based on empathetic understanding of participants - compensation: can be used when quant methods are inappropriate - validity: draws on understanding of participants Disadvantages: - observer bias: researchers construct the categories - lack of consensus: disagreement among researchers - lack of focus: research question can be too broad - lack of generalisability: small number of participants - poor replication: not replicable - cost: costly in terms of time
What are some advantages + disadvantages of quantitative research?
Advantages: - measure: quantity is powerful tool in producing data - rigour: methods are transparent - internal validity: explain phenomena w/ cause + effect - generalisability: findings of study can be generalised to large population - replicability: able to be replicated by others Disadvantages: - social world different from natural world - measures are artificial (constructs, not life) - surveys only measure responses at single point in time - less effective at determining why people act as they do
SupePave aggregate properties to consider
Aggregate source, gradation and size, and blending. Properties are selected based on anticipated traffic loading as well as depth below surface.
Conducting Mixed Methods Research (Procedures)
All procedures to be used in a study must be reviewed by an IRB (Institutional Review Board) prior to data collection for that phase.
Mixed Methods Designs
Allow researchers to use two types of data to verify findings, to more deeply develop their theoretical frameworks; and to produce a richer dataset; use both qualitative and quantitative data
PCC mix design method
American Concrete Institute (ACI) mix design method
What is mixed methods?
An approach to research in the social, behavioral and health sciences in which the investigator gather both quantitative and qualitative data and integrates the two then draws interpretations based on the combined strengths of both sets of data
Emic perspective
An emic is a type of research study in which the focus is one single culture. This type of research attempts to study the behaviors of interest though the lens of a member of the culture. It involves looking at behaviors of a group from the perspective of one member of that group. An emic research study is the opposite of an etic study in which the behavioral research approach is across various cultures to learn about the universality of behaviors. Emic studies are common in social sciences.
Data analysis
Follow research steps for presenting how data will be analysed: -1.report info on return rate/participation rate of sample 2- What method is used to determine response bias (effect of nonresponses on survey estimate). Use wave analyisis 3-provide plan for descriptive analysis of data for all IV and DV of study (indicate mean, standard deviation and range of scores). 4-if the study uses an instrument with scales identify stats for its analysis (factor analysis) and checks for reliability and internal consistency of scales (Cronbach alpha stats). 5-identify stats or program for testing major inferential research questions/hypotheses (Hypotheses relate variables or compare groups in terms of variables so that inferences can be drawn from the sample to a population). 6- Present data in tables and draw conclusions (was the result significant/not significant, how did that answer the research question-did it support or not support hypothesis, explain why these results occurred, discuss implications)
Explanatory Design Follow-up explanations model:
Follow-up explanations model: Quan is there to help select participants; this is a participant selection model; helps for specific selection - specific criteria; if want homogeneity pick those who answer the same way; or hetero - pick variation; E.g. those who filled out Qs as being close to parents and acculturated or close to parents and not acculturated, etc.; so quan is just there to select pts;
Components of experimental method plan
Follows specific plan: -participants -materials -procedures -measures
Grounded theory, ethnography, phenomenology, & case study
Four categories of qualitative research
Credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability
Four concepts of trustworthiness (AKA rigor)
Embedded Design
Four different types of Mixed Design; This design is used when researchers need to answer questions from a different perspective and their research has primarily focused on one type of data.
Explanatory Design
Four different types of Mixed Design; a two-phase design where qualitative results are obtained first then the quantitative in order to inform the qualitative data.
External Validity
Generalizability of the results to a different context/larger population
What is external validity?
Generalize findings to wider population
What is transferability?
Generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings. Researcher must do a thorough job of describing the research context and the assumptions that were central to the research
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Frangelico
Hazelnuts from Italy, Tan
What does the mixed-method priority sequence model do?
Helps you to decide what methods to use.
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Galliano
Herbal black licorice, from France, Yellow
Whats it made from? Wheres it from? What Color? Midori
Honeydew, from Mexico (originally from Japan), Green
What is epistemology?
How do we know nature of reality?
epistemology
How is reality known?
methodology
How is the research conducted?
Collecting case study data Analyzing case study data Reporting case study data Reflective reporting Analytic reporting
The data collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded theory, interpretative phenomenological analysis, text interpretation, e.g. thematic coding) etc. All the approaches mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis and they are ideographic in their approach, i.e. they focus on the individual case without reference to a comparison group. The procedure used in a case study means that the researcher provides a description of the behavior. This comes from interviews and other sources, such as observation. The client also reports detail of events from his or her point of view. The researcher then writes up the information from both sources above as the case study, and interprets the information. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always make clear which information is factual description and which is an inference or the opinion of the researcher.
Weakness Minimization Validity
The degree researcher combines quantitative and qualitative approaches with non-overlapping weaknesses
What is the goal of qualitative research?
The development of concepts which help us to understand social phenomena in natural settings, giving due emphasis to the meanings, experiences and views of all the participants.
The Social Justice Design (Goal)
The goal of the researcher in implementing a social justice advanced design is to bring about positive change for an underrepresented group.
Content Analysis
The goal with content analysis is typically to quantify otherwise-qualitative data. Such quantification is often done to identify the qualitative content areas that are of highest importance or greatest prevalence.
In thematic coding Example: The meaning of ethnic identity was explored, with an emphasis on how this was associated with student's adjustments to college in ethnically diverse college settings.
the first task for a researcher is typically to get familiar with the data that have been collected. By sorting and labeling responses into thematic categories, the qualitative research can begin to make sense of the rich information that has been provided. • The goal in thematic coding is not necessarily to quantify the number of responses per category (although that is always an option), but rather to identify which categories are most prevalent and/or important to respondents and then to dig into the responses in those categories to start to make sense of whatever phenomenon is under study.
Key Characteristics of Grounded Theory
the newly constructed grounded theory should fit the data the theory must provide understanding of the phenomenon the theory should have some generality the theory should contribute to some control of the phenomenon
Pragmatism
the paradigm most often associated with MM research, the belief that it is the research question that should drive the inquiry and that the question is more important than the methods used; "whatever works best to arrive at good evidence is appropriate"
A nested relationship
the participants in the qual strand are a subset of the participants in the quant strand
emic perspective
the perspective of the insider
etic perspective
the perspective of the outside observer
Mixed methods research
the planned integration of qualitative and quantitative data within a single study or a coordinated series of studies; "research in which the investigator collects and analyzes data, integrates the findings, and draws inferences using both quantitative and qualitative approaches or methods in a single study or program of inquiry"
research approaches
the plans and procedures for research that span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
Follow-up explanations variant
the researcher collects qual data that can best help to explain the initial quan data emphasis on quan aspects of the study
Etic Perspective
the researcher's external or "objective outsider" perspective
Philosophical assumptions are embedded within what interpretive frameworks that are used when qualitative researchers conduct a study?
they are social science theories to frame their theoretical lens in studies (i.e., ethnography in leadership, attribution, political influence, etc.); they may also be social justice theories or advocacy/participatory theories seeking to bring about change or address social justice issues in our societies 1. postpositivism 2. social constructivism 3. transformative frameworks 4. postmodern perspectives 5. pragmatism 6. feminist theories 7. critical theory and critical race theory 8. queer theory 9. disability theories
Describe the Charmaz constructivist approach to grounded theory
• Charmaz constructivist approach - doesn't embrace the study of a single process or core category as in the Strauss Corbin approach - but advocates for a social constructivist perspective that includes emphasizing diverse local worlds, multiple realities, and the complexities of particular worlds, views, and actions (Creswell, 2013, p. 87) o Constructivist grounded theory lies squarely within the interpretive approach to qualitative research with flexible guidelines, a focus on theory developed that depends on the researcher's view, learning about the experience within embedded, hidden networks, situations, and relationships, and making visible hierarchies of power, communication, and opportunity (Creswell, 2013, p. 87) Charmaz places more emphasis on the views, values, beliefs, feelings, assumptions, and ideologies of individuals than on the methods of research, although she does describe the practices of gathering rich data, coding the data, memoing, and using theoretical sampling
Describe the features of phenomenological research
• Describes the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon • Focus on describing what all participants have in common as they experience a phenomenon (e.g., grief is universally experienced) • Basic purpose of phenomenology is to reduce individual experiences with a phenomenon to a description of the universal essence (a "grasp of the very nature of the thing,") • This description consists of "what" they experienced and "how they experienced it (Creswell, 2013, p. 76)
Explain concurrent embedded
• Different weightings given to qual and quan data • Can integrate or compare data
Most common mixed-methods approaches include:
• Either self-administered survey or questionnaire, or a structured or semi-structured interview
What is the definition and background of ethnographic research
• Ethnography focuses on an entire culture-sharing group; describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group • Ethnography involves extended observations of the group, most often through participant observation, in which the researcher is immersed in the day-to-day lives of the people and observes and interviews the group participants • Ethnographers study the meaning of the behavior; the language, and the interaction among members of the culture-sharing group
What are the defining features of ethnographic research
• Ethnography is not the study of a culture, but a study of the social behaviors of an identifiable group of people • In an ethnography, the researcher looks for patterns (also described as rituals, customary social behaviors, or regularities) of the group's mental activities, such as their ideas and beliefs expressed through language, or material activities, such as how they behave within the group as expressed through their actions observed by the researcher • This means the culture-sharing group has been intact and interacting for long enough to develop discernible working patterns (Creswell, 2013, p. 92) • In addition, theory plays an important role in focusing the researcher's attention when conducting an ethnography (Creswell, 2013, p. 92). • Using the theory and looking for patterns of a culture-sharing group involves engaging in extensive fieldwork, collecting data primarily through interviews, observations, symbols, artifacts, and many diverse sources of data
Theoretical lenses in qual. research
• Feminist perspective • Racialised discourses • critical theory • Queer theory • Disability inquiry
What's the definition and background of grounded theory
• Intent is to move beyond description and to generate or discover a theory - a unified theoretical explanation for a process or an action • Participants would all have experienced the process, and the development of the theory might help explain practice or provide a framework for further research ( • Theory development does not come "off the shelf," but rather is generated or "grounded" in data from participants who have experienced the process
Defining features of Narrative Research
• Narrative might be the phenomenon being studied, such as a narrative of illness, • As a method, it begins with the experiences as expressed in lived and told stories of individuals • Collects stories from individuals (and documents, and group conversations) about individuals' lived and told experiences (Creswell, 2013, p. 71) • These stories may emerge from a story told to the researcher, a story that is co-constructed between the researcher and the participant, and a story intended as a performance to convey some message or point (Creswell, 2013, p. 71)
Grounded Theory Methodology
• Perhaps the most well-known discussion of this inductivist approach to qualitative research is contained within explanations of the grounded theory methodology.. By definition, this orientation toward research implies that one develops the relevant theory for a study from the data as they are collected and analyzed in qualitative fashion.
Quantitative Research
• Pertains to numerical forms of data • Is focused on identifying the presence and magnitude of effects • Deductive Process
Define confirmability as a factor in Lincoln and Guba's criteria for good qualitative research
• Qualitative research tends to assume that each researcher brings a unique perspective to the study. Confirmability refers to the degree to which the results could be confirmed or corroborated by others. • There are a number of strategies for enhancing confirmability. The researcher can document the procedures for checking and rechecking the data throughout the study. Another researcher can take a "devil's advocate" role with respect to the results, and this process can be documented.
Explain concurrent triangulation
• Quan and Qual data collected at the same time • Used to validate findings generated by each method through evidence produced by the other
Describe the Strauss & Corbin systematic approach to grounded theory
• Strauss & Corbin systematic approach - investigator seeks to systematically develop a theory that explains process, action, or interaction on a topic (e.g., the process of developing a curriculum, the therapeutic benefits of sharing psychological test results with clients) (Creswell, 2013, p. 86) o Typically conduct 20 to 30 interviews based on several visits "to the field" to collect interview data to saturate the categories (or find information that continues to add to them until no more can be found) (Creswell, 2013, p. 86) A category represents a unit of information composed of events, happenings, and instances (Creswell, 2013, p. 86) Researcher also collects and analyzes observations and documents, but these data forms are often not used (Creswell, 2013, p. 86) While the researcher collects data, she or he begins analysis Data collection is like a "zigzag" process: out to the field to gather information, into the office to analyze the data, back to the field to gather more information, into the office, and so forth o Participants interviewed are theoretically chosen (theoretical sampling) to help the researcher best form the theory (Creswell, 2013, p. 86) o How many passes one makes to the field depends on whether the categories of information become saturated and whether the categories of information become saturated and whether the theory is elaborated in all of its complexity (Creswell, 2013, p. 86)
Qualitative Research
• Tends to include the "other" forms of data. • Emphasizes sense-making • Inductive process
Define credibility as a factor in Lincoln and Guba's criteria for good qualitative research
• The credibility criteria involve establishing that the results of qualitative research are credible or believable from the perspective of the participant in the research. • Since from this perspective, the purpose of qualitative research is to describe or understand the phenomena of interest from the participant's eyes, the participants are the only ones who can legitimately judge the credibility of the results.
Define dependability as a factor in Lincoln and Guba's criteria for good qualitative research
• The idea of dependability, on the other hand, emphasizes the need for the researcher to account for the ever-changing context within which research occurs. • The research is responsible for describing the changes that occur in the setting and how these changes affected the way the researcher approached the study.
What are the challenges of ethnographic research
• The researcher needs to have an understanding of cultural anthropology, the meaning of a socio-cultural system, and the concepts typically explored by those studying cultures • The time to collect data is extensive, involving prolonged time in the field • In much of ethnography, the narratives are written in a literary, almost storytelling approach, an approach that may limit the audience for the work and may be challenging for authors accustomed to more traditional approaches to scientific writing
Define transferability as a factor in Lincoln and Guba's criteria for good qualitative research
• Transferability refers to the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings. • From a qualitative perspective transferability is primarily the responsibility of the one doing the generalizing. • The qualitative researcher can enhance transferability by doing a thorough job of describing the research context and the assumptions that were central to the research. • The person who wishes to "transfer" the results to a different context is then responsible for making the judgment of how sensible the transfer is.
What are the types of case study research
• Types of qualitative case studies are distinguished by the size of the bounded case, such as whether the case involves one individual, several individuals, a group, an entire program or an activity (Creswell, 2013, p. 99) • They may also be distinguished I terms of the intent of the case analysis. Three variations exist in terms of intent: the single instrumental case study, the collective or multiple case study, and the intrinsic case study (Creswell, 2013, p. 99) o In a single instrumental case study - the researcher focuses on an issue or concern, and then selects one bounded base to illustrate this issue (Creswell, 2013, p. 99) o In a collective case study (or multiple case study), the one issue or concern is again selected, but the inquirer selects multiple case studies to illustrate the issue. The researcher might select for study several programs from several research sites or multiple programs within a single site (Creswell, 2013, p. 99) Often the inquirer purposefully selects multiple cases to show different perspectives on the issue (Creswell, 2013, p. 99) Yin (2009) suggests that the multiple case study design uses the logic of replication, in which the inquirer replicates the procedures for each case. As a general rule, qualitative researchers are reluctant to generalize from one case to another because the contexts of cases differ (Creswell, 2013, p. 99) • To best generalize, however, the inquirer needs to select representative cases for inclusion in the qualitative study. The final type of case study design is an intrinsic case study in which the focus is on the case itself (e.g., evaluating a program, or studying a student having difficulty) because the case presents an unusual or unique situation (Creswell, 2013, p. 99-100)
A Quantitative drive with a Supplementary Qualitative Component Design
•This design consists of two distinct phases: quantitative followed by qualitative. •The qualitative data help to explain, or elaborate on, the quantitative results obtained in the first phase.
