Module 12

Pacific Island Economy

Agriculture and fishing are the main livelihoods for people of the Pacific Islands, and coconuts, pineapples, and bananas are the most important exports. Additionally, skipjack and yellowfin tuna are also caught and exported from the Pacific Islands. However, most people live at the subsistence level, meaning they use what they catch and grow to feed themselves. Some places in Melanesia and Polynesia do support cash crops, such as rubber, coffee, and sugar, and some minerals are extracted, including gold in Fiji. Tourism is also a growing industry. People looking for warm, sunny beaches and beautiful scenery head to the islands as travel and communications there have been made easier. Places like Fiji and Bali are particularly popular with tourists. The Pacific Islands today struggle with economic development and natural disasters, such as typhoons, earthquakes, volcanoes, and flooding.

The Ice

Antarctica is a frozen continent with ice covering everything and controlling the climate. Because of the frigid temperatures, few plants and animals survive on this continent, and Antarctica is one of the only major stretches of Earth without permanent human residents. The ice on Antarctica is thick and makes the average elevation of the continent approximately 1.3 miles. The ice is also quite heavy—in fact, it is so heavy that the land below it sometimes sinks under the sea. Because the ice on the surface of Antarctica reflects back the sun's rays, it doesn't absorb any of the heat from the sun; therefore, temperatures on Antarctica are very cold. One research station reports that the average temperature is -71°F. And though they're not easily melted by the summer sun, the ice caps in Antarctica do not grow rapidly either. The region is dry and very little snow falls. In fact, the South Pole sees less than 2 inches of any type of precipitation per year.

Ice Packs

Antarctica is also home to a phenomenon known as pack ice. This is where icebergs mix with the ice in super cold waters. Because the sun only shines for a few hours each day during the winter, pack ice sometimes extends about a thousand miles into the sea. During the summer, the pack ice melts a little. The edge of the winter pack ice is called the convergence zone. This is where the cold waters around Antarctica meet the warm waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, causing storms in Antarctica. The deep waters provide a home for krill which provides food for whales and fish, and these in turn feed seals, penguins, and other animals.

Exploration

Antarctica was the last of the world's continents to be explored. It was first seen in the early 1820s by Russian, British, and American explorers. The Ross Ice Shelf was reached in the early 1850s, but no one set foot on the continent until 1895. Two major expeditions from Norway and Great Britain set out across Antarctica, and both reached the South Pole in 1911 and 1912, but many of the explorers died on the return trip. In the 1920s, once airplanes that could withstand the cold temperatures of Antarctica were built, more of the continent was explored. Many early explorers wanted to claim Antarctica to have access to whales and seals. In the early 1900s, many countries including Argentina, Australia, France, and Norway claimed parts of Antarctica. These territorial claims also covered ownership of resources like gold and other minerals that can be found under the ice. Coal has also been found in Antarctica, but it is too expensive to mine and transport. In 1961, 12 countries agreed to the Antarctic Treaty. This agreement stipulated that Antarctica would be used for scientific research and be kept as a peaceful region. Military and nuclear activities were banned, and the protection of wildlife has since been added to the treaty. Several research stations have been set up there, and scientists who live and work at these stations hope to gather clues about Earth's environment during its earliest years. In particular, they hope to find microscopic life forms in lakes that have been deeply buried for millions of years.

Population

Australia is both a continent and the world's sixth largest country in terms of area. Yet, though it is a big land, it has a fairly small population at 19 million (only about 1 million more people than live in New York). Most of the population of Australia live in cities along the eastern and southeastern coast. This region is called the Urban Rim and supports about 90% of Australia's population. The reason the population is so focused on the coast is that the interior of the country is dry with harsh climates. The city of Perth in Western Australia is surrounded by vast, empty areas. It is one of the world's most remote cities, located 1,400 miles from the next major city of Adelaide. The city of Adelaide is home to 1 million people and is the capital of South Australia.

Other Regions

Australia is broken into distinct regions: Western Australia, home of Perth; South Australia, home of Adelaide; New South Wales, home of the Urban Rim; as well as Tasmania, Queensland, and the Northern Territories.

Early Southeast Asia

Because of its location, Southeast Asia has historically been a place where people from all over met to trade. Cultural groups from India, China, Southwest Asia, Europe, and North America have influenced the region. Many of the native cultures of Southeast Asia blended with aspects of outside cultures to create a diverse and distinct region. The early people of Southeast Asia most likely migrated from China and other South Asian regions because they were drawn to the fertile river valleys and coastal plains. For the first century of the Common Era, groups like the Mons and the Khmers established themselves in Southeast Asia. Though the entire region was never united under one kingdom, powerful empires did develop. The wealth of these empires attracted immigrants from India who brought with them Buddhist and Hindu monks. These traders and monks had a heavy influence on life in Southeast Asia.

Pacific Islands

Besides being categorized as a high island or a low island, Pacific Islands are divided into three groups: Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. Melanesia was the first area inhabited by people from Southwest Asia. Micronesia was next and was inhabited by people from the Philippines and Indonesia, and Polynesia developed as a result of long periods of isolation. Polynesians explored much of the Pacific, and many of the inhabitants of the Pacific Islands were brought from East India to work on sugar plantations. Until World War II, most of the world knew very little about the Pacific Islands, but during the war, the Japanese and United States fought battles on many of them. As a result, the islands became territories supervised by other nations. Today, America still oversees Guam and American Samoa, but by the 1960s and 70s, most of the other Pacific Islands had regained their independence. These newly independent governments based themselves on traditional leadership, including kingdoms and parliamentary systems.

Cultural Issues

Europe built many roads and railways in Southeast Asia to transport crops and other goods to seaports. These port cities then began to grow quickly, attracting large numbers of people from China and India, but the influx of outsiders caused problems between the immigrants and the native people. This added to already existing tensions in the region because Europeans paid little attention to ethnic boundaries between indigenous groups when establishing colonies. When the Southeast Asian colonies became independent after World War II, these countries found themselves in deep economic trouble because of their dependence on Europe. They were also politically volatile because sections of the populations had long-standing ethnic conflicts that had been further hindered by European interference.

Glaciers

Glaciers are bodies of dense ice that move over the land. Thanks to some warmer weather and moister conditions near the coast and the Transantarctic Mountains, glaciers form easily on the continent. They move like slow, frozen rivers coming down from the mountains and the edges of the land. Glaciers move between 360 and 3,600 feet per year. The route that glaciers take provides convenient paths for some travelers to Antarctica.

Ice Shelf

Ice shelves are sheets of ice that have extended out into the ocean in some places. They cover the Ross and Weddell Seas in the South Pole and can be up to 6,000 feet thick, thinning out as they reach further into the ocean. These ice shelves break off into the oceans, raising sea levels. Scientists worry that global warming may cause more ice shelves to melt in Antarctica.

Vietnamese Independence

In 1945, Ho Chi Minh, a Vietnamese leader, declared Vietnam independence from France. This sparked a war with the French, and in 1954, the country finally gained its independence. After a peace conference held in Switzerland, though, more fighting broke out, and Vietnam ended up being divided into two parts. North Vietnam was to be ruled by a Communist government under Ho Chi Minh. South Vietnam was given to Ngo Dinh Diem, who wanted a more Western-style government. Communist supporters living in South Vietnam wanted to reunite the two countries, but the United States supported South Vietnam in a war to keep the region free from communism.

European Colonies

In the 1500s, Europeans made contact in Southeast Asia because they wanted to bring back silks, spices, and metals. The Portuguese were first to set up trading posts, but the Spanish, Dutch, British, and French followed soon after. In the 1700s and 1800s, Europe had an even deeper hold in Southeast Asia. The expanding populations in Europe meant that countries needed new sources for raw materials. In addition, Europeans fell in love with the coffee and tea that had been imported from the region, and they were looking for more. Lastly, the Industrial Revolution meant that European countries were producing more goods than ever, and they wanted to sell those goods to the Southeast Asian market.European Influence

British Colony

It wasn't until 1770 when Captain James Cook landed in Australia and claimed it for Great Britain that someone other than Aborigines lived on the continent. Britain decided to use Australia as a prison colony, sending British prisoners to this far-off continent to alleviate their overcrowded prisons. The British ships brought approximately 160,000 prisoners to Sydney Harbor over an 80-year period. Many of these prisoners stayed after their sentences ended, and other British settlers moved to Australia to raise sheep and grow wheat. After contact with the British, Aborigines suffered tremendously. When Cook landed in Australia, there were 300,000 Aborigines. Today there are only about 50,000. While the Aborigine population shrank, the European population grew. After World War II many of the immigrants to Australia came from Greece, Italy, and other southern and eastern European countries.

Indonesia

Keeping Indonesia united has required a lot of effort. There are more than 228 million people living on the Indonesian islands; therefore, unity has been maintained mostly by force and by violating people's human rights. A strong government backed by the military ruled for 32 years. And, because of the policies that give Indonesians a general lack of personal freedom, the strong government did improve the economy. The per capita income rose from $50 dollars to $960 over the course of 30 years. This is mostly due to oil production, which has allowed Indonesia to build roads, airports, and schools.

Spread of Communism

Laos and Cambodia were drawn into the war against communism, and these two countries provided supplies to Communist supporters in South Vietnam; additionally, Cambodia hosted North Vietnamese military bases. In 1973, the United States withdrew from the war, and South Vietnam fell to the Communists. Eventually Communist governments also gained control in Cambodia and Laos, and these regimes killed large numbers of people who did not support the Communist governments.

Malaysia and Brunei

Like Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei also have strong economies that are not based on agriculture. In fact, they are two of the wealthiest countries in Southeast Asia. Brunei's wealth comes from oil and natural gas exports, which allow the country to bring in modern efficiencies, like electricity and running water--even to the most remote places. Free schooling and health care are also available to every Brunei citizen. Malaysia gets its money from manufacturing, and machinery and transportation equipment are its leading exports. Malaysia also has oil revenues that help develop its technology, and the country continues to improve its agriculture, as well as the lives of its people.

Indonesia and the Philippines

Like other countries in Southeast Asia, Indonesia and the Philippines struggle with a diversity of languages and cultures. In Indonesia, an island nation made up of more than 13,000 islands, more than 250 languages are spoken. Across the Philippines and its 7,100 islands, 70 languages and dialects are spoken.

The Northern Territories

Most areas in the northern part of Australia are too hot and dry to support human activity, but there are parts of the northern coast that have a tropical climate with both wet and dry seasons. This area's capital is Darwin, and it is the city closest to Asia. The tropical climate in Darwin has caused it to be decimated by cyclones, which is what Australians call hurricanes.

On the Globe

Most maps show Antarctica as a strip of land at the southern part of the Earth. However, if you look at an actual three-dimensional globe, you'll see that Antarctica is a huge, mushroom-shaped continent. It makes up about one-tenth of all Earth's land. You can see Antarctica on two-dimensional maps, as well. However, that map must be centered on the South Pole, and you'll see no other countries.

New Zealand

New Zealand is located about 1,000 miles east of Australia between the Tasman Sea and the Pacific Ocean and is considered part of the Pacific islands. However, its physical characteristics and population are very different from the rest of the islands in the group. New Zealand is made up of two main islands--one is called South Island and the other is called North Island. These islands are parts of a string of volcanic mountains. North Island has a central plateau and is narrow and hilly with active geothermal activities, like volcanoes and geysers that shoot hot water into the air. South Island is home to New Zealand's highest mountains, also known as the Southern Alps. Rivers twist through these lush green mountains and spill into lakes.

Island Types

New Zealand is part of a group of islands in the Pacific called high islands. These islands are the tops of underwater mountains that have broken the surface of the water. They are often active volcanoes because of their location along the tectonic plates. Many of the high islands rise thousands of feet above the water's surface. The other type of islands of the Pacific are called low islands. Atolls are ring shaped islands with coral reefs and inner lagoons. The Marshall Islands are mostly atolls, which are formed as a reef in the warm, shallow waters along the outer edge of a volcanic island. When the volcano falls below the surface, the coral continues to build up, leaving land above the water. Waves crash into the coral and bring a top layer of sand that can sometimes eventually support plant and animal life.

Outside Influence

Over the course of time, Indian and the Asian culture began to blend. People in Southeast Asia adopted parts of Hinduism and Buddhism into their own native religious beliefs. Palaces and temples were built in an Indian style and dedicated to Hindu gods. In addition, Buddhist monasteries were built, and young boys joined as monks to learn to read and write. Even today, Buddhism is highly influential in Southeast Asia, and Buddhist monks give farmers advice on day-to-day living and politics. Between 1200 and 1400, Islamic traders came to southeast Asia. As a result, their religion spread along the trade routes and into the islands of Indonesia and the Philippines. Islam became especially important in the Islands. However, the Chinese people who migrated to Southeast Asia were not eager to share the Chinese culture with people whom they considered inferior. Because of this, the only clear influence of Chinese culture is in Northern Vietnam, a region controlled by China for 1,000 years.

Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea is located between Southeast Asia and Oceania. It is ethnically diverse and, in fact, is home to some 700 different ethnic groups. More than 80% of the population works in agriculture, and in the highlands, remote villagers still use traditional hand tools for farming and planting. There are no roads to many of the farthest villages; additionally, only 1 out of every 113 people in the Papua New Guinea has a telephone. Despite most of the society working in agriculture, the country still uses modern technology to mine gold and copper. At village stores, modern goods and imported products are available because of the wealth the mineral trade brings in.

Singapore

Singapore is a tiny country in Southeast Asia; it is a single city-state located on one island surrounded by several smaller islands. Singapore has a deep, natural harbor that is sheltered, which has allowed it to be the center of trade between Europe and East Asia. Because of its importance as a British trading post beginning in 1819, many immigrants from Malaysia, China, and India moved to Singapore. It became its own country in 1965. Singapore's leaders wanted to keep foreign investors interested in the economy, so they did what they could to keep wages low, encouraging outside companies to choose Singapore as a place to build factories. Specifically, they wanted to attract high-tech companies, and to support such companies, they instituted a modern educational system that prepared highly skilled workers for these types of businesses. Today Singapore is the center of international trade and manufacturing. It is one of the world's busiest ports, but the high traffic of the area means that there is a lot of air and water pollution. This is in spite of the government's strict regulations to control commissions and waste.

Tasmania

Tasmania is an island off the southeast coast of Australia; however, it was not always an island. About 12,000 years ago, the land that connected the island to the mainland was covered by the rising ocean. Tasmania is mountainous and has a lot of forests, and it is home to the city of Hobart, which has only about 190,000 residents.

Thailand

Thailand is the only country in Southeast Asia that was not colonized by Europeans. King Mongkut signed treaties with the United States and European countries that allowed Thailand to keep its independence. Because of this, Thailand is not as culturally divided as Myanmar. Although there are several different ethnic groups in the country, more than 85% of the people there speak Thai. This longstanding history of being an independent nation has kept Thailand's national identity strong. Thailand has continued to keep its political ties to the United States. In fact, during World War II, Thailand joined the United States to stop the Chinese Communist Revolution from expanding to its country. And during the Vietnam War, the United States was allowed to use Thailand as a base to attack the Communist regimes in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. Because of Thailand's ability to work with others, it has a strong economy. For a long time, Thailand was dependent on agriculture, particularly the exportation of rice. However, during the 1960s, the country began to diversify its economy, and today it is known for its textiles, food products, and cement. In addition, some foreign companies have opened factories in Thailand that assemble machinery and goods. This means that manufactured goods now add twice as much to the economy as agriculture products do. In addition, many tourists flock to Thailand, which has caused the transportation industries there to grow. Highways have been built and many international airlines stop in Thailand to bring more travelers to the country.

Myanmar

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is an organization that seeks to promote economic relationships and peace between its members. Most of the countries in Southeast Asia belong to this group today. But unity in this region has been difficult to achieve because of the lasting impact of colonialism. Even within countries, there is still a struggle to find common ground. One such nation that struggles with a unified identity is Myanmar. This country, formerly known as Burma, is about the size of Texas. Its inhabitants speak about 100 different languages, and more than two-thirds of the people of Myanmar are members of the Burmese ethnic group. The last one-third of the people are from various ethnic groups who speak many different languages. Throughout history, these different groups had strong individual cultural identities. When the country came under British control, people were unified politically, but not culturally. In addition, the British government let the people run things with a lot of autonomy, so in 1948, when the country wanted independence, it lacked unity. As a result, various ethnic groups have fought against the government. While some groups wanted to secede from the country entirely, others attempted to overthrow the existing government. The disagreements and warring in the country have hurt Myanmar's economic growth, as has a repressive military government that is responsible for squelching a strong economy.

New Zealand's Economy

The Europeans who settled in New Zealand found that the rich soil and marine west coast climate made the plains ideal for farming. Today, dairy cattle graze on the North Island, and sheep are raised on both islands. Livestock are a major export for New Zealand, and butter and cheese are particularly important because they can survive long journeys by boat. New Zealand, like Australia, also exports wool to Asia, Europe, and North America. In addition, New Zealand is specifically known for growing kiwi fruit, and, in fact, they produce about one-quarter of the world's supply of kiwi. Though agriculture is a dominant part of the economy, most people live in cities along the coast. The North Island is home to Auckland which is New Zealand's largest city. More than three out of four New Zealanders live on the North Island. Auckland is closer to other countries than any other city in New Zealand, and it is the manufacturing center of the country, relying on nearby farms to help with the agricultural trade. The cities of Christchurch and Wellington are on the South Island. Wellington is located on the strait between the two islands and symbolically unites the nation.

The Philippines

The Philippines were ruled under the Spanish crown for nearly 300 years. Then the country became a territory of the United States after the Spanish-American war in 1898. It wasn't until 1946 that the Philippines became an independent nation. Colonialism had a deep and lasting effect in the Philippines. For example, about 83% of the current population is Roman Catholic, a religion brought over by the Spanish. Many native Filipinos married Spanish people, which helped to unite the two cultures. In addition, the United States brought over an educational system in which English was the primary language, and today, besides Tagalog, English is one of the official languages of the Philippines. The United States also brought democracy to the country. The amount of western cultural influence helped the Philippines develop a sense of national unity. But in spite of this strong sense of national identity, many Filipinos move to other countries to work because of the Philippines' weak economy and widespread unemployment.

Urban Rim

The cities of Sydney, Melbourne, and Canberra are all within the Urban Rim. The winds from the Pacific Ocean and the Tasman Sea provide frequent rain to these areas. Unlike the majority of the land in Australia, the Urban Rim sees a good amount of rain each year, and the soil is fertile enough to support agriculture. Sydney is best known for the Sydney Opera House. The harbors in Sydney, coupled with the factories in Melbourne, make this area a good location for Australian businesses and exports. Canberra is Australia's capital, and it is the only major planned city in the country. Its location was selected to balance the political interests in other areas of Australia, and Australia's government works out of Canberra. They have a parliament that is led by a prime minister and a cabinet just like Great Britain.

French Indochina

The countries of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia are ethnically very different, but they have a shared history—and they they have many things in common. All three countries were heavily influenced by India, and most of the residents of these three countries are Buddhist. Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia were also French colonies and are collectively known as French Indochina. During World War II, the Japanese took control of Indochina, and at the end of the war, France wanted to regain control of the region.

The First Australians

The first people in Australia, known as Aborigines, are thought to have crossed a land bridge from Southeast Asia to the continent about 50,000 years ago. These people were hunters and gatherers who traveled in search of food and game. Aborigines lived in small groups, and although each group spoke a distinct language, they all shared a common respect for the land and nature. The land bridge used by the Aborigines eventually sank under the sea, leaving Australia isolated for thousands of years.

The Maori

The first people to settle in New Zealand called it Aotearoa, meaning "the land of the long white cloud." These people, the Maori, are thought to be either of Malaysian, Polynesian, or possibly Peruvian descent. The Maori did not consider themselves a nation; instead, they lived as separate groups that competed for crop land and fishing spots. In 1769 that changed with European settlement, and eventually the Maori came together as one nation to sign a treaty with the British for certain land rights. Today, the Maori still have their own political party even though they make up only 10% of the New Zealand population. In an effort to keep their culture strong, they are trying to reclaim the lands that were once promised to them. The rest of the New Zealand population is made up of people of European descent.

Outback

The large parts of the arid interior in Australia are known as the Outback—a harsh wilderness that is made up of dry plains and plateaus. The Aborigines were the first people to live in the Outback, and their connection with the environment made them feel a sacred obligation to protect it. The Aborigines did not possess many material goods; instead, they learned to use only what they needed from the land without destroying the earth. The Europeans who came to Australia treated the earth differently. They wanted the land to produce what could be sold for money. So in 1851 when gold was discovered in the Outback, a gold rush followed. Many other minerals have since been found throughout Australia, including copper, zinc, and uranium; additionally, coal and iron are also mined in the Outback. After the gold rush ended, many of the prospectors stayed and built farms and sheep ranches. Today, cattle ranching and sheep stations make up the majority of the economic activity in the Outback. These ranches are huge, sometimes covering tens of thousands of square miles. In fact, ranchers have to use helicopters to round up stray animals. Sheep and lamb are mostly raised for meat, but their merino wool is also an important product. The cattle grown in Australia have been bred to survive better in hot and dry weather, making Australia one of the world's leading beef producers.

Queensland

The region known as Queens is Australia's wettest region. The city of Brisbane, a populuar vacation spot, is located in Queensland. This area is known as the Sunshine Coast because its humid subtropical climate and beautiful beaches attract millions of tourists each year. North of Brisbane is the Great Barrier Reef, the largest coral reef in the world.

Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia today

Under communism, Vietnam faced tough economic problems, so in 1986, they began a program to change their practices and attract foreign investors. By the 1990s the economy was growing, and Vietnam had become the second largest exporter of rice in the world. The United States resumed economic relations with Vietnam in 1995; then in 2001, the U.S. signed a trade agreement because of Vietnam's low cost of production for exported goods. Though there are more economic freedoms in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, the governments still do not allow for all political freedoms.

European Influence

When the Europeans colonized Southeast Asia, they cleared the forests and built large plantations to grow the coffee, tea, and tobacco that they would ship back to Europe. They also encouraged the growth of rice. Paddies are the wetlands where rice grows, and the rivers and land in Southeast Asia were perfect for this crop. Because the large plantations were so successful, most of the local farmers were forced to leave their own lands and work for the Europeans. The factory-made products from Europe also forced many local artisans and craft people out of business. The end result was that Southeast Asian colonies became completely dependent on the European countries for manufactured goods.