Motivation and Attitudes

Motivation: 5 schools of thought

1. Evolutionary aspect 2. Drive Reduction Theory 3. Optimum Arousal Theory 4. Cognitive 5. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

How do Attitudes influence Behavior? (4 theories):

1. Theory of planned behavior 2. Attitude to behavior process model 3. Prototype Willingness Model (PWM) 4. Elaboration Likelihood Model for Persuasion (ELM)

Attitude

A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. 3 components (ABC model): A: Affective (emotional) = we may feel or have emotions about a certain object/subject B: Behavioral = how we act or behave towards object/subject C: Cognitive = form thoughts and beliefs and have knowledge about object/subject that will influence our attitude. Ex: "I love yoga because I get to meditate, and I believe it helps me relax too, so I will go to class every week." Affective = "I love yoga" Behavioral = "I will go to class every week" Cognitive = "It helps me relax too"

Extrinsic Motivation

Associated with rewards or obligated behavior. Motivation to do something based on an external reward (money or fame)

Incentive Theory

Argues that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives. Reward, intangible or tangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action, with intention of causing this behavior to happen again. This causes a positive association and meaning toward a behavior. Focuses on conditioning/incentive to make a person happier. Ex: tangible = doing well at work, getting a promotion. Intangible = job satisfaction.

Attitude to behavior process model

Attitude ---> Behavior An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object). Then, attitude and some outside knowledge (what is regarded as appropriate behavior) together determines behavior. Ex: Tommy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy, because many of his family members have heart diseases with associated bad eating habits. When at home, he does not eat junk food, because his knowledge that these foods are bad for his health. Thus, he maintains a healthy lifestyle no matter where he is. Attitude on unhealthiness (triggered by an event) + knowledge leads to behavior.

Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)

Behavior is a function of 6 things, the combination of which influence our behavior. Our behavior is a function of... 1. Past attitude 2. Attitudes (explained in Attitude to behavior processing model. Attitude ---> Behavior) 3. Subjective norms = what others think about our behavior 4. Our intentions = our behavior intentions 5. Our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior 6. Models/prototyping = a lot of our behavior is carried out from modelling/prototyping

Behavioral Changes as a result of Cognitive Dissonance

Behavioral change not achieved with "shock" or "scare" tactics, and they do not necessarily create dissonance. Passive or educational strategies don't work either. Selective exposure would most likely refer to avoidance to reduce dissonance Change vs compliance = small rewards change cognitions, large rewards just change compliance Minimum Justification Principle = when someone does something and there is minimal justification for them doing it, this creates more dissonance than if they can explain it through significant rationale.

Behavior influencing Attitude tidbits

Behaviors CAN shape attitude. Strong social pressures can weaken attitudes to behavior connection and can cause our attitudes to follow our behavior.

Motivational factors of Drugs

Biological: Genetic, withdrawal and cravings, biochemical factors (inbalance of brain) Drugs can mimic neurotransmitters of our brain, affecting limbic system. Causes a reinforcing effect, where we want to constantly stimulate our brain with drugs. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sociocultural: Curiosity, novelty of drug, rebel, poor control of user, cope with stress, low self-esteem, relief from fatigue, more prevalent in areas of higher poverty.

Sex factors of motivation:

Biological: Studied by Master & Johnson. Turned results into... Sexual Response Cycle: 1. Excitement phase, marked by increased heart rate, etc. 2. Plateau 3. Orgasm 4. Resolution/refractory period Testosterone related to sexual drive/activity for both genders, which increases testosterone, causing a positive cycle. Genetic predisposition to sexuality. Prolactin related to sexual gratification and is associated with relieving sexual arousal after orgasm. Endorphins release feelings of euphoria and pleasure released post-orgasm. Oxytocin is released after an orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sociocultural; Varied sexual response due to age,, cultural background, stimulus, emotions, and desires.

Food Intake factors of Motivation:

Biological: A. Lateral hypothalamus = sends positive signal for us to start eating B. Ventromedial hypothalamus = signals to stop eating. Lectin present in high amounts when full. C. Insulin = detect sugar/fat storage in blood D. Metabolism rate = dieting causes a slowdown in metabolism. Makes it easier to gain weight when resuming a normal diet. E. Genetic predisposition, with a set point influenced by parents Socioucultural: A. We eat for different occasions, time, desire, appeal, availability

Social psychology

Branch of psychology that analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence. Focuses on interactions between individual and environment. Situations are not necessarily predictive of how someone will act in another situation.

Incentive Theory of Motivation

Calls attention to how factors outside of individuals, including community values and other aspects of cultures, can motivate behavior

Cognitive Dissonance

Discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions These conflicting ideas lead to feelings of discomfort which we want to alleviate. We want to reduce the discomfort by minimizing the contradictions People strive for harmony in our thoughts, actions, and words. We modify our cognitions, but DON'T change our behaviors

4 Ways to Reduce Cognitive Dissonance

Ex: Smoker says "I smoke", but learns that smoking leads to cancer. 1. Modify our cognitions = change/alteration in the cognition (thinking process) in a person's action/behavior to reduce the discomfort that a person has with that attitude. Ex: Smoker says, "I really don't smoke THAT much." 2. Trivialize = make less important/more trivial, to change the importance of their cognition Ex: Smoker might say, "Well, evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer." 3. Add = adding more cognitions, to make contradictions seem more comfortable. Ex: "I exercise so it doesn't matter." 4. Deny = denying the facts Ex: "There is no evidence that smoking and cancer are linked".

Drive Reduction Theory (Motivation)

Focuses on drives vs. needs. Need is a lack or deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state. That drive is the aroused state. Fulfilling the drive will reduce the need. Helps maintain homeostasis.

Role playing

Imagine picturing yourself in a new role, in which the first few days of the role feel strange/fake because we're trying to follow social quota in that role. Over time, what feels like acting starts to feel like YOU! Our behavior of playing this role, influences our attitude over time. Ex: Zimbardo's Standford prison experiment

Id

Innate. The reservoir of all psychic energy. The ID seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation. It is made up of all instincts and wants to get rid of uncomfortable feelings (Drive Reduction Theory) Pleasure Principle = To gain pleasure or avoid pain. To accomplish this, use reflex actions, primary processes (forming a mental image of the desired object), and wish fulfillment, which temporarily restores comfort.

Theory of planned behavior

Intentions and implications = we consider our IMPLICATIONS of our actions, before we decide on how to behave. The best predictor of our behavior is the strength of these INTENTIONS and implications. Intensions based on 3 things: -Our attitudes towards a certain behavior (Ex: I favor studying) -Subjective norms = what we think others think about our behavior (Ex: My friends think studying is a waste of time) -Perceived behavioral control = how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior (Ex: I also have to work 40 hours this week on top of studying)

Intrinsic Motivation

Internal motivation.

Amotivation

Lack of motivation

Elaboration Likelihood Model for Persuasion (ELM)

More cognitive approach, focusing on the why/how of persuasion. 2 ways in which information is processed: 1. Central Route of Persuasion = the degree of attitude change depends on the quality of the arguments by the persuader. How much we are persuaded depends on quality of persuasion. ARGUMENT/Words are central! 2. Peripheral Route of Persuasion = looks at superficial/expertise/non-verbal cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader. The person (hot babe?) is peripheral. Ex: drug rep tries to convince us the quality of their version of a drug. Central Route of Persuasion component is the quality of their argument. Peripheral Route of Persuasion is their status in their company, their confidence, appearance, etc.

Public declarations

More likely to follow through if you've told everyone Behavior influences attitude mechanism.

Drive-reduction motivation

Motivation based on your need to fulfill a certain drive

Door in the face phenomenon

Persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down, in order for the person to agree to a second, more reasonable request

Justification of effort

People do something they don't want, in order to justify the effort they put into it, such as going to med school after working hard. Effort justification = people's tendency to attribute a greater value to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring. Stems from Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance.

General Tenets of Attitudes

People strive for consistency between their attitudes and behaviors. People are more likely to be honest when social influences are reduced (secret ballot). Essentially, general patterns of behavior in juxtaposition to a pattern of behavior in a very specific instance (principle of aggregation at work, meaning more > less for finding the representative value). More likely to be honest when attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflection.

Optimum Arousal Theory (Motivation)

People want to reach full arousal/alertness. Drive to get full arousal and natural high, a state we enjoy.

Attribution

Process of inferring causes of behavior/events. Can be internal or external, focus is on external though. 3 main components of external attribution: 1. Consistency = does person usually behave this way? 2. Distinctiveness = does person behave differently in different situations? 3. Consensus = do others behave similarly in situation If person is consistent in all situations, maybe not external/environment, but more internal

Positive feedback

Process that increases production of product, causing a chain effect.

Negative feedback

Process that needs to be controlled to decrease product.

Cognitive (Motivation)

Rational and decision making ability. Thought processes drive behavior.

2 Main Categories affecting intake (Motivation)

Regulate our intake of food, sex, and drugs. 2 categories: 1. Biological factors = hormones and brain regulate each drive by controlling them automatically and unconsciously, 2. Socio-culture = our conscious choices on how we express our needs

Evolutionary Approach (Motivation)

Role instinct plays in motivation. What do humans due to survive? Baby cries, eats, sleeps, etc.

Takeaways of Incentive Theory

Studies show that if reward given immediately, chance of it happening again is higher. If person isn't rewarded, they are less likely to do it again. Rewards must be obtainable for them to be motivating. Can't be impossible to achieve. Impossible to get, someone becomes less motivated. Focuses on positive reinforcement, through continuous positive stimulation. NOT BASED ON NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT, (Drive reduction theory)

Metaphor for Id, Ego, and Superego

Superego = angel on shoulder Id = devil on shoulder Ego = conscious self, which decides what to do between the two

Ego

The Reality Principle Operates on secondary processes. Mediates the demands of reality vs the desires of the Id. The self. This is who we identify with.

Superego

The internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions. "Morals" Interjection/Internalization. The Superego inhibits Sexual and Aggressive impulses, and tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection. 2 subsystems: 1. The Conscious = what you should not; what is wrong 2. The Ego Ideal = what you should; what is right

Pleasure Principle

To gain pleasure or avoid pain. To accomplish this, use reflex actions, primary processes (forming a mental image of the desired object), and wish fulfillment, which temporarily restores comfort.

Foot in the door phenomenon

We have a tendency to agree to small actions first. Eventually over time, comply with much larger actions. Mechanism of behavior influencing attitude.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

We have needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top in specific order. Basic needs are most fundamental and located on the bottom. 5 needs: 1. Physiological: BASIC NEED = food, water, breathing, sleep. Essential to survive. Basic need. 2. Safety: BASIC NEED = safety of employment, health, resources, property. Can only be fulfilled after physiological needs are met. 3. Love: PSYCH NEED = need to belong, acceptance from friends, family, intimacy, love. 4. Self-esteem: PSYCH NEED = feel confident and a sense of achievement, recognition, competence of skill. 5. Self-actualization: SELF-FULFILLMENT NEED = one reaching their maximum potential, achieving the most one can be. Moral to their own principles and mastered the other needs. Differs from person to person.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Motivation)

We want to satisfy needs in particular order.