Morphology
A- means...
"...Lacking in" and "in the process of".
De- means...
"...Reverse action" and it is added to verbs, e.g. defrost, decode...
Dis- means...
"...The opposite of" and "reverse action".
B. Suffixes that form nouns/adjectives from nouns/adjectives
-(e)ry, -esse, -(i)an, -ism, ist, ite.
Vocabulary
----------------------
H. Other adjective suffixes
-able/ible, -ed, -ish.
C. Suffixes that form nouns from verbs
-age, -al, -ant, -ation, -ee, -er/or, -ing, -ment.
G. Adjective suffixes common in borrowed and neoclassical words.
-al/-ial/-ical -ic -ive/ative/itive -ous/eous/ious
D. Suffixes that form nouns from adjectives
-cy, -dom, -ity, -ness.
Idicating status
-dom: meaning "domain": kingdom. -(e)ry: meaning "place where": bakery. -hood: meaning "abstract nouns": neighbourhood. -ocracy: meaning "class": aristocracy, democracy. -ship: meaning "condition": friendship, dictatorship. / Meaning "skill": scholarship.
F. Suffixes that form adjectives from nouns
-en, -ful, -ian, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y.
Verb suffixes
-en, -ify, -ise, -ize in American English.
Related to material
-ful: meaning "amount": mouthfool, spoonful. -iana: meaning "connected": Victoriana. -ing: meaning "activity": glassing
With a diminutive sense
-let: meaning "small": booklet, piglet, starlet. -ette: meaning "small": cigarette , "imitation": silverette, and "female": usherette. -y: meaning "familiar": daddy, mummy.
I. Adverb suffixes
-ly, -wards and -wise.
With a general meaning of being related to...
-ster and -er.
5. Compounds
...
A. Noun compounds
...
Prefixes normally have...
...A light stress, main stress comes on the stem, for example: pre-fabricated.
A- Meaning "lacking in" is added to...
...Adjectives: e.g; amoral. and nouns: e.g; atheist.
Some examples of allomorphs are...
...Cats , dogs and horses.
The words duty-free, newspaper, car park are independent from the type of...
...Class of their constituents.
A very clarifying difference between derivational and inflectional morphemes is made by ...
...David Brett.
Allomorphs are...
...Different phonological variation of what is essentially the same morpheme.
Derivational morphemes might be...
...Either prefixes or suffixes.
The normal way of classifying compounds is according to the...
...Functions they play in the sentence.
Noun compounds may...
...Have two words (daylight), it may be hyphenated (baby-sitter) or both hyphenated and spaced: children from one-parent families.
The two main types of Morphology are...
...Inflectional Morphology and Derivational Morphology.
Mini-
...Is added to nouns, for example, miniskirt.
Under has also a...
...Locative meaning, "below", added to nouns. For example: undercurrent.
Pseudo-
...Meaning "false" is added to ... ...Adjectives (pseudo-scientific) and nouns (pseudonym).
Un-
...Meaning "the opposite of" / "not" is added to... ....Adjectives: unfair, participles: unexpected, adverbs: unhappily and some nouns: unbelief.
Hyper-
...Meaning "to an excessive degree" is added to: adjectives, for example, hypersensitive and nouns, for example, hypermarket.
Morpheme
...Minimal unit of grammatical description.
The changes in meaning that inflectional morphemes bring are...
...Minimal.
Verb and object compounds...
...Noun + -ing participle: breath-taking.
Verb and adverbial compounds can be classified into...
...Noun + -ing participle: ocean-going, mouth-watering, Noun + ed participle: handmade, self-employed, Adjective/adverb + -ing participle: hard-working, easy-going, adjective/adverb + ed participle: well-read.
The main types of verb compounds are...
...Noun + verb, verb + noun, verb + verb, adjective + verb, adverb / preposition + verb.
Over can form ...
...Nouns like, overcoat, adjectives, overall and verbs, overboard.
Adjective compounds function as the...
...Nucleus of an adjectival phrase or as modifiers of a noun phrase.
A compound noun is a fixed expression which is made up of more than...
...One word and which functions in the clause as a noun. For example: "I have a terrible headache".
Out, examples of nouns...
...Outburst.
Out, examples of transitive verbs...
...Outlive.
Out, examples of adverbs...
...Outstandingly
Other morphemes can be added to the stem in order to...
...Produce new words.
Derivational morphemes bring considerable...
...Semantic changes to the word, often word class is changed.
Inflectional morphemes are all...
...Suffixes.
Suffixes are classified according to...
...The class word they form and to the class of root word they are typically added to.
Suffixes usually alter...
...The word-class of the root word.
Prefixes do not generally alter...
...The word-class of the stem.
Derivational morphemes are called so because...
...They are used to derive new words.
Inflectional morphemes are those which contribute ...
...To the insertion of the words in a particular grammatical context.
Out can form...
...Transitive verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs.
Copounds adjectives are made up of...
...Two or more words, usually written with hyphens between them.
Adjective compounds can be divided into...
...Verb and object copounds, verb and adverbial compounds and verbless compounds.
Some examples of inflectional morphemes are...
...Worked, cats, walking, speaks, John's, faster, slowest.
Il- is used with words beginning with...
...l: e.g; illogical, illegal.
Ir- is used with words beginning with...
...r: e.g; irresponsible.
From proper nouns to common nouns
A Jeremiath, a Renoir.
Free morpheme
A morpheme that can stand alone to function as a word.
Bound morpheme
A morpheme that cannot stand alone to function as a word.
4. SUFFIXATION
A suffix is added to the root in order to form a new word.
Conversion
A word is assigned to a different class-word without changing its form. For example: water (noun), water (verb).
-ly
Added to adjectives: happily, nicely.
-ish
Added to adjectives: uglish, greenish.
-en
Added to adjectives: with a causative meaning: deafen, blinden. Meaning "result": sadden, blacken.
-ise
Added to nouns or adjectives with a causative meaning: popularise, legalise, modernise. But American English -ize: popularize, legalize, modernize...
-wards
Added to nouns: backwards, homewards.
-wise
Added to nouns: humanwise, politic-wise.
-ed
Added to nouns: legged, balconied.
-able/ible
Added to verbs: unthinkable, forcible.
-cy
Adjectives ending in ant/ent. For example, excellency, millitancy.
Three morphological processes to form new words
Affixation, Compounding and Formation.
From phrases to nouns
Alsoran (loser)
C. PREFIXES OF DEGREE OR SIZE / LOCATIVE PREFIXES
Ante, arch, hyper, Mini, out, over, sub, super, sur, super ultra, under.
D. Pefixes of attitude
Anti, co, counter, pro.
Other prefixes
Auto, neo, pan, semi, vice.
From stative to dynamic
Being a fool
Affixation
Bound morphemes are added to the base.
The words duty-free, newspaper, car park... Are independent from the type of...
Class of their constituents.
Noun + verbal noun
Daydreaming, handwriting.
Phonetics
Deals with speech sounds in general.
Semantic level
Deals with the meaning of words and sentences.
Phonology
Deals with the specific sounds of a language.
Examples of bound morphemes
Discontent, intolerable.
David Brett and Antonion Pinna
English Morphology
E. Prefixes of time and order
Ex, fore, post, pre, proto and re.
From intransitive to intensive
Fall flat
There are two main groups of morphemes
Free morphemes and Bound morphemes.
E. Minor categories of conversion
From closed system words to nouns, from phrases to nouns, from phrases to adjectives, from affixes to nouns.
G. Change of secondary word-class: verbs
From intransitive to transitive, From transitive to intransitive, from intransitive to intensive, from intensive to intransitive, from montransitive to complex transitive.
H. Change of secondary word-class: adjectives
From non gradable to gradable: a legal turn of mind, from stative to dynamic: being friendly.
F. Change of secondary word-class: nouns
From non-countable to countable, From countable to non-countable, From proper nouns to common nouns, from stative to dynamic.
A. From verb class to noun class they can be divided into...
From stative verbs, from dynamic verbs, objects, subjects, instrument, manner and place.
Examples of suppletion
In the past simple tense, go, rather than being goed*, it is "went".
-en
Indicating "material": golden, wooden.
-like
Indicating "quality": brotherlike, childlike.
-ly
Indicating "quality": friendly, cowardly.
-dom
Indicating "state": boredom, freedom.
-(e)ry
Indicating "state": bravery, rivalry / Meaning "collection", for example machinery.
-ness
Indicating "state": happiness, sadness.
-ish
Indicating nationality: Spanish, English. Meaning "quality": childish, foolish.
-ee
Indicating the passive agent: refugee, employee.
B. From adjective class to noun class
It consists of ellipting a noun
Sur-
It has a locative meaning "outside" and it is added to nouns. For example: surround or surreal.
Reduppicative
It is a special case of compounding in which two elements are identical or very similar, for example: walkie-talkie, din-din, goody-goody...
Morphology
It is the branch of Linguistics that studies the structure and formation of the elements of the language system.
6. Conversion
It is the derivational process whereby an item changes its word class without the addition of an affix.
Productivity
It is the range of stems to which a morpheme applies.
Encoding and decoding messages reveal different levels of...
Linguistic analysis.
Ante-
Locative meaning "before" is added to..Adjectives (antediluvian) and nouns (antecedent).
-al
Meaning "action": arrival.
-ation
Meaning "action": exploration, demonstration.
-age
Meaning "activity": drainage.
-ing
Meaning "activity": working, playing. Meaning "result": building, painting.
Post-
Meaning "after" is added to: adjectives. For example, post-classical and nouns, for example, post-war.
Re-
Meaning "again" and "back" is added to verbs, for example, redecorate and adjectives, for example re-elected.
Anti-
Meaning "against" is added to: adjectives, for example: anti-social and nouns, for example: anti-hero.
Counter-
Meaning "against", "in response to" is added to: nouns. For example, counter-attack, verbs, for example, counter-balance and the adverb counter, for example: counterclockwise.
Pan-
Meaning "all". For example, pan-African.
Mal-
Meaning "badly" is added to... ...Verbs (maltreat) and nouns (malnutrition).
Fore-
Meaning "before" is added to verbs, for example, foretell and nouns for example, forehead.
Pre-
Meaning "before" is added to: adjectives. For example, prehistoric, to nouns, for example, predestination and verbs, for example, prefabricate.
Ultra-
Meaning "beyond" is added to adjectives. For example: ultrasonic.
-er
Meaning "concerned with": astronomer, philosopher. Meaning "belonging to": Londoner. Meaning "thing that has": three wheeler.
-ster
Meaning "connected to", for example: gangster, youngster.
Vice-
Meaning "deputy". For example, vice-president.
Ex-
Meaning "former" is added to nouns. For example: ex-president.
Semi-
Meaning "half". For example, semi-circle.
-ful
Meaning "having": helpful, useful.
Arch-
Meaning "highest" is added to ...Nouns (archduke, archbishop...)
Pro-
Meaning "in favour of" is added to adjectives, for example, pro-abortion and to nouns for example, pronouns.
-ian
Meaning "in the tradition of": Rafaelian. Indicating "nationalities": Italian, Egyptian.
Co-
Meaning "jointly" is added to: adjectives, for example, cooperative, verbs: coordinate and nouns, coeducation.
Multi-/Poly-
Meaning "many": multilingual, polysyllabic.
Sub-
Meaning "more than" is added to: nouns, for example, superman and adjectives, supernatural.
-esse
Meaning "nationality": Japanese, Portuguese.
Neo-
Meaning "new". For example, neolithic.
Under-
Meaning "not enough" is added to verbs. For example: underrate.
Non-
Meaning "not" is added to... ...Adjectives (non-stopping) and nouns (nonsense).
Uni-/Mono-
Meaning "one": uni-lateral, monotheism.
-(i)an
Meaning "people": Italian, indonesian.
-er/or
Meaning "performer": worker, lover, actor.
-ify
Meaning "quality": "sanity, diversity".
-ity
Meaning "quality": sanity, diversity.
-ment
Meaning "result": development, government.
Auto-
Meaning "self". For example, autobiography.
Out-
Meaning "surpassing" is added to nouns: outnumber.
In-
Meaning "the opposite of" /not/ is added to ..Adjectives: infinite, insane. ...Adverbs: incorrectly, indecently. ...Verbs: incapacitate.
Dis-
Meaning "the reverse action" is added to ...Verbs: e.g. disconnect, disagree, disappear.
Tri-
Meaning "three": tridimensional.
Over-
Meaning "too much" is added to verbs, for example, oversleep, is added to nouns, overdose and adjectives, overweight.
Bi-/Di-
Meaning "two": bilingual, dipole.
-y
Meaning "with...": creamy, hairy.
-less
Meaning "without": homeless, careless.
Mis-
Meaning "wrongly" is added to... ...Verbs (mispronounce) and nouns (misrule).
Un-
Meaning a reverse action is added to ...Verbs (undo, unplug...)
-ant
Meaning active "agent": assistant, inhabitant.
Dis-
Meaning the opposite of /not is added to ...Adjectives: dishonest, disloyal ...Nouns: discount, discovery, distrust.
The Morphological level includes...
Morphemes and Morphology.
From closed system words to nouns
Must
B. NEGATIVE PREFIXES
NEGATIVE PREFIXES
Subject and verb compounds
Noun + deverbal noun, verb + noun, verbal noun + noun.
Verbless compounds
Noun + noun, adjective + noun.
Verb and Object Compounds
Noun + verbal noun, noun + agentive/instrumental noun, noun + deverbal noun, verb + noun, verbal noun + noun.
Deverbal nouns
Nouns that are derived from verbs or verb phrases, but that behave grammatically as nouns, not as verbs. For example: organization from organize, discovery from discover or the noun construct from the verb construct. They are different from verbal nouns such as gerund and infinitives, which behave like verbs within their phrase , although that verb phrase is then used as a noun phrase within the larger sentence. For example "Running is healthy".
Acronym
Only initial letters are used: NATO, RAF...
3. PREFIXATION
PREFIXATION
Sound level includes...
Phonetics and Phonology.
There are two types of affixation
Prefixation: initial position, e.g. un-expect. - Suffixation: final position, e.g. expect-ed.
Prefixation
Process of forming a new word by adding a prefix to the stem.
The elements of the language are combined in order to...
Produce a message.
Bibliography
Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. 1973. A University Grammar of English. London: Longman. The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. 1992. Oxford: OUP.
From transitive to intransitive
Read well
Other morphological processes that result in the formation of new words are
Reduplicative, clipping, blending and acronym.
From intransitive to transitive
Run the show
A. STRESS
STRESS
Noun + deverbal noun
Self-control, haircut.
Free morphemes can function as
Simple words : the, run, on , well and compound words: keyboard, greenhouse, smartphone.
The level of linguistic analysis are...
Sound level, Morphological level, Syntactic level and Semantic level.
Stem
The most basic form of a morpheme. It can't be divided any further. For example: expect.
Base
The part of the word that remains after an affix has been removed. For example: unexpect -ed.
Compounding
The process by which two or more stems/bases are combined to form a new word.
Morphology is concerned with ...
The structure and derivation of words.
C. Verb compounds
They are rare and it is difficult to guess the meaning.
Verbal noun + noun
They are very productive. For example: typing paper, swimming pool, sitting room.
D. From adjective class to verb class
This category competes with -en suffixation. Both derivations may be available for the same adjective. For example: black, blacken. To make (transitive verbs): calm, dirty. To become (intransitive verbs): dry, empty.
Noun + deverbal noun...
This is very productive. For example: sunrise, earthquake, headache.
C. From noun class to verb class
To put something in/on something else, to give something, to deprive of something, to do something with an instrument, to make/change something, to send by something, to go by something.
Blending
Two words become one: brunch, flunch...
F. Number prefixes
Uni-/Mono-, Bi-/Di-, Tri-, Multi-/Poly-
B. Adjective compounds
Verb and object compounds, verb and adverbial compounds, verbless compounds.
Verb and adverbial compounds
Verbal noun + noun, noun + verbal noun, noun + agentive noun, noun + deverbal noun, verb + noun.
A- meaning "in the process of" is added to...
Verbs: e.g. asleep, ablaze.
Noun + verbal noun
Very productive / neutralised number: sightseeing, brainwashing.
Noun + agentive/instrumental noun
Very productive / neutralised number: songwriter.
2. WORD-FORMATION
WORD-FORMATION
Syntactic level
Way words are combined in order to make up longer units of meaning: words / phrases / clauses / sentences.
Suppletion
When an allomorph isn't just a phonological variation on the basic stem.
A. Suffixes that form nouns from nouns
With a general meaning of being "related to", With a diminutive sense Indicating "status" Related to material.
Complex words are formed by reapplication of
Word formation processes. For example, compounding and suffixation: baby-sitting, prefixation and suffixation, for example: unfriendliness.
Clipping
Word reduction. For example: phone, lab...
Negative prefixes
a-, de-, dis-, in-, il-, ir-, mal-, mis-, non-, pseudo-, un-
Objects
answer, catch
Noun + agentive noun
baby-sitter, daydreamer.
Noun + verb
babysit, sleepwalk...
To go by something
bicycle, motor.
Subjects
bore, cheat
To put something in/on something else
bottle, corner.
To do something with an instrument
brake, knife
Verb + noun
call-girl, knitwear.
To make/change something
cash, cripple
Verbal noun + noun
chewing gum, cooking apple.
From non-countable to countable
coffees.
-ive/ative/itive
cohesive, sensitive, negative.
A comic actor
comic
Instrument
cover, wrap
A daily newspaper
daily
Verb + noun
dance hall.
Adjective + noun
darkroom, blackboard.
Adjective + verb
deepfreeze
From stative verbs
doubt, love.
-al/ial/ical
elemental, consonantal.
From countable to non-countable
floor, room
-ic
heroic, algebraic.
Noun + deverbal noun
homework, daydream.
ous/eous/ious
humorous, courteous, deleterious (harmful)
From affixes to nouns
ism (doctrine)
Compounding
it is the process of putting two words together in order to form a third word. It might be hyphenated, written as one word, or as different words. For example: duty-free, newspaper, car park.
From dynamic verbs
laugh, walk.
To send by something
mail, ship
Verb + verb
make-believe
Married people
marrieds.
Some examples of derivational morphemes are...
modern (adj.) - modernise / drink (v.) - drinkable / honest (adj.) - dishonest (adj.).
Adverb/preposition + verb
overbook
To deprive of something
peel, skin
Verb + noun
pickpocket
Verb + noun
rattlesnake, hangman.
Place
retreat, turn
Manner
throw, walk
From intensive to intransitive
turn sour
From phrases to adjectives
under-the-weather
Verbal noun + noun
washing machine, dancing girl.
Noun + noun
windmill, oil well, oak tree.
From monotransitive to complex transitive
wipe something clean
