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how was the Islamic Golden Age possible?

"The first three centuries of Abbasid rule are often described as a golden age in which literature, philosophy, theology, mathematics, and the natural sciences flowered, nourished by the encounter of Arab thought and culture with Greco-Roman, Byzantine, Persian, and Indian traditions." -- Linda Komaroff, curator of Islamic art at the Los Angeles Museum of Art

Dhimmis

"the people of the book"-- Jews, Christians; later extended to Zoroastrians and Hindus

Constantine

(274 CE - 337 CE) Roman Emperor between 306 CE and 337 CE. He issued the Edict of Milan which outlawed the persecution of Christians. He also founded the city of Constantinople, the future capital of the Byzantine Empire.

How did the Byzantine Empire expand and contract over time?

476 to 1400 CE the Byzantine Empire lasted for more than 1000 years in which its territory expanded and contracted many times due to fluctuating invasions, inner conflict, and poor rulers at its beginning, the Byzantine Empire included all of Greece, Anatolia, the Levant (modern day Israel and Palestine), and Egypt in the 500s, the empire expanded to include all of southeastern Europe, the Italian Peninsula, southeastern Spain, and the African Mediterranean coastal areas (this constituted the height of its expanse) by 920 CE the empire's territory had been reduced substantially although the empire experienced a smaller growth period beginning in 1000 CE, by 1400 CE it controlled only Constantinople and a few areas in Greece reached the height of its power under Justinian I (ruled from 527 CE to 565 CE) he controlled the eastern roman empire and some of the west territory the Alps prevented the Byzantine Empire from expanding northward

How and where did Islam spread between 610 CE and 632 CE?

610 CE - Muhammad received a revelation from the angel Gabriel in Mecca 622 CE - Muhammad fled Mecca because of the persecution from the city's leaders. His hijra led him to the desert oasis called Medina, or "City of the Prophet." 624 CE - Muhammad and his followers ambushed and defeated Meccan forces at Badr. This battle was influential in Muhammad's rise as a leader and prophet in the region. 630 CE - Muhammad returned to Mecca with an army of 10,000, took control of the city, destroyed all of the idols, preserved the Kaaba, and converted the population to Islam.

Hindu

A religion and philosophy developed in ancient India, characterized by a belief in reincarnation and a supreme being who takes many forms

ten commandments

A set of laws for responsible behavior, which, according to the Bible, were given to Moses by God.

medicine

Al--Zahrawi (936--1013 CE): wrote an anatomy text which was later translated into Latin; became standard medical text in Europe for centuries to come Ibn Sina or Avicenna (980--1037 CE): wrote the Canon, also regarded as a standard medical text famous for his encyclopedias of philosophy Al--Razi (864--930 CE): perhaps the most famous doctor of the Golden Age wrote about 200 books on medicine practiced at the Muqtadari Hospital in Baghdad, was a skilled surgeon wrote about diseases like smallpox and chicken pox experimented with potential cures for ailments, including using foods for healing was also a chemist, especially in his later years hundreds of hospitals were established throughout the Islamic Empire during the Golden Age due to the contributions of people such as these

sabbath

All three religions honor a weekly holy day, typically involving prayer and worship with other followers. Those of Christian and Jewish faith refer to this day as the Sabbath. This is a day intended for rest and worship. In Judaism, Saturday is the Sabbath, though observance usually begins on Friday evenings. Most Christians observe the Sabbath on Sunday. In Islam, Muslims are called to public prayer on Friday. Unlike the Sabbath observed by those of Jewish and Christian faiths, followers of Islam are not expected to rest on Fridays.

the islamic world

Asia, Oceania, and Africa Islam is a minority group in Europe and North America in the U.S. today, Islam is most highly concentrated in Detroit, followed by a close second in Washington, D.C.

Why did the followers of Islam split into two factions, and what did each faction believe?

Before Muhammad, many tribes of Bedouin peoples competed for land, trade, and resources on the Arabian Peninsula Muhammad died without leaving a clear plan for how newly united Arabia should be ruled and disputes arose as to who had the right to succeed him, or serve as caliph (a caliph rules a caliphate as both a civil head of state and religious leader) Shi'a: The Shi'a Muslims believed that leadership should pass through descendants of Muhammad or his blood relatives. About 10% of today's Muslims are Shi'a. Sunni: The Sunni Muslims believed that leadership should pass to people accepted by the Muslim community, not necessarily a direct relative of Muhammad. About 90% of today's Muslims are Sunni.

1.06

Byzantine Empire: Achievement and Expansion

Emperor Leo III

Byzantine emperor who banned the use of icons

How did religious practices differ in the Byzantine and Western Roman empires?

Byzantine emperors saw themselves as having authority over the whole empire, including over the Catholic Church the Patriarch (bishop of Constantinople, high-ranking official in the Eastern Orthodox Church) and other bishops (important Christian cleric in charge of spiritual life and administration in a region) answered to the emperor in the East, the highest political and religious authority were the same person; in the West, church and state were separate (though kings answered to the Pope) Constantine advanced a process of a widespread Christian conversion that had already been underway for more than two centuries under his rule in 313 CE, Christian religious practice were decriminalized in the Roman Empire Byzantine mosaics often show emperors with halos, emphasizing the connection to the church

Dehli Sultanate

Centralized Indian empire of varying extent, created by Muslim invaders.

sacraments

Christians believe in the sacraments as a process for preparing each believer to join God. The Roman Catholic Church follows seven sacraments, but other churches follow fewer. Among these is baptism, by which people agree to worship God and become Christian.

Mecca

City in western Arabia; birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad, and ritual center of the Islamic religion.

How did the Byzantines carry on the Roman laws and traditions?

Constantinople survived about 1,000 years after the fall of Rome Byzantine Emperor Justinian codified Roman laws outdated, duplicated, and conflicting Roman laws were removed from making their way into the new version Hellenistic art and literature were revived during the reign of Justinian the Byzantine empire is accredited for today's knowledge of Greek and Roman cultures great libraries were maintained in the East and schools were established for studies and upkeepings of ancient Greek and Roman history people who lived in Constantinople and contributed to its mixing pot of cultural heritage were Greek, North African, Arab, Persian, and Turkish Byzantine architecture also displays the mix of Greek and Roman culture that influenced the empire (see flashcard for the Hagia Sophia)

Yahweh

Hebrew name for God

How did Islam spread to India, and what impact did it have on the region?

Islam had first come to the Indian subcontinent with Arab merchants and conquerors in the 11th century, but gained its foothold when the Mamluks took power. The Mamluks overthrew the Abbasids in North Africa and Southwest Asia in the late 12th century. They then pushed north and east into Asia where they fought with the Mongols, who dominated much of Asia at the time. The Mamluks were the first Muslims to establish an Indian empire, but not all of India converted to Islam. Most of the continent already followed Hinduism. Tensions between Muslims and Hindus have been a divisive force between the people of India then and now. In the 16th century, the Mongols to the north finally overwhelmed the Delhi Sultanate. In 1526, the Mongol Babur established a new Muslim Indian empire—the Mughal Empire. His successor, Akbar, proved a tolerant ruler. For a time, the Muslims and Hindus of India lived in peace. The empire, however, began to fall apart after Akbar's death. Later rulers not only enacted unpopular taxes and wasted money but also tried to force the conversion of the Hindu people. As a result, the Hindus revolted, and the empire fell apart. It was from India that many Islamic merchants carried their beliefs into places such as Malaysia and Indonesia. The Mughal Empire was one of three "gunpowder empires," so named because of the role that Chinese gunpowder played in their powerful militaries. The Taj Mahal in Agra, India is not only an impressive example of Islamic architecture but also a reminder of the follies of late Mughal emperors. Built as a tomb for the wife of Shah Jahan in the mid-17th century, it represents the excess that led to the fall of the empire.

What factors allowed the Islamic Empire to expand, unify, and thrive during its Golden Age?

Islam's Holy Book, Islamic Law and Spread of Arabic, Impact of Paper, House of Wisdom (more in detail in the following flashcards)

Who are some of the most important figures in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam?

Judaism Abraham: it's argued whether moses or abraham marked the beginning of Judaism made the first covenant with God (Yahweh in Hebrew) to leave his homeland and start a new family/nation to worship Yahweh his descendent, moses, renewed this same covenant centuries later Isaac: son of abraham and sarah as a test of his faith, Yahweh called on Abraham to sacrifice Isaac just before Abraham could bring down the knife, Yahweh stopped him all three monotheistic faiths hold that Isaac went on to father the Jewish race. Moses: around 1300 BCE, Moses led enslaved people in Egypt to freedom, escaping with the Jewish people in a journey known as the Exodus he and his followers spent 40 years wandering in the deserts of the Sinai Peninsula before Yahweh spoke to Moses on Mount Sinai there, Yahweh promised Moses that he would lead the Jews home to the land of Canaan if they would obey the laws (which included the ten commandments) revealed to them many consider this second covenant, when Moses and his people accepted the laws of their god, to be the true start of Judaism Christianity King David: king of the old testament united the kingdom of Israel important in all three monotheistic religions new testament show jesus as a descendant of david Jesus: born to mary, not joseph, as the son of god grew up as a carpenter in narzareth and became a jewish preacher feared by many jewish and roman leaders, he was arrested and crucified by pontius pilate claimed to have resurrected, jewish people do not believe this Islam Ishmael: all 3 agree that abraham had another son with hagar (not sarah) the story goes that Abraham's wife Sarah had Hagar and Ishmael sent away after Sarah's son Isaac was born islamic tradition holds that Hagar and Ishmael survived in the desert with the help of God, known as Allah in Arabic from Ishmael, the Arabic people known as the Bedouin were born. Muhammad: at the start of the 7th century, these Bedouins lived in many different groups and were polytheists in 570 CE, a man named Muhammad was born in the city of Mecca according to Islam, Muhammad saw many problems among his people and spent a great deal of time wandering on his own to think and pray in 610 CE, while praying in the mountains, Muhammad received his first revelation from the angel Gabriel through the angel, Allah told Muhammad that he and his people must agree to worship and obey only Allah and to give up all other false gods the word Islam means "submission" and Muslim means "one who submits." islam holds that Muhammad was the most recent and final prophet muslims honor Abraham, Moses, and Jesus as prophets; some Muslim's believe the messiah, or Mahdi, has not been born yet, while others believe that He has been born, died, and will return

What are the major sects or denominations of the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic faiths?

Judaism: sects or denoms are referred to as "movements" they differ in their ways of scriptural interpretation orthodox jews- practice strict adherence to jewish law hasidic jews- belong to a special movement within orthodox judaism in which they do not integrate into modern society; dress distinctively and live in hasidic jewish communities the reform judaism movement- doesn't oppose integration into modern society; believes they should change and adapt to the society and culture they live in; promote women's equality Christianity: the primary internal division in the Christian church can be traced to the 16th century split between the Catholic Church and newly formed Protestant Church differ in practices and interpretations of the bible thousands of denominations within the Protestantism, some of which include: baptists, presbyterians, methodists, calvinists, and episcopal Islam: mainly divided by two groups: sunni and shi'a islam majority of muslims adhere to sunni islam their beliefs differ in who they believe should lead the islamic community Shiites believe that the position is only open to descendants of Muhammad, while the Sunnis argue the honor should go to an elected member of the tribe of Muhammad a sub-group known as sufis are the mystics of islam they emphasize personal experience with the divine rather than focus on the teachings of human religious scholars and believe this is accomplished, in part, through chanting and spinning, which Sufis believe allows them to experience God in a trance state

What are the major symbols and sacred sites of the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic faiths?

Judaism: star of david- The Star of David, also known as the Shield of David, has stood for Judaism from as early as the 11th century. The star has 12 sides for the 12 tribes of Israel. Jewish congregations are led by rabbis. temple mount- Old Jerusalem is home to the Temple Mount, the meeting place of the three monotheistic religions. The mount is the site of two former Jewish temples. The Wailing, or Western, Wall is all that remains of the second temple. The mosque known as the Dome of the Rock sits where the temple once stood, the place where Muslims believe that Muhammad rose into heaven. cave of the patriarchs- In the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron, a cenotaph, or empty tomb, stands over the place where Abraham is believed to have been buried. Christianity: roman cross- In Christianity, the cross became a sacred symbol when Jesus was crucified. It's a symbol of his sacrifice and the resurrection. Christian congregations are led by priests, ministers, or pastors. church of the holy sepulchre- Also in Old Jerusalem, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is believed to be the location of Jesus' crucifixion, burial, and resurrection. church of the nativity- One of the oldest churches in the world, the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem marks the location where the gospels of Matthew and Luke indicate Jesus was born. Beneath the church, an underground cave known as the Grotto of the Nativity contains an altar where the manger from Jesus' birth is believed to have once stood. Islam: star and crescent- The star and crescent has roots that reach back to pre-Islamic times, but today it is a symbol of Islam. Muslim congregations are led by imams. kaaba- The holiest site in Islam, the Kaaba, stands at the center of the Masjid al-Haram mosque in Mecca. The Kaaba is a cube-shaped granite building believed to have been built by Abraham and his son Ishmael, and it is covered in a black and gold silk covering. Millions of Muslims make the pilgrimage, known as the hajj, to the Kaaba each year. green dome in medina- The Green Dome of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi mosque rises above Medina where Muhammad and his followers once took refuge. The name means "Mosque of the Prophet." The dome in the center of the mosque stands over the tomb of Muhammad.

What are the sacred texts or holy books for each of the three major monotheistic faiths?

Judaism: torah- Originally, the written record of the revelations as given to Moses on Mount Sinai, also known as the Pentateuch, or the first five books of the Bible's Old Testament; now, the entire 39 books of the Hebrew Bible, or the complete Old Testament, which includes the histories and revelations after Moses Christianity: bible- The holy book that combines the Old Testament (or the Hebrew Bible) with the history and teachings of Jesus as recorded by his disciples in the 27 books of the New Testament, including the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John Islam: qur'an- The sacred text of Islam that is considered to be the literal word of God, or Allah, as revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel; organized in 114 chapters called suras that record Muhammad's teachings in verse, which are meant to be recited by followers of the faith (traditionally in Arabic)

five pillars of islam

Muslims follow the Five Pillars of faith. These are the declaration of faith (shahada), prayer (salat), almsgiving (zakat), fasting (sawm), and the pilgrimage (hajj). The declaration of faith reads, "There is no god but God (Allah), and Muhammad is the messenger of God." Muslims are expected to give alms, or money, to those in need, and to fast, or refrain from eating, during the holy month of Ramadan, which moves according to the Islamic calendar. They also must journey to Mecca on the hajj at least once in their lives, if they are able.

hellenistic

Of or relating to Greek history, culture, or art after Alexander the Great

resurrection

Only Christians believe that Jesus rose from the dead in the resurrection

How has the Eastern Mediterranean region changed over time?

Persian Empire 500 BCE- controlled a large part of the eastern Mediterranean as well as much of central Asia included all of modern Turkey and Macedonia in the north to the east, it stretched to modern day Afghanistan and included all of modern day Iran to the south, it reached the Indus River Valley Roman Republic/Empire 211 CE- at its height, the Roman Empire included most of western Europe: modern day Spain, Portugal, France, Switzerland, Austria, Greece, England, and Wales also included most of southeastern Europe: Slovenia, Croatia, and Macedonia to the south, it ruled North Africa from modern day Morocco to the Nile River Valley to the east, it controlled modern day Turkey as well as Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Palestine Byzantine Empire 527 CE- in the sixth century included much of the old Roman Empire however, it did not stretch to the British Isles, nor did it include modern day France, Austria, and Switzerland much of its influence remained in the east, centered on Anatolia and Greece Ottoman Empire 1700 CE- when the Ottomans captured the Byzantine Empire, they expanded out to areas the Byzantines had previously lost at its height, the Ottomans controlled much of North Africa as well as Anatolia, Greece, Iraq, Egypt, and the coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula

hajj

Pilgrimage to Mecca

messiah

Savior sent by God

Empress Irene

She was wife of Emperor Leo IV and became co-emperor with her son Constantine VI in 780 after her husband's death.

Ishmael

Son of Abraham and Hagar, half-brother to Isaac

Isaac

Son of Abraham and Sarah, half-brother to Ishmael

How did the Islamic expansion impact European nations, such as France and Spain?

The Muslim Empire's trading system extended from northern Africa to southern Europe and into parts of Asia. The help of a single currency, universal banking system, and common language—Arabic, contributed to unifying the empire both politically and economically. By the 10th century, the city of Córdoba in Spain was bustling. It had an impressive population of nearly 200,000 people and served as an impressive cultural center. At the same time Paris, France only had a population of a mere 38,000. Many cities in the Muslim empire (such as Damascus, Cairo, Baghdad, and, Córdoba) became thriving places of culture, learning, and the arts. These cultural centers kept scholarship alive during the Dark Ages of Europe and played a major role in sparking the European Renaissance.

why was the location of Baghdad important?

The location of Baghdad was chosen by the Abbasid dynasty because it was within its traditional territory, near two great river sources of water, and along major trade routes.

Empress Theodora

The most powerful woman in Byzantine history, she passed laws and advised her husband, Justinian

Michael Cerularius

The patriarch of Constantinople when the Great Schism occurred between East and West in 1054.

diffusion

The process of spread of a feature or trend from one place to another over time

istanbul

a city that rests between asia and europe once named constantinople has been ruled by persians, greeks, romans, byzantines, and ottomans

St. Cyril

a missionary in the 9th century who invented an alphabet for the Slavic language

prophet

a person regarded as an inspired teacher or proclaimer of the will of God.

Impact of Paper

a result of this expanse in trade was the discovery of the Chinese paper-making process this was found to be much more convenient than preparing parchment or papyrus, thus making the written word more accessible use of paper spread throughout the empire from governing positions to the common citizen knowledge was able to be sold and business began to be conducted using a form of credit resembling to modern-day checks

revelation

a surprising and previously unknown fact, especially one that is made known in a dramatic way.

From what common patriarch do Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all trace their roots? Describe the family tree diagram in the lesson.

abraham who started the family about 4,000 yrs ago in Canaan (now Jerusalem between the Jordan River and Mediterranean Sea) all "abrahamic" religions all three major monotheistic religions claim they began with Abraham Judaism and Christianity claim that their founders descended from Abraham's son Isaac (moses: c. 14th century BCE, jesus: c. 2 BCE) Islam claims descent through his other son, Ishmael (muhammed: c. 570 CE)

What beliefs and practices are similar among Judaism, Christianity, and Islam?

all 3 share: belief in one God, although names differ because of differing languages and meanings moses is considered a very important prophet (the most important prophet in Judaism) follow rules and commandments practice some kind of fasting weekly holy day or sabbath (see card below for how the holy days differ) belief in afterlife belief in human souls that will be judged accordingly when they die (in jerusalem) recognise the importance of and come to worship at the wailing wall, church of the holy sepulchre, and dome of the rock judaism and islam share: Although certain Christian groups have food taboos, or restrictions, this is more common in Judaism and Islam. Neither Jews nor Muslims are permitted to eat pork. They also have certain processes for preparing food properly, called kosher in Judaism and halal in Islam. unique to christianity: Christians believe in the sacraments as a process for preparing each believer to join God. The Roman Catholic Church follows seven sacraments, but other churches follow fewer. Among these is baptism, by which people agree to worship God and become Christian. belief in jesus' resurrection unique to islam: 5 pillars of faith (see card below for descriptions) belief that muhammad is a prophet of god and the founder of islam

slavic

an ethnic group in Europe including the Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Poles, and Ukrainians

Leo V

an iconoclast, came to power and the next year had a council prohibit icons once again

alexandria

ancient city in Egypt religious center w/ heavy Christian influence from its leader

science

arabic numerals, adapted from Hindu, and the idea of zero made algebra possible Al─Khwarizmi wrote an algebra textbook that was the standard for centuries. His birth and death years are uncertain but estimated to be about 780─850 CE. the recovery of ancient Greek works revived work in geometry and astronomy Ibn al─Haytham (965─1040 CE), also known as Alhazen, is credited with being the first "scientist." He conducted experiments that would inspire the process of the scientific method. He explained how eyesight works in his Book of Optics, in 1021.

How did Constantinople reflect both Asian and European culture?

art and architecture of the city combined both regions' respective styles example of this blend is the Hagia Sophia completed in 537 CE under rule of Justinian I built in six years (incredibly short time considering this period did not have benefit of power tools) originally Christian cathedral huge main dome (hemispherical roof or ceiling of a building) supported by marble pillars also has two smaller domes contains many mosaics became mosque in 1453 after Turks conquered city minarets added when converted to mosque

Islamic Law and Spread of Arabic

as the Abbasid armies extended their borders, more people would come under Islamic governance there was one established Islamic law throughout the empire Arabic was the official language as people from various cultures began to learn Arabic, cultural customs began to intermix and flow throughout the empire trade increased through the caliphate and beyond, exchanging a variety of goods and knowledge

ravenna

became the center of govt for the empire's lands in Italy in Sicily, Syracuse was the prosperous capital of the island

monotheistic

believing in one god

constantinople

capital of the eastern/Byzantine empire was the empire's economic and religious center

How did Constantinople's location contribute to trade?

central location at crossroads between Asia and Europe influx of people from Mediterranean region seeking work population reached 500,000 during reign of Justinian I (527-565 CE) city walls had to be expanded several times city merchant very wealthy non-Christians were tolerated which attracted merchants of various cultures and backgrounds govt established different living quarters and respective places of worship for merchants of specific religious backgrounds regardless of trade, the majority of the city's income came from taxes

literature

characters such as Sinbad and Aladdin were passed down to us in a work called 'One Thousand and One Nights' (or, 'Arabian Nights' in English), a collection of Arabian short stories the original manuscript was written under the second half of the Abbasid Era some of the stories were influenced by other cultures in the Islam Empire Rumi (1207─1273): one of the most famous poets of all time lived toward the end of the Abbasid Caliphate his poems expressed his love and devotion for his faith Ibn Rushd (1126─1198): also known as Averroes worked to translate and preserve the works of Aristotle and also produced his own works on religion and philosophy

Medina

city of the prophet

arabesque

created during Islam's Golden Age complex, ornate design found in art and architecture

What was the Iconoclasm Controversy, and how did it affect the Byzantine Empire?

debate in the seventh through ninth centuries of the Byzantine empire over the Church's creation and use of icons an icon is a holy image or sculpture of revered religious figures John of Damascus was among the most ardent defenders of icon usage and veneration iconoclasts ("icon breakers") were opposed to the practice, arguing it led to idolatry, forbidden by the Bible controversy of the veneration of idols led to the formation of religious councils to settle the issue, including the Iconoclastic Council of 754 CE many historians regard this controversy as the greatest intellectual debate over the purpose of art popes and bishops in the West supported the use of icons, as did most Byzantine bishops the emperor, however, did not need support from church leaders to ban icons because he was the head of the church and the state Pope Gregory II excommunicated Leo III and other iconoclasts, demonstrating how far apart the two regions had grown in religious beliefs this begun a long line of revolts against the Byzantine rulers Charlemagne was eventually crowned emperor of the West in 800 CE the Byzantine rulers were no longer recognized as having power over the whole empire 726 CE- Emperor Leo III announced that he was against icons and would begin passing rules against them. 730 CE- Emperor Leo III banned the use of icons, upsetting church leaders and the people. Revolts begin, especially in Greece and Italy. 787 CE- Empress Irene called an ecumenical council at Nicaea (present-day Iznik, Turkey). This was a meeting of church officials to settle matters of church policy. At the council, they condemned iconoclasm and restored the use of icons. 814 CE- Leo V, an iconoclast, came to power and the next year had a council prohibit icons once again. 843 CE- Emperor Theophilus died, and his widow, Empress Theodora, restored icons after his death. Some Christians still celebrate this final renewal of icons today as the Feast of Orthodoxy.

How were the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches similar and different?

debate over the use of leavened vs. unleavened bread used in worship, disagreements on the interpretations of passages in the Bible regarding this topic another issue was the power of the Pope, who saw the position of the emperor over the patriarch in the East as a challenge to his own authority the importance of Constantinople as an important Christian city was in debate -- church leaders in the West objected to Byzantine emperors' claims of Constantinople having equal importance to Rome specific to the Roman Catholic Church: latin was the official language, pope held the highest authority, priests couldn't marry, married couples couldn't divorce, cultural center was Rome specific to the Eastern Orthodox Church: greek was the official language, patriarch and bishops led as a group, emperor claimed authority over the patriarch, priests could marry, divorce was allowed under certain conditions, cultural center was Constantinople similarities: teachings based upon Jesus and the Bible, sacraments were offered and followed, priests and bishops as church leaders, conversion was sought

halal

denoting or relating to meat prepared as prescribed by Muslim law

the Four Social Classes

during the Umayyad Caliphate Muslim Arabs: most privileged and paid less in taxes Muslim Non-Arabs or Mawali: paid more in taxes than Muslim Arabs Dhimmis: People of the Book, referring to Jews and Christians who based their faiths on the Bible; higher status than slaves but did not have equal rights to Muslims Slaves: lower status

House of Wisdom

founded by Al-Ma'mun built in Baghdad attracted scholars from surrounding regions purpose was to translate great amounts of literature and knowledge into Arabic art was preserved by the tedious process of translation of works from people such as Aristotle, Euclid, and other intellectual icons from Persia, Rome, and Greece information acquired was sought to be further understood through the lens of Islamic teachings

How did Constantinople contribute to the Byzantine Empire?

founded in 330 CE located on European side of the Bosporus midway point between Aegean and Black seas site beneficial for control over land and trade crossroads between Europe and Asia empire split after Constantine's death in 395 CE became capital of Eastern half (called the Byzantine Empire after split) in center of Constantinople- the Milion consisted of four triumphal arches forming a square Mesē- main road through city, extended westward from the Milion near Milion, Constantine built a hippodrome (open-air stadium with oval track used for chariot racing and other events) largest in the world at the time used for imperial ceremonies and political demonstrations could hold 60,000+ included more than a dozen monuments the city also had legislative halls, churches, monasteries, baths, fountains, and markets an aqueduct (channel or bridge like structure designed to transport water) brought in fresh water and an underground drainage system removed wastewater

How and where did Islam spread after Muhammad's death?

from 7th century through the 17th century, Islam primarily spread through means of conquest and trade through land and sea trade, Islam reached into North, Sub-Saharan, and East Africa, as well as across Southwest and Central Asia 612 to 632 CE - When Muhammad first began reciting his revelations in 612, authorities in Mecca were reluctant to accept his monotheistic ideas. Yet, by 632, Muhammad and his followers had come to control a large area of the Arabian Peninsula. Tribes that came under Muhammad's rule adopted Islam. Then, in 632, Muhammad died. 632 to 661 CE - The first four rulers to follow Muhammad were called the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs or rulers. Under their rule, Muslim armies defeated the Persians and the Byzantines. As a result, they took control of the Arabian Peninsula as well as Persia, Syria, and much of Egypt, building the foundations of an Arab Empire. 661 to 750 CE - In 661, the last Rightly Guided Caliph was murdered. This event not only resulted in a split within the Islamic world but also gave rise to the powerful Umayyad Caliphate. Umayyad armies ranged across North Africa into what is now Spain on the Iberian Peninsula as well as farther east into Central Asia, conquering northern India. 750 to 1258 CE - In 747, conquered people revolted against Umayyad rule, and a new family, the Abbasids, rose to power. One Umayyad ruler, however, escaped and established a new empire in Spain. Persian and Turkic rulers also adopted Islam even as they regained control over lands in Southwest Asia. Meanwhile, Islam touched outlying regions in Africa, China, and Southeast Asia through trade routes from the Arabian Peninsula and India. Though these areas did not become part of the various Muslim empires, they did become Islamic. 1258 to 1683 CE - By the 13th century, Islam was well established in Southwest Asia and North Africa. In the coming centuries, several powerful empires arose. In what is now Turkey, the Ottomans conquered Constantinople and extended their empire into not only Arab and Persian lands but also north into Europe. To the east, a people known as the Mongols adopted Islam and gave rise to a new empire in India. By the 17th century, Islam had become the majority religion in the shaded lands and had spread farther through trade.

Leo IX

german aristocratic pope, powerful secular leader of central Italy

mystics

groups smaller than denominations or sects including people who seek direct communion with divine forces (groups, such as the Jewish Kabbalah, the Christian Seventh-day Adventist Church, and the Islamic Sufis, exist outside the mainstream because they have uncommon ideas or practices)

art

included intricate floral or vine designs on pottery, textiles, paper manuscripts, and even buildings geometric designs, certain materials were valued over others, wood used to decorate doors such as the one showed in the lesson were an indication of wealth pottery adorned with gold and/or silver Muhammad's teachings restricted the use of human figures to represent their faith, so you do not see many people in Islamic art.

What area is sacred to all three major monotheistic religions, and why is it important to each?

jerusalem, the holy land Judaism: promised to them by God and hold the Holy Land central to beliefs and practices Christianity: many of the faith's prophets, including Jesus, lived, died (and allegedly resurrected), and taught there Islam: honoured as the "land of many prophets" and is recognised as the site of Muhammad's journey

What are the world's three major monotheistic religions?

judaism, christianity, islam Christianity has approximately 2,286,000,000 followers worldwide. This is 33 percent of the world. Christians are concentrated in North and South America, Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Australia. Islam has approximately 1,524,000,000 followers worldwide. This is 22 percent of the world. Followers of Islam, known as Muslims, are concentrated in North Africa, Western and Central Asia, and Indonesia. Judaism has approximately 15,000,000 followers worldwide. This is less than 0.25 percent of the world. Followers of Judaism can be found most everywhere but are concentrated in Israel and North America. other major religions: Hinduism has approximately 901,000,000 followers worldwide. This is 13 percent of the world. Hindus are concentrated in South Asia. Buddhism has approximately 484,000,000 followers worldwide. This is 7 percent of the world. Buddhists are concentrated in China, Mongolia, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Korea, and Japan. Various Chinese religions are concentrated in portions of eastern Asia. Tribal religions are concentrated in remote regions and Africa, Madagascar, northern Canada, and northern Russia. Northern, remote regions of North America and a large region of Russia are primarily non-religious.

What significant achievements did the Islamic Empire make in areas of art, medicine, science, architecture, and literature?

more in detail in the following flashcards

To where did the Abbasids move the capital city of the Islamic Caliphate, and why?

moved the capital city from from Demascus to Baghdad in present-day Iraq this spot was at the crossroads to major trade routes between Europe and Asia rivers bordered the city, providing a source of water the Abbasids hired talented architects and other professionals to design and build an impressive capital inspired by the Islamic faith Persian influence on the city is evident in its circular design, with the hub for government and worship at the center was accordingly nicknamed "Round City"

What was the Great Schism of 1054?

official divide between the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church in 1054, Pope Leo IX sent representatives to Constantinople they insisted that Michael Cerularius, the patriarch of Constantinople, acknowledge the pope as his superior and Rome as the head of the Christian church the delegates' leader, acting on the pope's behalf, excommunicated Cerularius the patriarch excommunicated the delegates and the pope in return

Al-Azhar

oldest Islamic University, founded in Cairo in 970-972 CE focuses mainly on Islam's teaching and culture

kosher

prepared according to Jewish dietary law

calligrapher

produced beautiful illuminated manuscripts of the Qur'an and other works

Who won the battle at Poitiers in France, and why was this victory significant?

rulers in Europe saw the expansion of the Umayyad Dynasty as a threat and sought to stop it in 732 CE, the French, led by Charles Martel, successfully stopped the Muslim advance from Spain into France (in Poitiers) 740 CE, Byzantines defeat Syrian army in Anatolia The Battle of Poitiers is also known as the Battle of Tours, or (in Arab sources) as the Battle of the Palace of the Marytrs. The leader of the French armies was Charles, the son of Pepin of Herstal, the "majordomo" (Mayor of the Palace) serving kings of the Merovingian dynasty. He received the nickname "Martel," meaning "The Hammer," for his leadership at the Battle of Tours (or Poitiers) in 732, defeating the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate. Islamic presence was thus kept from advancing further into Europe than the Iberian peninsula at that time.

Why did the Western Roman Empire collapse in 476 CE, while the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire continued to thrive?

series of invasions, declining economy, and poor leadership in 476 CE, Romulus Augustuslus was overthrown by Odoacer (a Germanic prince) & Germanic kingdoms began claiming lands that belonged to the West roads, public structures, trade and commerce fell into disarray without the official Western empire, the Roman Catholic Church became a powerful, unifying force among the people

upper class (aristocracy)

small number of wealthy people though many aristocrats were of Roman descent, any person could buy a title of nobility wealthy landowners and merchants bought their way into the aristocracy aristocrats/nobles could hold govt positions and attend proceedings at the imperial court and smaller courts had homes in the country and city many owned 10-20 houses and 1000-2000 slaves spent most of their time in the city and summers in the country houses often consisted of two stories and faced inner courtyard outside walls plain, interior decorated with mosaics and precious metals

Where did Judaism, Christianity, and Islam first emerge?

southwest asia the modern day nation-states of Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia (long ago known as Canaan, Judea, and Arabia) christianity: bethlehem judaism: sinai peninsula islam: mecca

Why did the Roman Empire split into eastern and western parts?

split in half by the end of the third century CE due to the weakening forces of conflicts between Roman leaders and barbarian invasions it became difficult to maintain a central authority due to how large it had become emperor Diocletian split the empire into the eastern and western sections (both had one ruling emperor) by 300 CE, the east had Egypt (Palestine), Thrace (Anatolia, Constantinople), and Greece (Macedonia) & the west had Italy (Rome), Gaul, Britain, Spain, and Northern Africa Constantine I (Constantine the Great) became ruler over the west in 306 CE defeated the ruler of the east in 324 CE, becoming the sole ruler of the entire empire he then moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople because the eastern section could be more easily governed from Constantinople, had a denser population and more economic activity, and Rome contained more opposing political parties which threatened the security of the emperor the empire split once more when Constantine died and became permanent in 395 CE separate parties governed the separate sections & these parties never reunified Rome became the eastern empire's capital, Constantinople became the western empire's capital the eastern half eventually became known as the Byzantine Empire

To where did Eastern Orthodox Christianity spread?

spread to Slavic and other peoples further east and north through missionaries and works of saints such as Cyril and Methodius St. Cyril was talented in learning languages and worked to create the first written alphabet for the Slavonic language he and St. Methodius then were able to begin translating the Bible into the new alphabet there is a sample of a page of their Bible written in Russian, a language that uses the Cyrillic alphabet the Cyrillic language is used in Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian, and several languages of Central Asia today, although slightly varied between them

How did the Roman Empire expand over time?

steadily expanded from about 500 BCE to 200 CE western half centered on Rome, eastern half on Constantinople eastern half eventually became known as the Byzantine Empire (controlled much of the eastern Mediterranean region) roman republic 218 BCE- a republic was set up in 509 BCE, about 500 years after the city of Rome was discovered they gained control of the Italian peninsula 275 BCE they then tried to dominate the entire Mediterranean region the Punic Wars were waged, winning them Carthage (rival sea power) which then led them to win Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica roman republic 44 BCE- following the Punic Wars, Romans conquered Macedonia, Greece, and parts of Anatolia many internal conflicts despite military victories the wealthy became wealthier from taxing and looting conquered lands lower class citizens began to resent the labour exploitations they were enduring General Pompey conquered the remaining lands of Anatolia, Judea, and Syria from 58 to 51 BCE, Julius Caesar swept across Gaul (includes France, Belgium, and Switzerland in modern-day Western Europe) Julius Caesar killed in 44 BCE, civil war erupted, and the Republic as it existed was destroyed roman empire 211 CE- Caesar's grandnephew, Augustus, seized control of Roman territories and established an empire in 27 BCE the Senate still functioned, but Augustus Caesar had ultimate authority the empire continued to expand into Britain and the rest of Northern Africa Rome reached the height of its power by 200 CE

How did the Abbasids impact the Islamic Empire?

supported in part by the Shi'a and the Persians & overthrew the Umayyads in 750 CE took control from the Umayyads by murdering the remaining family members one Umayyad prince, Abd al-Rahman, was able to escape and set up a Muslim caliphate in Spain the Umayyads had retreated to the area of the empire called Al-Andalus, in what is today southern Spain and Portugal had considerable influence in the region until the last Muslim rulers were driven from Spain in 1491, just one year before Columbus landed in America because the Abbasid territory was so grand, they were unable to keep their political grip, and independent Muslim states began to form by the 10th century, most of North Africa was Islamic, and a new group of rulers emerged in 909 CE, Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah started the Fatimid dynasty in the area known as the Maghreb this dynasty claims to be direct descendants of Muhammad's daughter Fatima in 969 CE, the Fatimids conquered Egypt and made Cairo their new capital the final blow to the Abbasids came in 1258 CE, when invading Mongols finally put an end to their rule

John of Damascus

supported the use of icons; his reasoning was that christ was an "icon" of the holy spirit, therefore to deny icons is to deny christ

Islam's Holy Book

teaches respect for all knowledge and people of faith encourages muslims to strive to learn as much as possible thus, they did not seek to destroy people or property in the areas they conquered "Let there be no compulsion in religion: truth stands out clear from error." -- prophet Muhammad in Qur'an 2:256 no forced conversion however, a tax was issued on non-muslims (called jizya) some converted just to get out of paying the tax in the Abbasid Caliphate, People of the Book, and other non-Muslims sometimes served the government in high-ranking positions

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the Byzantines

Hagia Sophia

the Hagia Sophia, built under Justinian I, is a cathedral that combines Greek, Roman, and Eastern architectural influences the Dome was inspired by domes in Roman architecture such as the Pantheon the columns were inspired by columns found in Greek architecture such as those in the Temple of Zeus was converted to an Islamic Mosque under the rule of Mehmet II when the Ottomans came to power in 1453 CE the use of calligraphy, lack of figures in the decoration, and minarets on each corner signify the church's conversion to a mosque

How did the Umayyads impact the Islamic Empire?

the Umayyads, distant relatives of Muhammad, built a dynasty that lasted from 661-750 CE the size and population of the caliphate grew they abandoned the simple life and surrounded themselves with wealth and extravagance, which led to a split in the Islamic community they established a capital city at Damascus, in present-day Syria they conquered territory and won many converts to Islam

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the expansion of islam

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the golden age of islam

Who were the "Four Rightly Guided Caliphs," and what occurred under their rule?

they were close advisors to the first leader, chosen by members of the Muslim community & oversaw a swift and massive expansion of Arab and Islamic influence in the region Just three decades after the death of Muhammad, the Islamic empire stretched as far north as Armenia, as far west as Morocco, and as far east as Pakistan. Arab Muslims successfully invaded the Persian and Byzantine Empire, conquered the lands of Syria, Palestine, and Persia, took the city of Jerusalem, and then marched on and conquered Egypt and Byzantine North Africa. disputes among Muhammad's former companions regarding whether there should be one ruler over a unified state or if each tribe should have its own ruler it was eventually decided that the conquered lands should have one single ruler the caliphs started building a large, governing bureaucracy In 661 CE, the final of these caliphs, Ali, was assassinated and the Umayyad's took control

antioch

third largest city in The Roman Empire in syria government seat of the far eastern empire gained economic importance from nearby olive farms in the early 500s (CE), fire and earthquakes weakened this city's influence

architecture

usually simple on the exterior and elaborately decorated on the interior stucco, stone, and wood were used for decoration famous buildings include the Alhambra, the Umayyad palace in Spain, as well as the Dome of the Rock (a shrine in Jerusalem designed to maximize the privacy of those inside); significant religious buildings such as these would be elaborately decorated on the exterior as well use of archways, geometric patterns, and attention to detail

punic wars

waged by the 218 BCE roman republic winning them Carthage (rival sea power) which then led them to win Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica

People of the Book

what Muslims called Christians and Jews which means that they too only believe in one god