Morphology

A- means...

"...Lacking in" and "in the process of".

De- means...

"...Reverse action" and it is added to verbs, e.g. defrost, decode...

Dis- means...

"...The opposite of" and "reverse action".

B. Suffixes that form nouns/adjectives from nouns/adjectives

-(e)ry, -esse, -(i)an, -ism, ist, ite.

Vocabulary

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H. Other adjective suffixes

-able/ible, -ed, -ish.

C. Suffixes that form nouns from verbs

-age, -al, -ant, -ation, -ee, -er/or, -ing, -ment.

G. Adjective suffixes common in borrowed and neoclassical words.

-al/-ial/-ical -ic -ive/ative/itive -ous/eous/ious

D. Suffixes that form nouns from adjectives

-cy, -dom, -ity, -ness.

Idicating status

-dom: meaning "domain": kingdom. -(e)ry: meaning "place where": bakery. -hood: meaning "abstract nouns": neighbourhood. -ocracy: meaning "class": aristocracy, democracy. -ship: meaning "condition": friendship, dictatorship. / Meaning "skill": scholarship.

F. Suffixes that form adjectives from nouns

-en, -ful, -ian, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y.

Verb suffixes

-en, -ify, -ise, -ize in American English.

Related to material

-ful: meaning "amount": mouthfool, spoonful. -iana: meaning "connected": Victoriana. -ing: meaning "activity": glassing

With a diminutive sense

-let: meaning "small": booklet, piglet, starlet. -ette: meaning "small": cigarette , "imitation": silverette, and "female": usherette. -y: meaning "familiar": daddy, mummy.

I. Adverb suffixes

-ly, -wards and -wise.

With a general meaning of being related to...

-ster and -er.

5. Compounds

...

A. Noun compounds

...

Prefixes normally have...

...A light stress, main stress comes on the stem, for example: pre-fabricated.

A- Meaning "lacking in" is added to...

...Adjectives: e.g; amoral. and nouns: e.g; atheist.

Some examples of allomorphs are...

...Cats , dogs and horses.

The words duty-free, newspaper, car park are independent from the type of...

...Class of their constituents.

A very clarifying difference between derivational and inflectional morphemes is made by ...

...David Brett.

Allomorphs are...

...Different phonological variation of what is essentially the same morpheme.

Derivational morphemes might be...

...Either prefixes or suffixes.

The normal way of classifying compounds is according to the...

...Functions they play in the sentence.

Noun compounds may...

...Have two words (daylight), it may be hyphenated (baby-sitter) or both hyphenated and spaced: children from one-parent families.

The two main types of Morphology are...

...Inflectional Morphology and Derivational Morphology.

Mini-

...Is added to nouns, for example, miniskirt.

Under has also a...

...Locative meaning, "below", added to nouns. For example: undercurrent.

Pseudo-

...Meaning "false" is added to ... ...Adjectives (pseudo-scientific) and nouns (pseudonym).

Un-

...Meaning "the opposite of" / "not" is added to... ....Adjectives: unfair, participles: unexpected, adverbs: unhappily and some nouns: unbelief.

Hyper-

...Meaning "to an excessive degree" is added to: adjectives, for example, hypersensitive and nouns, for example, hypermarket.

Morpheme

...Minimal unit of grammatical description.

The changes in meaning that inflectional morphemes bring are...

...Minimal.

Verb and object compounds...

...Noun + -ing participle: breath-taking.

Verb and adverbial compounds can be classified into...

...Noun + -ing participle: ocean-going, mouth-watering, Noun + ed participle: handmade, self-employed, Adjective/adverb + -ing participle: hard-working, easy-going, adjective/adverb + ed participle: well-read.

The main types of verb compounds are...

...Noun + verb, verb + noun, verb + verb, adjective + verb, adverb / preposition + verb.

Over can form ...

...Nouns like, overcoat, adjectives, overall and verbs, overboard.

Adjective compounds function as the...

...Nucleus of an adjectival phrase or as modifiers of a noun phrase.

A compound noun is a fixed expression which is made up of more than...

...One word and which functions in the clause as a noun. For example: "I have a terrible headache".

Out, examples of nouns...

...Outburst.

Out, examples of transitive verbs...

...Outlive.

Out, examples of adverbs...

...Outstandingly

Other morphemes can be added to the stem in order to...

...Produce new words.

Derivational morphemes bring considerable...

...Semantic changes to the word, often word class is changed.

Inflectional morphemes are all...

...Suffixes.

Suffixes are classified according to...

...The class word they form and to the class of root word they are typically added to.

Suffixes usually alter...

...The word-class of the root word.

Prefixes do not generally alter...

...The word-class of the stem.

Derivational morphemes are called so because...

...They are used to derive new words.

Inflectional morphemes are those which contribute ...

...To the insertion of the words in a particular grammatical context.

Out can form...

...Transitive verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs.

Copounds adjectives are made up of...

...Two or more words, usually written with hyphens between them.

Adjective compounds can be divided into...

...Verb and object copounds, verb and adverbial compounds and verbless compounds.

Some examples of inflectional morphemes are...

...Worked, cats, walking, speaks, John's, faster, slowest.

Il- is used with words beginning with...

...l: e.g; illogical, illegal.

Ir- is used with words beginning with...

...r: e.g; irresponsible.

From proper nouns to common nouns

A Jeremiath, a Renoir.

Free morpheme

A morpheme that can stand alone to function as a word.

Bound morpheme

A morpheme that cannot stand alone to function as a word.

4. SUFFIXATION

A suffix is added to the root in order to form a new word.

Conversion

A word is assigned to a different class-word without changing its form. For example: water (noun), water (verb).

-ly

Added to adjectives: happily, nicely.

-ish

Added to adjectives: uglish, greenish.

-en

Added to adjectives: with a causative meaning: deafen, blinden. Meaning "result": sadden, blacken.

-ise

Added to nouns or adjectives with a causative meaning: popularise, legalise, modernise. But American English -ize: popularize, legalize, modernize...

-wards

Added to nouns: backwards, homewards.

-wise

Added to nouns: humanwise, politic-wise.

-ed

Added to nouns: legged, balconied.

-able/ible

Added to verbs: unthinkable, forcible.

-cy

Adjectives ending in ant/ent. For example, excellency, millitancy.

Three morphological processes to form new words

Affixation, Compounding and Formation.

From phrases to nouns

Alsoran (loser)

C. PREFIXES OF DEGREE OR SIZE / LOCATIVE PREFIXES

Ante, arch, hyper, Mini, out, over, sub, super, sur, super ultra, under.

D. Pefixes of attitude

Anti, co, counter, pro.

Other prefixes

Auto, neo, pan, semi, vice.

From stative to dynamic

Being a fool

Affixation

Bound morphemes are added to the base.

The words duty-free, newspaper, car park... Are independent from the type of...

Class of their constituents.

Noun + verbal noun

Daydreaming, handwriting.

Phonetics

Deals with speech sounds in general.

Semantic level

Deals with the meaning of words and sentences.

Phonology

Deals with the specific sounds of a language.

Examples of bound morphemes

Discontent, intolerable.

David Brett and Antonion Pinna

English Morphology

E. Prefixes of time and order

Ex, fore, post, pre, proto and re.

From intransitive to intensive

Fall flat

There are two main groups of morphemes

Free morphemes and Bound morphemes.

E. Minor categories of conversion

From closed system words to nouns, from phrases to nouns, from phrases to adjectives, from affixes to nouns.

G. Change of secondary word-class: verbs

From intransitive to transitive, From transitive to intransitive, from intransitive to intensive, from intensive to intransitive, from montransitive to complex transitive.

H. Change of secondary word-class: adjectives

From non gradable to gradable: a legal turn of mind, from stative to dynamic: being friendly.

F. Change of secondary word-class: nouns

From non-countable to countable, From countable to non-countable, From proper nouns to common nouns, from stative to dynamic.

A. From verb class to noun class they can be divided into...

From stative verbs, from dynamic verbs, objects, subjects, instrument, manner and place.

Examples of suppletion

In the past simple tense, go, rather than being goed*, it is "went".

-en

Indicating "material": golden, wooden.

-like

Indicating "quality": brotherlike, childlike.

-ly

Indicating "quality": friendly, cowardly.

-dom

Indicating "state": boredom, freedom.

-(e)ry

Indicating "state": bravery, rivalry / Meaning "collection", for example machinery.

-ness

Indicating "state": happiness, sadness.

-ish

Indicating nationality: Spanish, English. Meaning "quality": childish, foolish.

-ee

Indicating the passive agent: refugee, employee.

B. From adjective class to noun class

It consists of ellipting a noun

Sur-

It has a locative meaning "outside" and it is added to nouns. For example: surround or surreal.

Reduppicative

It is a special case of compounding in which two elements are identical or very similar, for example: walkie-talkie, din-din, goody-goody...

Morphology

It is the branch of Linguistics that studies the structure and formation of the elements of the language system.

6. Conversion

It is the derivational process whereby an item changes its word class without the addition of an affix.

Productivity

It is the range of stems to which a morpheme applies.

Encoding and decoding messages reveal different levels of...

Linguistic analysis.

Ante-

Locative meaning "before" is added to..Adjectives (antediluvian) and nouns (antecedent).

-al

Meaning "action": arrival.

-ation

Meaning "action": exploration, demonstration.

-age

Meaning "activity": drainage.

-ing

Meaning "activity": working, playing. Meaning "result": building, painting.

Post-

Meaning "after" is added to: adjectives. For example, post-classical and nouns, for example, post-war.

Re-

Meaning "again" and "back" is added to verbs, for example, redecorate and adjectives, for example re-elected.

Anti-

Meaning "against" is added to: adjectives, for example: anti-social and nouns, for example: anti-hero.

Counter-

Meaning "against", "in response to" is added to: nouns. For example, counter-attack, verbs, for example, counter-balance and the adverb counter, for example: counterclockwise.

Pan-

Meaning "all". For example, pan-African.

Mal-

Meaning "badly" is added to... ...Verbs (maltreat) and nouns (malnutrition).

Fore-

Meaning "before" is added to verbs, for example, foretell and nouns for example, forehead.

Pre-

Meaning "before" is added to: adjectives. For example, prehistoric, to nouns, for example, predestination and verbs, for example, prefabricate.

Ultra-

Meaning "beyond" is added to adjectives. For example: ultrasonic.

-er

Meaning "concerned with": astronomer, philosopher. Meaning "belonging to": Londoner. Meaning "thing that has": three wheeler.

-ster

Meaning "connected to", for example: gangster, youngster.

Vice-

Meaning "deputy". For example, vice-president.

Ex-

Meaning "former" is added to nouns. For example: ex-president.

Semi-

Meaning "half". For example, semi-circle.

-ful

Meaning "having": helpful, useful.

Arch-

Meaning "highest" is added to ...Nouns (archduke, archbishop...)

Pro-

Meaning "in favour of" is added to adjectives, for example, pro-abortion and to nouns for example, pronouns.

-ian

Meaning "in the tradition of": Rafaelian. Indicating "nationalities": Italian, Egyptian.

Co-

Meaning "jointly" is added to: adjectives, for example, cooperative, verbs: coordinate and nouns, coeducation.

Multi-/Poly-

Meaning "many": multilingual, polysyllabic.

Sub-

Meaning "more than" is added to: nouns, for example, superman and adjectives, supernatural.

-esse

Meaning "nationality": Japanese, Portuguese.

Neo-

Meaning "new". For example, neolithic.

Under-

Meaning "not enough" is added to verbs. For example: underrate.

Non-

Meaning "not" is added to... ...Adjectives (non-stopping) and nouns (nonsense).

Uni-/Mono-

Meaning "one": uni-lateral, monotheism.

-(i)an

Meaning "people": Italian, indonesian.

-er/or

Meaning "performer": worker, lover, actor.

-ify

Meaning "quality": "sanity, diversity".

-ity

Meaning "quality": sanity, diversity.

-ment

Meaning "result": development, government.

Auto-

Meaning "self". For example, autobiography.

Out-

Meaning "surpassing" is added to nouns: outnumber.

In-

Meaning "the opposite of" /not/ is added to ..Adjectives: infinite, insane. ...Adverbs: incorrectly, indecently. ...Verbs: incapacitate.

Dis-

Meaning "the reverse action" is added to ...Verbs: e.g. disconnect, disagree, disappear.

Tri-

Meaning "three": tridimensional.

Over-

Meaning "too much" is added to verbs, for example, oversleep, is added to nouns, overdose and adjectives, overweight.

Bi-/Di-

Meaning "two": bilingual, dipole.

-y

Meaning "with...": creamy, hairy.

-less

Meaning "without": homeless, careless.

Mis-

Meaning "wrongly" is added to... ...Verbs (mispronounce) and nouns (misrule).

Un-

Meaning a reverse action is added to ...Verbs (undo, unplug...)

-ant

Meaning active "agent": assistant, inhabitant.

Dis-

Meaning the opposite of /not is added to ...Adjectives: dishonest, disloyal ...Nouns: discount, discovery, distrust.

The Morphological level includes...

Morphemes and Morphology.

From closed system words to nouns

Must

B. NEGATIVE PREFIXES

NEGATIVE PREFIXES

Subject and verb compounds

Noun + deverbal noun, verb + noun, verbal noun + noun.

Verbless compounds

Noun + noun, adjective + noun.

Verb and Object Compounds

Noun + verbal noun, noun + agentive/instrumental noun, noun + deverbal noun, verb + noun, verbal noun + noun.

Deverbal nouns

Nouns that are derived from verbs or verb phrases, but that behave grammatically as nouns, not as verbs. For example: organization from organize, discovery from discover or the noun construct from the verb construct. They are different from verbal nouns such as gerund and infinitives, which behave like verbs within their phrase , although that verb phrase is then used as a noun phrase within the larger sentence. For example "Running is healthy".

Acronym

Only initial letters are used: NATO, RAF...

3. PREFIXATION

PREFIXATION

Sound level includes...

Phonetics and Phonology.

There are two types of affixation

Prefixation: initial position, e.g. un-expect. - Suffixation: final position, e.g. expect-ed.

Prefixation

Process of forming a new word by adding a prefix to the stem.

The elements of the language are combined in order to...

Produce a message.

Bibliography

Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. 1973. A University Grammar of English. London: Longman. The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. 1992. Oxford: OUP.

From transitive to intransitive

Read well

Other morphological processes that result in the formation of new words are

Reduplicative, clipping, blending and acronym.

From intransitive to transitive

Run the show

A. STRESS

STRESS

Noun + deverbal noun

Self-control, haircut.

Free morphemes can function as

Simple words : the, run, on , well and compound words: keyboard, greenhouse, smartphone.

The level of linguistic analysis are...

Sound level, Morphological level, Syntactic level and Semantic level.

Stem

The most basic form of a morpheme. It can't be divided any further. For example: expect.

Base

The part of the word that remains after an affix has been removed. For example: unexpect -ed.

Compounding

The process by which two or more stems/bases are combined to form a new word.

Morphology is concerned with ...

The structure and derivation of words.

C. Verb compounds

They are rare and it is difficult to guess the meaning.

Verbal noun + noun

They are very productive. For example: typing paper, swimming pool, sitting room.

D. From adjective class to verb class

This category competes with -en suffixation. Both derivations may be available for the same adjective. For example: black, blacken. To make (transitive verbs): calm, dirty. To become (intransitive verbs): dry, empty.

Noun + deverbal noun...

This is very productive. For example: sunrise, earthquake, headache.

C. From noun class to verb class

To put something in/on something else, to give something, to deprive of something, to do something with an instrument, to make/change something, to send by something, to go by something.

Blending

Two words become one: brunch, flunch...

F. Number prefixes

Uni-/Mono-, Bi-/Di-, Tri-, Multi-/Poly-

B. Adjective compounds

Verb and object compounds, verb and adverbial compounds, verbless compounds.

Verb and adverbial compounds

Verbal noun + noun, noun + verbal noun, noun + agentive noun, noun + deverbal noun, verb + noun.

A- meaning "in the process of" is added to...

Verbs: e.g. asleep, ablaze.

Noun + verbal noun

Very productive / neutralised number: sightseeing, brainwashing.

Noun + agentive/instrumental noun

Very productive / neutralised number: songwriter.

2. WORD-FORMATION

WORD-FORMATION

Syntactic level

Way words are combined in order to make up longer units of meaning: words / phrases / clauses / sentences.

Suppletion

When an allomorph isn't just a phonological variation on the basic stem.

A. Suffixes that form nouns from nouns

With a general meaning of being "related to", With a diminutive sense Indicating "status" Related to material.

Complex words are formed by reapplication of

Word formation processes. For example, compounding and suffixation: baby-sitting, prefixation and suffixation, for example: unfriendliness.

Clipping

Word reduction. For example: phone, lab...

Negative prefixes

a-, de-, dis-, in-, il-, ir-, mal-, mis-, non-, pseudo-, un-

Objects

answer, catch

Noun + agentive noun

baby-sitter, daydreamer.

Noun + verb

babysit, sleepwalk...

To go by something

bicycle, motor.

Subjects

bore, cheat

To put something in/on something else

bottle, corner.

To do something with an instrument

brake, knife

Verb + noun

call-girl, knitwear.

To make/change something

cash, cripple

Verbal noun + noun

chewing gum, cooking apple.

From non-countable to countable

coffees.

-ive/ative/itive

cohesive, sensitive, negative.

A comic actor

comic

Instrument

cover, wrap

A daily newspaper

daily

Verb + noun

dance hall.

Adjective + noun

darkroom, blackboard.

Adjective + verb

deepfreeze

From stative verbs

doubt, love.

-al/ial/ical

elemental, consonantal.

From countable to non-countable

floor, room

-ic

heroic, algebraic.

Noun + deverbal noun

homework, daydream.

ous/eous/ious

humorous, courteous, deleterious (harmful)

From affixes to nouns

ism (doctrine)

Compounding

it is the process of putting two words together in order to form a third word. It might be hyphenated, written as one word, or as different words. For example: duty-free, newspaper, car park.

From dynamic verbs

laugh, walk.

To send by something

mail, ship

Verb + verb

make-believe

Married people

marrieds.

Some examples of derivational morphemes are...

modern (adj.) - modernise / drink (v.) - drinkable / honest (adj.) - dishonest (adj.).

Adverb/preposition + verb

overbook

To deprive of something

peel, skin

Verb + noun

pickpocket

Verb + noun

rattlesnake, hangman.

Place

retreat, turn

Manner

throw, walk

From intensive to intransitive

turn sour

From phrases to adjectives

under-the-weather

Verbal noun + noun

washing machine, dancing girl.

Noun + noun

windmill, oil well, oak tree.

From monotransitive to complex transitive

wipe something clean