molecules
Chitin
(a polymer similar to cellulose, but each β-glucose molecule has a nitrogen-containing group attached to the ring. Chitin serves as a structural molecule in the walls of fungus cells and in the exoskeletons of insects.
RNA
Differs from DNA because its sugar is ribose, Uracil takes the place of Thymine, and is single stranded
Secondary structure
a 3 dimensional shape that results from hydrogen bonding between the amino and the carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids. The bonding makes a spriral (helix) or a folded plane that looks like pleats on a skirt (beta pleated sheet).
Steroids
a backbone of four linked carbon rings. Examples are Cholesterol/ Sex hormones.
Lipids
a class of substances that are nearly insoluble in water but are highly soluble in nonpolar substances like chloroform. 3 major groups of lipids: Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids.
DNA
a polymer of nucleotides. It has a nitrogen base, 5 carbon sugar called Deoxyribose and a phosphate group. It is double stranded Adenine: double-ring base(purine) Guanine: double-ring base(purine) Thymine: single-ring base (pyrimidine) Cytosine: single-ring base (pyrimidine)
Glycogen
a polymer of α-glucose molecules. It differs from starch by its pattern of polymer branching. It is a major energy storage molecule in animal cells.
Starch
a polymer of α-glucose molecules. It is the principal energy storage molecule in the walls of plant cells.
Cellulose
a polymer of β-glucose molecules. It serves as a structural molecule in the walls of plant cells and is the major component of wood)
Polysaccharide
a series of connected Monosaccharides. A polysaccharide is a polymer because it consists of repeating units of monosaccharide. • Starch • Glycogen • Cellulose • Chitin
Quaternary structure
assembled by 2 or more separate peptide chains . like hemoglobin, which consists of 4 peptide chains that are held by hydrogen bonds and interactions among R groups.
Triglycerides
fats and oils. Contain 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule. Fatty acids are hydrocarbons with a carboxyl (-COOH) at one end of the chain. The double bond in a fatty acid creates a bend at the bond slightly spreading the triglyceride apart; causing saturated fats to be packed tighter and melt at higher temperatures and vise versa for unsaturated fats.
Carbohydrates
include both sugars and polymers of sugars. The simplest carbs are Monosaccharides, or simple sugars. Disaccharides are double sugars, consisting of to Monosaccharides joined together by a covalent bond. There are also polysaccharides, polymers composed of many sugar building blocks.
Tertiary structure
includes additional 3-dimensional shaping and often dominates the structure of globular proteins. Factors that contribute: Hydrogen bonding between R groups of amino acids. Ionic bonding between R groups of amino acids. The hydrophilic effect that occurs when hydrophobic R groups move toward the center of the protein (away from the water in which the protein is usually immersed). The formation of Disulfide bonds that occurs when the sulfur atom in the amino acid Cysteine bonds to the sulfur atom in another cytosine (forming cystine, a double amino acid). This disulfide bridge helps maintain the folds of the amino acid chain.
Phospholipids
like a triglyceride except that one of the fatty acid chains is replaced by a phosphate group(-PO32− ) an additional and variable group of atoms (R) is covalently attached to a phosphate group. Tail is nonpolar/ hydrophobic. Head is polar/hydrophilic
Monounsaturated fatty acid
one double covalent bond that bend the structure.
Saturated fatty acid
single covalent bond between each pair of carbon atoms, and each carbon has 2 hydrogen's bonded to it.
Storage proteins
such as casein in mil, ovalbumin in egg whites, and zein in corn seeds
Structural proteins
such as keratin in the hair and horns of animals, collagen in connective tissues and silk in spider webs.
Defensive proteins
such as the antibodies that provide protection against foreign substances that enter the bodies of animals
Storage proteins
such as those in the membranes of cells that transport materials into and out of cells and as oxygen-carrying hemoglobin in red cells.
Enzymes
that regulate the rate of chemical reactions.
Nucleic acids
the genetic info of a cell is stored in molecules of DNA. The RNA then takes the info and passes it throughout the cell.
Hydrolysis
the reverse reaction, where one molecule is split to form two molecules by the addition of water.
Monosaccharide
the simplest kind of carbohydrate. It consists of a single sugar molecule, such as a fructose or glucose. Sugar molecules have the formula (C6H2On), N= 3 to 8. For Glucose and fructose n=6 but the placement of carbon atoms is different. Fructose is a pentagon and Glucose is a hexagon.
Proteins
they are all polymers of amino acids: they have a chain of amino acids covalently bonded. These bonds are peptide bonds, the chain is a polypeptide or peptide. Form a dehydration synthesis. Starts with (-NHO2) and ends with a carboxyl group (-COOH). The fourth bonds is shown by (R) meaning an atom varies from one amino acid to another. R may have sulfur and a carbon ring.
Primary structure
this describes the order of amino acids. The primary structure is (Cys-Tyr-Phe-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Arg-Gly)
Polyunsaturated
two or more double covalent bonds.
Disaccharide
two sugar molecules joined by a Glycosidic linkage. During the process of joining a water molecule is lost. Thus, when glucose and fructose link to form sucrose, the formula is C12H22O11 this is called a Condensation/dehydration reaction.
Dehydration reaction
when a Water molecule is lost in I the chemical reaction. Dehydration reactions: • Glucose + Fructose= H2O+ Sucrose (Table sugar) • Glucose+ Galactose= H2O+ Lactose (the sugar in milk) • Glucose+ Glucose= Maltose (a product of the breakdown of starch)
Alpha Glucose:
α the H is above and the OH is below on the right side.
Beta Glucose
β OH above and H on bottom on the right.
Levels of structure
Primary structure Secondary structure Tertiary structure
