motor learning final

Control processes

*active processes that can be controlled by the person. 1) Rehearsal 2) Strategies used to make a stimulus more memorable 3) Strategies of attention *You can control what goes into your short term memory, how long it is there, and what goes into your long term memory.

Developing Automaticity

lots of practice especially under consistent mapping condition; can lead to terrible errors when environment changes; most effective in closed skills

random practice

makes practice more difficult but enhances the learning of multiple skills

long term memory

memory system that holds information and life experiences; believed to be vast in capacity and unlimited in duration

Strategies used to make a stimulus more memorable

mnemonic, visual imagery, etc

Internal Focus

monitoring ongoing movement; attending to personal thoughts and feelings; may be narrow or broad in the amount of info

Psychological Refractory Period

motor system processes 1st stimulus of two closely spaced stimuli and generates first response; if second stimulus is presented during time the system is processing the first stimulus and its response, the onset of the second response can be delayed

External Wide Focus

movement of opponents

Parallel Processing

occurs in stimulus ID stage; some sensory info can be processes together and without much interference (without attention); different aspects of visual display (strop effect); sensory signals the muscles and joints associated with posture and locomotion; "cocktail party" effect

Choking Under Pressure

occurs when performers change their normal routine or fail to adapt to a changing situation, resulting in failed performance; cortex v. cerebellum; attentional control theory; change in attentional focus

Cue Utilization and Arousal

optimal level of arousal is one that produces an attentional focus narrow enough to exclude irrelevant cues and wide enough to gather the most important cues

transfer-appropriate processing

the learning of various information-processing activities, which are exercised in particular types of practice, that are appropriate for performance in retention or transfer situations

Arousal

the level of excitement produced under stress; neurons in brain are firing; physiological term

short term memory

the memory system that allows people to retrieve, rehearse, process, and transfer information from STSS; believed to be limited in capacity and brief in duration

specificity of learning

the notion that the best learning experiences are those that approximate most closely that movement components and environmental conditions of the target skill and target contest

varied practice

the practice of different versions of the same movement patterns; also referred to as variable practice

response-selection stage

the second stage of information processing; during this stage, the motor system is organized to produce the desired movement

motor stage

the second stage of learning, in which motor programs are developed and the person's performance becomes increasingly consistent

response-programming stage

the third stage of information processing; during this stage, the motor system is organized to produce the desired movement

parameters

the variable inputs to a generalized motor program, such as speed or amplitude of the movement, which result in different surface features

Choking

to aroused to perform well

Anxiety

uneasiness or distress about future uncertainties; a perception of threat to self; psychological

Inattention Blindness

we can miss seemingly obvious features in our environment when we are engaged in attentive visual search; some auto accidents seem linked to this phenomenon; "looked-but-failed-to-see" accidents

Cocktail Party Effect

when you hear something you recognize and change your attention to that even in the middle of something else

dynamical systems

"how" motor control emerges and unfolds developmentally

Principles of Part Practice

* Very slow, serial movements with no component interaction = part practice on difficult elements is efficient * Brief, programmed actions = practice on parts in isolation is seldom useful and can be detrimental

Fits Stage 2: Fixation Stage

* association/motor stage * learners focus shifts to organizing more effective movement patterns * fast movements (builds motor programs to accomplish the movement) * slower movements (learner constructs ways to movement produced feedback) *closed-skill movements become stereotypic; open skill movements become more adaptable (enhanced movement efficiency which reduces energy costs)

Bernstein Stage 2: Release Degrees of Freedom

* attempts to improve performance by releasing some of the degrees of freedom that had been initially frozen * useful in tasks requiring power or speed, these DOF that have been released could lead to faster/higher force outputs.

similarity among skill depends on

* common movement patterning * common perceptual elements * common strategic or conceptual elements

Transfer and Similarity

* generalization - instructor wants the student/athlete to be able to transfer the practice task to the applied setting * depends on movement and perceptual similarity

A major Goal of Practice is:

* improved capability to perform some skill on future demand * improved perceptual skills * improved attention through reduced capacity demands and reduced effector competition * improved motor programs * improved error detection

Skill Retention: Forgetting

* long term retention depends largely on the nature of the task * the amount of original practice will influence the relative amount of retention of these tasks

Limitations of Fitt's and Bernsteins Stages

* neither was meant to describe the learning as a series of discrete, nonlinear and unidirectional stages * Fitts considered performance change to be regressive as well as progressive *task differences

Bernseins Stage 3: Exploit Passive Dynamics

* performer learns to exploit the passive dynamics of the body - energy and motion that came for free with the help of physics *movement becomes maximally skilled in terms of effectiveness and efficiency

Bernstein Stage 1: Reduce Degrees of Freedom

* reduce the movement of non-essential or redundant body parts in the initial stage or learning by "freezing" degrees of freedom * a single degree of freedom refers to just one in which various muscle and joints are free to move

Fits Stage 1: Cognitive Stage

* this surrounds goal identification and is very verbal/cognitive in abilities - what to do and when to do it * gains in proficiency are very rapid and large (more effective strategies for performance are being identified)

Perceptual narrowing results in which of the following?

*****all of the above missing certain types of information in the environment shifts in attention focus on the most pertinent information ability to detect fewer stimuli

Partial report tone delay

**LOOK at slide 14

Sensory memory

*Also called the sensory register *The initial brief storage of sensory information -Information from receptor cells (eye, ear, hearing) -Directly from the environment (Environmental information)

Problems with STM theory

*Baddeley (1986) 1) Subjects are required to remember number sequences. -Ranged from 0 to 8 digits in length -8 digits clearly exceeds digit span of most people. 2) At the same time, they completed a reasoning task. *Verified a series of sentences describing order of 2 letters. -e.g. A follows B ----- BA (true) *Sentences varied in -e.g. B is not preceded by A ---- AB (false) *Measured time it took people to say true or false (Time to verify sentences)

Duration (Rate of Forgetting)

*Brown (1958) and Peterson & Peterson (1959) *Brown-Peterson Paradigm 1) Subjects are shown three letters (a trigram) and asked to remember them -Not three letters that form a word 2) Then they are shown a number and asked to count backwards by 3s -Varied the length of time for which participants had to count. -3 seconds to 18 seconds 3) Then they had to recall the 3 letters. 4) They made people count so they did not sit there and rehearse the letters.

Quantity (Capacity of STM) 3

*Chunking 1) Technique to overcome capacity limitations of STM. 2) Group smaller individual units into a chunk 3) Capacity of STM is about 4 +/- 1 chunks (Cowan, 2001) 4) Chunking depends on knowledge to be most effective.  -HGT VAB CNF LVI PCIA -HGTV ABC NFL VIP CIA

Coding of Information

*Coding -How information is mentally represented 1) Experiment by Conrad (1964) - Phonological Similarity Effect (PSE) -Participants either read a list of letters silently or heard a list of letters read aloud.  -In some lists, the letters looked similar but sounded very different (e.g., V & X) -In other lists the letters looked different but sounded similar (e.g., V & C)

Why do images fade from iconic memory?

*Combination of image decay over time and interference from later images.

Contents:

*Contains Sensory information as icons (pictures).

Iconic Memory Conclusions

*Iconic memory exists *The entire matrix is being stored since partial report condition could do do all rows equally well.  *In whole report condition, the reason performance was poor is because the matrix was fading from sensory memory during the time it took to report the first few letters.

Duration

*Less than 1 second (lasts around 250 to 300 ms) -It is very fast that its fading.

Sternberg cont.

*Major findings 1) RT's increased linearly with with set size. 2) Slopes were exactly the same for target present and absent trials.  *Major Conclusions 1) Memory search is serial 2) Memory search is exhaustive -Time for search is 38 milliseconds per item

Quantity (Capacity of STM) 1

*Memory Span (Jacobs, 1887) 1) Presented subjects with a series of numbers. 2) Task: recall them in the exact order that you heard them. 3) Memory span is the average number that you can recall correctly. 4) You would be given a list of numbers and told to write them down after the list is done.

Quantity (Capacity of STM) 2

*Miller (1956) 1) The maximum number of units that can be held in STM is 7 +/- 2 2) Depends on -The individual -The material that you're remembering -Other situational factors -i.e., if you're tired it matters. **Example: HGTVABCNFLVIPCIA *If you can reorganize or find meaning in something it is something that people can do (called chunking)

Conrad (1964) Results:

*More errors occurred for acoustically similar lists than for visually similar lists regardless of whether they were read or heard. *Conclusion: -Information in STM is coded acoustically. *Baddeley (1966) -Similar-sounding words are recalled more poorly than words similar in meaning; thus coding is acoustic.

Sternberg's Results:

*Pattern reveals a Serial Exhaustive search of STM.

Searching STM (Results)

*Possible Results: (A) Parallel search -Look at every number simultaneously and determine the answer. (B) Serial Self Terminating search (C) Serial Exhaustive Search **Slide 39

Is searching always Serial Exhaustive?: DeRosa & Tkacz (1976)

*Presented pictures telling a story -e.g. diver or golfer *Presented in 2 ways -Randomly -In Sequence -Which put it into a context.

Sperling's Results

*Results 1) Whole Report -Reported only 4 to 5 letters out of 12 (38% accuracy) -Extending the display time from 50 ms to 500 ms did not help. -Showed they could perceive the whole matrix. 2) Partial Report -Reported 3 to 4 letters in that row (75-100%) -All rows could be done equally well. -When the tone was delayed, recall accuracy dropped. -At 1 second delay, the partial report accuracy was equal to the whole report accuracy (38%)

DeRosa & Tkacz (1976) cont.

*Results: 1) Random Ordering -Serial exhaustive search -If you don't have meaning you go one by one. 2) Ordered Sequence -Parallel processing -Much faster and more efficient

Brown-Peterson Paradigm

*Results: 1) Recall was impaired when participants were asked to count backwards by threes. 2) The longer one counts the more recall is impaired. -Counting backwards prevents rehearsing the letters. Memory decays within about within about 20 seconds.

Experiments on Iconic Memory

*Sperling (1960): Directly studied the Size and duration of iconic memory. *Presented the subject a 3 x 4 matrix of letters very briefly (50 ms only). *After matrix disappeared, the subjects had to recall the letters that were presented.  *He compared two different conditions.

Searching STM

*Sternberg (1966; 1967; 1975) 1) Asked if we search STM in parallel (scanning all at one time) or serially (1 at a time) 2) The subject is given a set of items to remember ranging in size from 2 to 6 (SET SIZE) -e.g., 4, 6, 9, 3, 2 3) Then the subject is asked whether an item is in the set. To which they respond yes or no. -e.g., 6 or 7 4) Two types of trials -Target present & target absent. -On present trials, the target appears in each position equally often.

Echoic Memory

*The auditory Sensory Memory *Quantity -less than iconic memory *Duration -Longer than iconic memory -Approximately 4 to 5 seconds. -Experienced when someone says something to you that you don't process and after you've said "what?" you can then answer their question without hearing them again. *Time is more of a factor here than in vision.

Phonological Loop

*The auditory subsystem containing 2 parts 1) Phonological store: -a.k.a. Phonological buffer -Holds verbal information for about 2 seconds -Example: repeat back the last part of what someone said even if you're not paying attention, because the last 2 seconds are stored. -Related to echoic sensory memory. ***Working memory-different theory.

Quantity

*The entire visual field. -Anything that you are seeing will be capture in your visual memory.

Iconic memory conclusions continued (2):

*The information in iconic memory can be "erased" before it fades if other stimuli are immediately presented afterwards. *Called Masking -Show matrix then immediately present a matrix of circles or Xs. -The Xs erase the matrix in sensory memory. -Subjects can't report letters from the matrix **Demo: MRSV **We are just talking about vision here and auditory information should not influence this.

Iconic memory conclusions continued (1):

*The information stored is relatively unprocessed information.  -Follow-up experiment had the tone cue for vowels vs consonants (not a row). -Report accuracy was as as bad as the whole report group. -Information had not yet been processed for type of letter.

Figure 4.2

*The longer they had to wait to repeat the letters, the less recall happened. *This curve is the rate of decay from short term memory *Conclusion was information decays over time.

Iconic memory

*The visual sensory memory store *Icon: a visual picture that represents an object *Creates Visual Persistence -The apparent persistence of a visual stimulus beyond its physical duration. *Example: rapidly wobble a pencil up and down between 2 fingers. -Looks like it's bending -The reason it looks like it's bending it cause your iconic memory is holding its perception..

Sperling (1960) cont.

*There were 2 different conditions: 1) Whole Report -Report as many letters in the entire matrix as possible. 2) Partial Report -Tone was sounded immediately after the grid disappeared -The tone indicated which row to report *Low tone = bottom row *Medium tone = middle row *High tone = top row -Varied how long before the tone sounded (0 ms to 1000 ms) -Report as many letters in the cued row as possible (no other rows reported)

Waugh & Norman (1965) (manipulation)

*They manipulated two things 1) The amount of time between the target and recall.  2) The number of intervening items between the target and recall.

Fits Stage 3: Autonomous Stage

*gradually entered after continued practice * attainment of expert performance * self confidence increases and the capability to detect errors is more fined tuned

Name and define the three stages of information processing between input and output. Give an example of each.

- Stage 1, stimulus identification—perceiving important environmental information by using sensory input, such as vision, hearing, touch, and kinesthetic awareness, and assembling the information (e.g., perceiving whether something is moving or stationary and its direction, speed, size, color, and so on) - Stage 2, response selection—deciding what to do based on the information from stage 1 (e.g., in doubles tennis, a player decides whether to go for the ball or let the teammate respond) - Stage 3, response programming—retrieving the motor programs necessary for the desired output (e.g. organize the plan of action, time the action, and determine the force)

Explain how practice affects reaction time.

- The greater the amount of practice, the shorter the reaction time. - Practice keeps reaction time from increasing even when stimulus-response alternatives increase. - The practiced skill often becomes automatic. If the same stimulus always leads to the same response, choice reaction time becomes faster.

Explain the inverted-U principle.

- The inverted-U principle describes the relationship between arousal level and performance. It suggests that as the arousal level increases, performance improves until a certain point. Then as the arousal level increases from moderate to high, performance falls back to poor. - Increases in arousal results in increases in performance, up to a point. People can be too up. Optimal arousal is based on the requirements of the skill, and performance degrades when arousal levels are too high. - It is believed that moderate arousal results in the best performance when compared with low and high levels of arousal.

Name the three types of memory systems and define their characteristics.

- The short-term sensory store (STSS) holds stimuli according to its sensory modality (auditory, visual, kinesthetic) for a very short duration, only a few hundred milliseconds, before being replaced by the next stream and is believed to entail very little attentional processing. - Short-term memory (STM) consists of a temporary workspace where relevant information is processed. Information may be retrieved, rehearsed, processed, and transferred. A small amount of information may be held, which uses 7 ± 2 items or "chunks." Attention is held in STM as long as it is being rehearsed (e.g., looking up a telephone number). If attention is removed, forgetting begins within 30 s. - Long-term memory (LTM) is considered the storage space for experiences over a lifetime and is characterized as having unlimited capacity and duration. Information reaches LTM through effortful processing of information in STM and transferring it to LTM.

Perceptual-motor abilities

- abilities that enable the individual to process information about how and when to move - example, in order to execute a skill such as a forehand groundstroke in tennis, the tennis player requires perceptual abilities such as multi-limb coordination and response orientation. - motor abilities are those abilities relating to the actual movement - example: in order to perform a skill such as the 100 meter sprint individuals require motor abilities such as explosive strength and speed of limb movement

Classification of skills

- classified according to their characteristics and this helps us to understand the demands of the skill - helps coaches or teachers to evaluate performance, plan sessions and provide the performer with feedback. - cannot always be neatly placed in one class or another - placed on a continuum; a line on which each skill can be placed depending on how much they match the characteristics within each classification. - Magill (1998) suggests three skill classification criteria based on @ the distinctiveness of the movement characteristics (discrete motor skills; serial motor skills; continuous motor skills) @ the stability of the environment (closed motor skills; open motor skills) @ the size of the musculature involved (fine motor skills; gross motor skills)

Discrete skills

- clear start and finish - brief and well defined - examples: forward roll in gymnastics, a golf swing or a penalty stroke in field hockey

Edwin Fleishman PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR ABILITIES

- control precision (control over fast, accurate movements that use large areas of the body) - multi-limb coordination - response orientation (selection of the appropriate response) - reaction time - speed of arm movement - rate control (coincidence-anticipation) - manual dexterity - arm-hand steadiness - wrist-finger speed (coordination of fast wrist and finger movements) - aiming - postural discrimination (coordination when vision is occluded) - response integration (integration of sensory information to produce a movement)

Skill

- describe a specific action or the level of performance of an individual - infers that the movement has been learned and has a predetermined outcome or goal - not an action that a person can just naturally do; neither is it moving for the sake of moving.

Stability of environment

- environmental factors can be the weather, obstacles, boundaries, teammates and opponents

Edwin Fleishman PHYSICAL PROFICIENCY ABILITIES

- extent (or static) flexibility - dynamic flexibility - static strength - dynamic strength - explosive strength - trunk strength - gross body coordination - gross body equilibrium - stamina (cardiovascular fitness)

Selective attention-memory interaction

- given that our STM has a limited capacity, we have a problem when trying to deal with all of the information in our environment. - the limitation is so great that some psychologists believe that we can only deal with one thing at a time; this is called single channel theory (Welford 1968). - others (such as Wickens 1980) have argued that we can deal with more than one piece of information at a time if the tasks are dissimilar, for example, running down the court bouncing a basketball while at the same time making a decision as to whether to pass or shoot. - running with the ball occupies a different part of the brain to making the decision therefore the two tasks will not affect one another. - the way we overcome this limited capacity is by the use of selective attention. - selective attention refers to the individual focusing on relevant information while ignoring irrelevant information. - according to Broadbent (1956) all information enters the STM, but we only attend to the selected stimuli. Unselected stimuli are filtered out but selected stimuli are compared to information stored in LTM. - this allows us to make decisions on what action to take. - while selective attention takes place as described by Broadbent, i.e. stimuli being chosen for processing after entering STM, we can also make decisions on what to process before the information enters STM. - past experience of similar situations allows the performer to search the appropriate areas of the environment for relevant information. - sometimes attention is involuntary, however. A sudden loud noise or a flash of bright light will attract our attention probably as a subconscious safety factor.

Characteristics of a skill

- goal oriented, using the skill will achieve an end result. - meet the performance goal with maximum certainty. - meet the performance goal with minimum outlay of energy. - learned through practice. They require some experience, repetition or feedback from a teacher or coach.

The psychological refractory period

- in order to show the single channel at work, Welford (1968) undertook an experiment in which he had participants respond to a stimulus (S1). - reaction time to S1 was as Welford expected. however, 118 when he introduced a second stimulus (S2) shortly after the introduction of S1, the participants demonstrated slower than normal reaction times to S2. Thus Welford stated that when two stimuli are presented close together the reaction time to the second stimulus is slower than normal reaction time. The time gap was called the psychological refractory period. Welford claimed that processing of S2 could not take place until processing of S1 had been completed.The effect of the psychological refractory period can be seen in many sports. Any example of a feint, dodge or dummy is an example of the use of the psychological refractory period. The feint is S1 and the actual movement is S2. If the timing is correct, the defender will be comparatively slow in reacting to the real movement. This is the skill of rugby players like Shane Williams, basketball players like Jason King and soccer players such as Cristiano Ronaldo. Similar feints can be seen in the drop shot in badminton or a dummy punch in boxing.

The Black Box Model of information processing

- input refers to the environment that the performer can see, hear and feel. (sometimes called the display and sometimes even the stimulus) - in sport it is very rarely one stimulus but several stimuli - the output is what the performer did. in the example of the tennis player it would be what shot they played in order to return the ball and whether or not this was successful. (this is also often referred to as the response.) - the box in the middle labeled Central Nervous System (CNS) refers to the person's brain and spinal cord. It is called the Black Box because early psychologists did not presume to know what went on in the CNS between experiencing the input and carrying out the response.

Perceptual-motor skill

- interpretation of environmental stimuli and the motor response to this sensory information - depend on high perceptual ability and are very important in activities that require the performer to adapt to the environment. - example: dribbling with the ball in soccer to beat a defender

fine motor skill

- involve much smaller muscle groups and fine movements - more intricate, precise and often require high levels of hand-eye coordination - example: playing the piano, playing darts and catching a ball.

Serial skills

- involve the linking together of skills to form a longer, more complex movement - example: gymnastics where the gymnast links together a series of flips and somersaults

gross motor skill

- movements that involve large muscle groups such as arms and legs - example: walking, jumping, running and kicking

interactive skill

- other performers are directly involved and can involve confrontation - an active opposition and this directly influences the skill - examples: rugby, water polo, shinty

success

- previous movement experiences, growth, body configuration and personal motivation all contribute to successful performance - someone with natural ability within a particular domain may not reach their full potential because they lack one or all of these qualities. - failure to invest in practice time may also result in a below-par performance

Exteroceptors

- provide information from outside of the body. - the main exteroceptors involved in sensation with regard to sport are vision and audition.

Interoceptors

- provide information from within the body - information about body position and the position of limbs. - the main interoceptors involved in sport are the vestibular apparatus, which provides information about balance; and joint receptors, muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs, which provide information about limb positions

Perceptual skill

- reading the green in golf is a perceptual skill. - the golfer receives information about the type of surface, the run of the green, the distance of the ball from the hole, and other environmental conditions through their perceptual senses - this enables golfers to make a decision about how to make the putt. - perceptual senses include vision, vestibular (senses that help you with balance closely related to your hearing), haptic (touch) and auditory.

Factors determining response time

- response time increases throughout childhood and adolescence, however, as we get older it gets slower. - movement time is affected by fitness, particularly power and speed of limb movement. - training can greatly affect movement time but reaction time is less easy to improve. - the main factor affecting speed of reaction is the number of choices that the individual has to make. - if there are no choices, what we call simple reaction time, the mean times range between 170 and 200 msecs. - however, as we increase the number of choices, what is termed choice reaction time, the times increase. - Hick (1952) found that as you doubled the number of stimulus response couplings the reaction time increased. - if the reaction time is plotted against the log of the stimulus-response couplings there is a linear increase. - this is known as Hick's Law. - generally, reaction time increases by about 150 msecs every time the stimulus-response groupings are doubled.

Response time

- response time is the time from the introduction of a stimulus to the completion of the action required to deal with the problem (McMorris 2004). - response time is made up of reaction time and movement time. - reaction time is the time that elapses from the sudden onset of a stimulus to the beginning of an overt response (Oxendine 1968). - movement time is the time it takes to carry out the motor aspects of the performance.

Sensation or sensory input

- senses are responsible for relaying information about the environment to the brain. - this information is then interpreted by the brain based on past experience of similar situations, and is held in the long-term memory (LTM). - the senses can be divided into exteroceptors and interoceptors.

closed skills

- skills that are performed in a more stable and predictable environment and can be internally paced by the performer - follow set movement patterns and are performed in the same way each time - example: archery

individual skill

- skills that are performed in isolation from others - only one performer is involved at a particular time - example: archery or high jump

coactive skill

- skills that are performed with someone else, but with no direct confrontation - examples: swimming and in track athletics such as the 100 meter or 200 meter sprints

open skills

- skills that are significantly affected by the environmental conditions, to the extent that the conditions dictate the pace of the movement - environment is largely variable and unpredictable and, as such, the performer has to adapt their movements accordingly -performer has to pay close attention to external events to control the movement - perceptual skills and perceptual-motor skills are critical for open skills - example: jumping for a rebound in basketball

signal detection + theory

- swets (1964) reckoned that individuals receive over 100,000 pieces of information per second. (may be information from the environment and/ or from within the person themselves.) - actually perceiving an important piece of information, what he called a "signal", is problematic - in order to explain how we do this, Swets developed signal detection theory. - swets termed the background, non-essential information "noise". (This may mean actual noise, e.g. the sound of spectators, but covers all information that is not part of the signal.) - noise can be visual or from within yourself such as worrying about failing. - according to signal detection theory, the probability of detecting any given signal depends on the intensity of the signal compared to the intensity of the background noise. -------------------------------------- - likelihood of detecting the signal would depend on the interaction between two variables, d-prime (d´) and the criterion (C). - d´ represents the individual's sensitivity to that particular signal (may depend on the efficiency of the person's sense organs, e.g. eyes, vestibular apparatus. It may also depend on experience, e.g.) - familiar signals are thought to be more readily detected than unfamiliar stimuli. - C represents the effect of a person's bias on detection - C is thought to be affected by arousal level, which in turn affects the probability of the detection of a signal. - when arousal is low the signal is missed, what we call an error of omission. If, however, arousal is high and detection is considered to be a high priority, of too much importance in fact, the individual may perceive a signal when one does not exist, an error of commission. - signal detection proficiency can be improved by ensuring that the performer is optimally aroused but can also be aided by good selective attention

ability

- the traits that we are born with - the perceptual and motor attributes, inherited from our parents that enable us to perform skills - give us the capacity to perform skills - qualities that enable individuals to perform the skill and, compared to skills, they are much more stable and enduring - examples: muscular endurance, strength, flexibility, coordination and balance. - not the only factor that contributes to successful performance.

technique

- the way the individual controls his or her limbs

memory

- tulving (1985) described memory as being the "capacity that permits organisms to benefit from their past experiences". - in Welford's model he highlights short term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) but another stage of memory, the sensory information store (SIS) has also been described. - all incoming information is held for a brief time in the SIS. - most of the information is lost within 0.5 seconds. It is only retained and processed if it is attended to. - if this information is to pass to STM, it must be rehearsed. - rehearsal means being attended to, or processed mentally and/or physically. - 90% of all information entering the STM is lost within 10 seconds. - retention and passage to the LTM are dependent on rehearsal, mental, physical or both. - time is not the only limitation on the STM. Miller (1956) found that STM has a capacity or space limitation. - he claimed that individuals could remember 7±2 bits of information. - unlike STM, LTM has no capacity limitations, although sometimes we have difficulty in retrieving memories.

Continuous skills

- where the end of one cycle of movement is the beginning of the next - repetitive, rhythmical and take place over a long period of time - distance, a target or a set time usually governs the time that the skill is performed for - examples: swimming, running and cycling

Verbal Cognitive stage

-The first stage of motor learning during an entirely unfamiliar task -verbal and cognitive strategizing -requires a lot of attention -large and rapid gains in performance -verbal instructions helpful

What happens to the info?

1) Brown / Peterson & Peterson concluded that the information decayed over time. 2) The passage of time caused the information to fade and be forgotten. 3) BUT... There is an alternative explanation. 4) Waugh & Norman (1965) argued it was interference. 5) Perhaps the forgetting is due to interference or displacement by new information entering STM and not decay. -Example: counting down by 3s requires STM, so perhaps the numbers are displacing the original 3 letters

Central Executive

1) Directs flow of information -The mechanism that allows us to select among possible actions. -Allocates resources to the different subsystems & coordinates them (I.e. attention). -Retrieves information from Long-term memory -Controls output of subsystems 2) Limited in capacity 3) Some capacity can be used to store information 4) Conscious awareness **Output of subsystems -- repeating back what was in the phonological loop

What is the ecological validity of sensory memory?

1) Ensures that the perceptual system has some minimum amount of time to process the information. 2) Helps with integration of information over time. - Making sense of sounds that are coming in and being able to process it. 3) Processing of entire sensory scene for directing attention. -Allows us to be able to be more efficient and effective about processing what we need to process

Short-term Memory

1) Information currently attended to is held here. 2) Abbreviated STM *Short term memory is that part that is in your conscious awareness.

Waugh & Norman Results & Conclusions

1) No difference for time manipulation. 2) There is a difference for the number of items presented. 3) Conclusion: -Forgetting is due to interference and not decay over time.

Waugh & Norman experiment

1) Number of items constant, time varies 2) Tests if decay (time) is cause of forgetting 3) Number of items Varies, time is constant 4) Tests if interference is cause of forgetting

Waugh & Norman (1965)

1) Probe digit task 2) A series of 16 digits is presented 1 at a time 3) The subject has to report the number that followed the previous instance of the final number. -e.g., 5 1 9 6 3 5 1 4 2 8 6 2 7 3 9 4 4) The final digit is 4 5) The number following the previous 4 is 2.

Facts of iconic memory conclusions

1) Quantity 2) Duration 3) Contents

Short term memory facts

1) Quantity - how much info can be held here? 2) Coding (Contents) - how is the information coded for storage? 3) Duration - how long is information held here? 4) Searching - How do we find information in STM?

Baddeley's Results:

1) Reasoning time increases clearly and systematically with concurrent memory load. -If you're having to memorize more numbers your reasoning time goes down. 2) But the effect is not catastrophic. 3) If STM is a unitary system, a concurrent load of 8 digits should cause reasoning performance to break down completely.

Working Memory (Baddeley)

1) STM focused on storage of information 2) Working memory theory focused on use of information in addition to storage. 3) Working memory has 3 components: *Central Executive *Phonological loop *Visuo-spatial Sketchpad

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) Model of Memory

1) Sensory Memory 2) Short-term Memory/Working memory 3) Long-term memory *This is the flow of information

Visuo-spatial sketch pad

1) Subsystem of memory for visual information. 2) Allows us to maintain and manipulate visual and spatial images. -Picture a tree. Now picture it with pink leaves, etc. 3) Helps keep track of recent visuo-spatial information -Moving objects in the environment -How we change relative to stationary objects.

Baddeley's Conclusions:

1) This suggests that STM is not a unitary system. 2) The digit task takes up only one subsystem and the reasoning and comprehension tasks are free to use the other subsystems.

__2__ Used to evaluate the direction of a performer's outcome errors __3__ Used to evaluate the quality of movement production __4__ Allows the practitioner to make accurate inferences about a learner's skill level __5__ Might be evaluated by obtaining ratings of perceived exertion __1__ Used to evaluate the end result of a performance __6__ A type of transfer that occurs from one task to another very different task or setting

1. Outcome measure 2. Constant error 3. Process measures 4.Valid measure 5. Movement efficiency 6.Far transfer

3 concepts associated with attention and motor behavior

1. alertness and preparation 2. individuals limited capacity to process info 3. selective attention (ability to select and attend to meaningful concept)

selective attention years

12 years

Phonological Loop cont.

2) Articulatory Control Process: -a.k.a. Subvocal rehearsal loop -The inner speech we hear in ourselves. -Rehearsal to compensate for rapid decay of phonological store. -Rehearsal keeps refreshing the phonological store -Maintains active memory, because were still continuing to work on that.

focusing on one thing but easily distracted

2-5 years (perseveration)

Peripheral Vestibular System Labrynth

3 Semicircular canals 2 Otolithic organs Contains endolymph

perfect retention 3-4 days after training at age

3 months

short term working memory

30 seconds to 1 minute

recall (conscious) memory short term

6 month short term 2 years long term

infant kicking experiments exhibit evidence for contextual learning at

6 months

Number of abilities that are designated as physical proficiency abilities

9

Tracking

A class of tasks in which a moving track must be followed, typically by the movements of a manual control.

Ability

A general trait or capacity of the individual that is a relatively enduring characteristic that serves as a determinant of a person's achievement potential for the performance of specific skills.

Electromyography (EMG)

A method for recording the electrical activity in a muscle or group of muscles

Placebo

A nonactive substance that may be administered instead of a drug.

Explain CLEARLY, in your own words, serial practice schedules.

A practice schedule that brings about a moderate interference. Several skills are practiced in a rotating and predictable order.

Expirement

A research method in which the researcher manipulates one or more factors (independent variable) to observe the effect on another variable (dependent variable) while confounding variables remain controlled.

Survey method

A research technique designed to discover the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people through the use of questionnaires or interviews.

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of being included.

Operational definition

A statement of the exact behaviors a researcher is looking for in a research study.

closed-loop control

A type of control that involves the use of feedback and activity of error detection and correction processes to maintain the desired state; used by people to control slow, deliberate movements. Does not involve discrete tasks.

Controlled Processing

A type of information processing that is slow, sequential, attention demanding, attention demanding, and voluntary; more prevalent during the early stages of learning

which two disorders go together?

ADHD and DCD

Motor Stage

AKA associative stage (2nd stage of motor learning) -focus on refinement of movement -slow movements (improved process and feedback) v. raid movements (motor program development) -closed and opens skill refinement -improvements in consistency, anticipation and timing

Define Near Transfer

AKA generalization transfer of learning from one task to another similar task

(a) How do people who study individual differences define the term abilities? (b) Distinguish the meaning of abilities from that of the term skill.

Ability - An enduring general trait of individual that serves as determinant of achievement potential for the performance of specific skills Skill - indicator of quality of performance performance vs potential

Multilimb coordination

Ability to coordinate movements of a number of limbs simultaneously

​​Response Orientation

Ability to make a rapid selection of controls to be moved or the direction to move them in

Control precision

Ability to make rapid and precise movement adjustments of control devices involving single arm-hand or leg movements; adjustments are made to visual stimuli

Finger dexterity

Ability to make skillful, controlled manipulations of tiny objects involving primarily the fingers

Speed of arm movement

Ability to rapidly make a gross, discrete arm movement where accuracy is minimized

Veridical Storage

Accurately represents stimuli reaching receptors.

Explain the difference between acquisition trials and retention trials in a motor learning experiment.

Acquisition is when an athlete is learning a skill. The best thing to do in practice in these situation. Blocked practices will help reinforce these skills. Retention is being able to commit the skills to memory and performance. Random practices are best with this situation.

Explain the difference between acquisition and retention of motor skills in REAL LIFE.

Acquisition: An example of this in real life would be learning and practicing to drive your car. Retention: An example of this in real life would be using your driving skills to make it through traffic or trying to maneuver your car through bad weather.

Savings Transfer

Amount of practice time on task B saved by having first practiced task A

Motor Ability

An ability that is specifically related to the performance of a motor skill

Define Motor Skill

An activity that requires voluntary movement to achieve a goal

Hypothesis

An investigators testable prediction about the outcome of research.

Tau

An optical variable proportional to time until contact, defined as the size of the retinal image decided by the rate of change of the image.

Describe how the assessment of motor abilities can be used in a battery of tests designed to identify people who would be good candidates for jobs or professions that require specific motor skills.

Aptitude tests - prediction of future performance of a specific motor skill

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and Control groups by chance.

Strategies of attention

Attention matters when trying to encode things into memory

Why must researchers be cautious about the results of a case study?

Because it's not supposed to be bias, and it can't be possible to extend the results of 1 case study to other people.

How is motor learning measured?

Can't be measured directly inferred from observed changes in performance

If a researcher wanted to study a unique situation, such as a child growing up in a household in which 4 languages are spoken what research method is most appropriate?

Case study

Explain why random assignment is a critical feature of expire mental design?

Chance determines group assignments, we can assume individual differences amongst the participants will be equally distributed.

Define Motor Learning

Changes in internal processes that determine an individual's capabilities for performing a motor task

Name the three stages of learning and list characteristics associated with each stage.

Cognitive stage: the stage in which the learner's performance is heavily based on cognitive or verbal processes. Fixation stage: the stage in which learners establish motor patterns. Autonomous stage: The stage in which the attention demands of performing a task have been greatly reduced.

Interoception

Coming from inside the body Autonomic responses Hunger, thirst, temperature regulation

________ bias exists when a researcher only looks for information that supports his or her point of view.

Confirmation

Otoliths

Contain hair cells Hair cells embeded in gelatinous membrane Membrane contains otoconia (ear rocks) Weight of otoconia increases density Therefore responds to gravity

Peripheral Vestibular System Bony Labrynth

Contains labyrinth, cochlea and vestibule In petrous bone Contains perilymph

________________ studies compare individuals from different age groups at one time.

Cross-sectional

Why are more cross-sectional studies conducted than longitudinal studies?

Cross-sectional studies are less expensive, less difficult to conduct, and more efficient than longitudinal studies.

______________ is when a participant receives a full explanation at the conclusion of the research.

Debriefing

Semicircular Canals

Detect angular accelerations Endolymph fluid moves opposite direction of head movement Deflects the cupula Cupula bends the hair cells Hair cells cause firing of 8th cranial nerve Firing rate is increased for ipsilateral motion Firing rate is decreased for contralateral motion

Comparator

Error-detection mechanism contained in closed loop control systems; compares feedback of the desired state to feedback of the actual state

Explain the prosthetic arm transfer of learning experiment.

Experimental: training proper functioning of device and then training with ADLS Control: train with ADLs Does the prior experience help?

Vestibular Occular Reflex

Fastest Reflex in the body 5 - 7 ms

Autonomous Stage

Finally stage of motor learning -little or no attention -motor program mostly developed -less attention needed to process/interpret sensory info

Who created the motor abilities taxonomy?

Fleishman

Percentage Transfer

Gain in performance of task B associated with practice of task A relative to total learning

(a) What is the difference between the general motor ability hypothesis and the specificity of motor abilities hypothesis? (b) Give an example of research evidence indicating which of these hypotheses is more valid.

General motor ability hypothesis - the different motor abilities that exist in an individual are highly related and can be characterized in terms of a singular, global motor ability Specificity of motor abilities hypothesis - motor abilities exist independent of each other Ex. reaction time is not correlated with movement speed - 2 motor abilities that are not related

Define Hick's law regarding reaction time.

Hick's law states that there is a stable relationship between the number of stimulus-response options and choice reaction time. As the logarithm of the number of S-R pairs increases, choice reaction time increases in a linear fashion.

2 Laws

Hicks and Fitt's law

general motor ability hypothesis

Hypothesis that suggests a person highly skilled in one motor skill, would be expected to be or become highly skilled in all motor skills.

Conceptual Model of Motor Performance

Illustrates how people process information in three stages - stimulus identification, response selection, response programming - to convert environmental input into response output.

Utricle

In otolith Roughly Horizontal Detects horizontal acceleration Detects head tilt

Static and Dynamic balance are _____ motor abilities

Independent

Outcome measures

Indicative of the results of a movement task -accuracy -timing -distance -consistency

Exteroception

Information arises from outside of the body, primarily of vision, audition, and olfaction.

Efferent

Information from inside to muscles

Afferent Neuron

Information from outside to brain

Feedback

Information produced from the various sensors as a consequence of moving; sometimes called responce-produced feedback

___________________ occurs when a research participant knows when a research participant knows the general nature of the research and agrees to participate.

Informed consent

Hick's Law

Law describing the stable relationship that exists between the number of stimulus-response alternatives and choice reaction time; specifically, as the logarithm of the number of stimulus-response pairs increases, choice reaction time increases.

Golgi Tendon organs

Located near the junction between the muscle and the tendon. Signal the level of force in the various parts of the muscle.

The assigned article by Magill addresses the applicability of motor learning research to the physical educator. Within the article, one of the issues he discusses is the length and spacing of practice sessions. What is one of the main points he makes about the length and spacing of practice sessions? How could a coach or teacher apply this knowledge?

Magill addresses a study by Baddeley and Longman (1978). He explains in the research that just because a skill is being practiced in great lengths does not mean that the amount of time spent will reap the greatest execution of that skill. The most ineffective practice schedule was also the one most liked. A coach can apply this knowledge by implementing it in the practice sessions and use the schedule that works better for the team and not solely on preference of the athletes.

general motor ability hypothesis

Maintains that although many different motor abilities can be identified within an individual, they are highly related and can be characterized in terms of a singular, global motor ability.

Specificity of motor abilities hypothesis

Maintains that the many motor abilities in an individual are relatively independent

(a) Name and describe five perceptual motor abilities identified by Fleishman. (b) What other motor abilities can you identify?

Multi-limb coordination: ability to coordinate movements of multiple limbs at the same time ex. playing piano with pedals Reaction time: ability to respond rapidly to signal Speed of arm movement: ability to make gross, discrete arm movement where accuracy is minimized Finger dexterity: ability to make skillful, controlled manipulations of tiny objects involving the fingers Arm-hand steadiness: ability to make precise arm-hand positioning movements where strength + speed are minimized

Muscle Spindles

Muscle receptor that shortens when the muscle shortens and provides information about the rate of shortening as well as the changing position of the joints.

One way to minimize participant bias is to use ________ observation to collect data.

Naturalistic

From the Smith chapter on context-dependent memory, explain completely the naturalistic evidence for context-dependent memory.

Naturalistic evidence for context-dependent memory is a idea of how coincidental backgrounds of nature can cause a reinstatement effect in our memory. Being around a previously experienced environmental context will cue memories that happened with that environmental context. For example, if I drove past my old house, it would cue memories of my old school during that time, the connection I had with my family, the pets I had in that house, and more memories surrounding that time.

A ___________ correlation exists when one variable increases while another variable decreases.

Negative

What is the important caution you would give to a researcher interested in using a survey?

Not to write questions that lead people to answer in a wrong way.

Executive

One of the components of the closed loop control system; determined the actions necessary to maintain the desired goal state.

Explain what is meant by "strong right-hander." (limb selection article)

Out of all trials run, the people that are considered "strong right-hander" would grasp with their right hand a majority of the time.

Process Measures

Provide info regarding the process of movement: -Kinematic Analysis -Kinetic Analysis -Electromyography (EMG) -Electroencephalography (EEG)

response time

RT + MT

Explain CLEARLY, in your own words, the forgetting hypothesis.

Random practice helps the athletes learn by initiating the forgetting hypothesis and resulting in the athletes continuously forgetting the previous solution when shifting from task A to B. This forces the athletes to come up with a new solution for each skill exercised which will facilitate their learning.

To be useful a survey must be administered to a _______ sample pulled from a larger __________.

Random, population

List, define, and give an example of 3 perceptual motor abilities identified by Fleishman (1964). Do not use examples cited in your textbook or in the lecture!

Reaction time: ability to respond rapidly to signal. An example would be the start in a swimming or running race. Response orientation: ability to make quick choices among alternative movements. An example would be batting in baseball. Speed of movement: Tasks at which the arm(s) must move quickly without the reaction-time stimulus. The goal is to minimize movement time. An example is swinging a cricket bat.

Vestibular Apparatus

Receptor in the inner ear, detects movements of the head and is sensitive to its orientation with respect to gravity

Rehearsal

Repeating over and over to get into long term memory

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the results can be reliably reproduced.

Briefly describe why it's important for all people to have an understanding of the scientific method...

Research leads to logical conclusions. It's important so people can make informed decisions.

Triggered Reaction

Response that is too fast to be a voluntary reaction, having a latency of 80-120 ms; but it is too slow to be an M2 or M1 response.

Lateral Vestibulospinal Tract

Responsible for posture

Medial Vestibulospinal Tract

Responsible for stabilizing head position

skilled vs. novice performers

SKILLED - effortless - fluent - know what they want to achieve and how to achieve their goals - efficient, energy is not wasted - consistency in their performances NOVICE - inconsistent (can and do sometimes produce a good performance but generally they do not.) - far from fluid and appear to lack coordination - movements are inefficient and often we cannot tell what they are trying to do - they do not know what they are trying to do

Visual Proprioception

Sensory information provided by the visual system about propriopceptive aspects of a persons movement.

ability-skill-technique interaction

Skill = Ability + Selection of the correct technique

Cutaneous Receptors

Skin receptors that include several kinds of specialized detectors of pressure, temperature and touch.

How can a specificity view of motor abilities explain how a person can be very successful at performing a lot of different motor skills?

Some people would fall in category of having large # of abilities in a normal distribution - high levels of a large # of abilities -Wat seems like different motor skills may just be many related skills

Proprioception

Source of sensory information comes from the body, largely the muscles and joints. Information comes from inside.

Define spatial accuracy, temporal accuracy, and timing accuracy, and give an example of each.

Spatial accuracy is the type of accuracy required of aiming movements for which spatial position of the movement's end point is important to the performance. Example: sinking a golf putt into a hole. Temporal accuracy s the type of accuracy required of rapid movements in which accuracy of the movement time is important to the performance. Example: a boxer trying to block a punch. Timing accuracy is the type of accuracy required of rapid movements in which accuracy of the movement in time is important to the performance. Example: Dodging a dodgeball coming towards you.

Fitt's Law

Speed-Accuracy Trade Off

How is balance an example of a motor ability that includes at least two types of relatively independent variations?

Static and dynamic balance do not necessarily depend on each other - ex. patient with cerebral palsy may have unbalanced gait but can be very stable while standing still

Reflexes

Stereotyped, involuntary, automatic, and usually rapid responses to stimuli

Longitudinal study

Studying the same group of individuals over a long period of time.

Identify and describe the stages of learning identified by Fitts. Give an example of a person going through the stages (use a specific motor skill).

The Cognitive stage is how to perform the skill. An Example of this stage would be a person picturing the skill correctly in their mind. The Associative stage is when a person is practicing the skill to minimize any mistake. An Example of this stage would be a person would make small adjustments to perfect the skills during practice. The autonomous stage is when a person begins applying the skill in competitive situations. An example of this would be a person is beginning to respond and use minimal thinking and skills become automatic.

Dependent variable

The behavior or mental process where the impact of the independent variable is measured.

Define the Specificity of Learning Principle

The best practice approximates the movements of target skill and the environmental conditions of the target context

Explain the "cocktail party phenonemon" completely.

The cocktail party phenomenon is an example of parallel processing. For example, you can be at a party. Loud music would be playing and other conversations can be held around you, yet you can focus on the conversation that you are holding with someone else and block out the extra noise. This information is not completely blocked because some of it is being processed in the identification stage. Because of this, if someone where to call your name from across the room, you'd hear it. This phenomenon expresses that unattended process are processed with attended information in the early stages of sensory processing.

Effector

The component of a control system that carries out the desired action; for example, the arm is usually the effector that carries or the action of throwing a ball.

Population

The entire group from which subjects may be selected for a study.

Relative retention (definitions and measurement)

The expression of absolute retention relative to acquisition measures -percentage score -savings score

Discuss clearly two theories for why random practice seems to facilitate LEARNING. Do a great job!

The forgetting theory explain how randomly shifting from task A to task B, allows for the previous task to be forgotten. When asked to do Task A again, the student has to generate a new solution which facilitates the learning. The elaboration theory explains how the increased meaningfulness and distinctness produces durable memories of the task. In return, when tested for retention of that task the amount of facilitated learning increases as a whole.

Achievement Potentials

The individual differences we observe in the amount of success that people achieve in the performance of a motor skill depends in large part on the degree to which the person has the motor abilities that are important for the performance of that skill.

Movement Time (MT)

The interval of time that elapses from the beginning to the end of a movement.

Absolute Retention (define and measurement)

The level of performance on the first trial of the retention test **measured via difference score

M1 Response

The monosynaptic stretch reflex, with a latency of 30 - 50 ms.

Optical Flow

The movement (or continuous flow) of patterns of light rays from the environment over a persons retina, allowing the person to detect motion, position, and timing

From the Smith article on context-dependent memory, explain completely the outshining principle.

The outshining principle explains how an incidental environmental context when cue sources are absent. Context helps more when the information at hand is not learned well. Context helps when the information is meaningless. Because of this an incidentally encoded Environmental Context can cue memory when better cue sources are absent. If they are present, the relativity of of EC cuing is changed, making it less effective.

Experimental group

The participants in an experiment who are exposed to the treatment; that is, the independent variable.

Control group

The participants in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable.

M2 Response

The polysynaptic, functional stretch reflex, with a latency of 50-80 ms; sometimes called long-loop reflex

Independent variable

The research variable that is hypothesized to cause a change in the dependent variable.

One advantage of the scientific method over other ways of understanding the world is?

The scientific method leads to more reliable, reproducible answers.

Kinesthesis

The sense of awareness we have of the movements of our joints and the tension in our muscles during motor activity. Important for patients who are attempting to hold or alter their posture.

Visual Capture

The tendency for visual information to attract a persons attention more easily than other forms of information.

Visual Dominance

The tendency for visual information to dominate information from the other senses during the process of perception

Focal Vision

The visual system people use primarily to identify objects; it uses the center of the visual field, leads to conscious visual perception, and is degraded in dim lighting.

Ambient Vision

The visual system that allows people to detect the orientation of their body in the environment; it is non-conscious, takes in all of the visual field, and is used for action and movement

M3 Response

The voluntary reaction time response, with a latency of 120 - 180 ms.

Why are placebos used in some experiments?

They help control for some confounding variables.

Internal timing

Timing our movements according to our knowledge of time

Retroactive transfer

Transfer works backward from one task to another

Proactive Transfer

Transfer works forward from one task to another

Record your results for all 10 of your trials on the typing test, as indicated by the instructions on the lecture reading page.

Trial 1: 47, 5, 42 Trial 2: 53, 2 ,51 Trial 3: 54, 8,46 Trial 4: 52, 8, 44 Trial 5 : 51, 6, 43 Trial 6: 52, 8, 44 Trial 7: 59, 5, 42 Trial 8: 55, 4, 44 Trial 9: 52, 6, 51 Trial 10: 51, 5 , 42

If variable A is correlated with variable B what are the 3 possibilities in terms of cause and effect?

Variable A could cause B. Variable B could cause A. Or a third variable could cause both, A, and B.

Three Factors of Balance

Vision, Somatosensory, vestibular

Explain how task complexity affected reaching in this article "limb selection."

When a less complex task was used, the subjects switched to their non dominant hand to reach ipsilaterally. When performing more difficult tasks, it requires deeper processing which evokes the subjects to use their dominant limb.

Case study

When one person is studied in depth.

Participant bias

When participants in research respond differently than they normally would because of what they believe the researcher wants.

Researcher bias

When researchers selectively notice evidence that supports their hypothesis or expectations.

Explain how a dual-task paradigm might help demonstrate the concept that our attention is limited.

With the dual-task paradigm, people perform less effective than doing the tasks alone. This concept expresses how the two tasks interfere with each other, limiting our attention on both to perform both task simultaneously. The tasks compete for the same class of information processing in the brain. For example, reciting a poem while writing an essay will interfere with a person's attention to one of the tasks. When doing these tasks are attention is divided and we are switching our attention back and forth on both tasks.

High-trait-anxious people feel some level of threat in most situations and are more susceptible to arousal than low-trait-anxious people. a. true b. false

a

Limited attentional capacity suggests that the more space a primary task takes, the smaller the amount of space available for a secondary task. a. true b. false

a

Long-term memory is able to hold information longer than both short-term memory stores and short-term sensory stores. a. true b. false

a

Muscle-to-mind techniques regulate arousal by using somatic activities such as breathing and progressive relaxation. a. true b. false

a

The shortest reaction time is produced when there is one stimulus and one response. a. true b. false

a

When discussing information processing, ____________ is the information a person receives for processing. a. input b. information processing c. response d. output

a

___________ is the level of excitement of a person's central nervous system. a. Arousal b. Stress c. Anxiety d. Excitability

a

____________ describes the learning process that is quick, parallel, and involuntary. It does not demand attention, is more prominent during the later stages of learning, takes lots of practice, and is most beneficial in stable and predictable environments. a. Automatic processing b. Parallel processing c. Controlled processing d. Stroop effect

a

____________ is the stage of information processing in which a person recognizes and distinguishes the input. a. Stimulus identification b. Response selection c. Response interpretation d. Response programming

a

Set

a collection of psychological activities, states, or adjustment and processes that are appropriate and support performance while an activity is ongoing

Bernstein identified stages of learning from:

a combined motor control and biomechanical perspective

especial skill

a particular skill variation that receives massive amounts of practice; as a result it emerges as a highly specific skill for achieving a highly specific goal - ex: the free throw shot in basketball

Simulator

a practice device designed to mimic features of the real world *often elaborate, expensive and sophisticated * Group 3hrs prior to task has better learning and performance curve then group with no training

Attention

a resource that is available and can be used for various purposes; the ways in which these resources are allocated define how we use it; limitations include doing two things at the same time

selective attention

ability to attend to relevant info and throw out the irrelevant

Multilimb coordination

ability to coordinate movements of a number of limbs simultaneously

Response orientation

ability to make a rapid selection of controls to be moved or the direction to move them in

Arm-hand steadiness

ability to make precise arm-hand positioning movements where strength and speed are minimized

Control precision

ability to make rapid and precise movement adjustments of control devices involving single arm-hand or leg movements; adjustments are made to visual stimuli

wrist, finger speed

ability to make rapid and repetitive movements with the hand and fingers, and/or rotary wrist movements when accuracy is not critical

Manual dexterity

ability to make skillful arm-hand movements to manipulate fairly large objects under speeded conditions

Finger dexterity

ability to make skillful, controlled manipulations of tiny objects involving primarily the fingers

aiming

ability to rapidly and accurately move the hand to a small target

Speed of arm movement

ability to rapidly make a gross, discrete arm movement where accuracy is minimized

Reaction time

ability to respond rapidly to a signal when it appears

rate control

ability to time continuous anticipatory movement adjustments in response to speed and/or direction changes of a continuously moving target or object

Difference score

amount of skill lost over retention interval difference between last acquisition trial and first retention trial

Percentage score

amount of skill lost over retention interval (difference score) relative to amount of skill gained during acquisition

positive reinforcement

an event that increases the likelihood that the performer will repeat the response again under similar circumstance

serial attention

attend to one thing, then another

limited attention

attend to only one thing at a time

Narrow Focus

attending to small or narrow amount of info at a time; the more narrow it is, the less attention you have for other things

prerequisite to perception of information

attention

ASD

autism spectrum disorder characteristic repetitive behaviors

According to Hick's law, a negative linear relationship exists between the number of stimulus-response alternatives and choice reaction time. a. true b. false

b

According to the cue-utilization hypothesis, when arousal is low, the perceptual field is very narrow. a. true b. false

b

According to the inverted-U principle, the more "up" a person is, the better he or she will perform. a. true b. false

b

Anticipation that involves predicting when an environmental event will occur is called ____________. a. automaticity b. temporal anticipation c. spatial anticipation

b

Arousal and anxiety are normal aspects of motor performance, and the terms may be used synonymously. a. true b. false

b

Automatic processing is deliberate and requires consciousness. It is slow and attention- demanding. a. true b. false

b

Early anticipation in sport is always good. a. true b. false

b

Short-term memory can typically hold approximately 12 items. a. true b. false

b

Short-term sensory stores have the ability to hold more information than short-term memory. a. true b. false

b

The degree to which the relationship between a stimulus and its required response is natural is called ____________. a. stimuli matching b. response compatibility c. choice connection d. complementary e. all of the above

b

____________ is the interval between the presentation of one of several stimuli to the beginning of one of several possible responses. a. Fore b. Choice reaction time c. Anticipation d. Response selection

b

____________ is when two or more stimuli are processed at the same time without interference. a. Automatic processing b. Parallel processing c. Controlled processing d. Stroop effect

b

_____________ is the stage of information processing in which a person decides what to do with the information provided. a. Stimulus identification b. Response selection c. Response interpretation d. Response programming

b

Brittany and Abbey

b-left a-right share motor acts

reaction time

basic measure of processing speed bits/sec

movement time

beginning of movement to end of movement

What is the study of acquisition of motor skills focused on?

behavioral and neurological consequences associated with learning that skill

practicing in a particular environment often leads to

better performance in that particular environment

Anticipation that involves what will happen in the environment is called ____________. a. automaticity b. temporal anticipation c. spatial anticipation

c

The three stages of information processing between input and output include all of the following except a. stimulus identification b. response selection c. response interpretation d. response programming

c

___________ is a person's interpretation of a particular situation, a person's uneasiness or distress about a situation. a. Arousal b. Stress c. Anxiety d. Excitability

c

____________ is a type of information processing that is deliberate and requires consciousness. It is slow, sequential, demanding of attention, voluntary, and more prominent during the early stages of learning. a. Automatic processing b. Parallel processing c. Controlled processing d. Stroop effect

c

____________ is the period of time that passes from the presentation of a stimulus to the beginning of a person's response. It begins when the stimulus is presented and ends when the movement is initiated. a. Response selection b. Movement time c. Reaction time d. Response latency

c

Autism

can't cope with info overload

types of limited attention

capacity and duration

neuronal group selection

changes in brain circuitry which controls synergies neuronal grouping/wiring

Programming

cognitive processing that results in the formulation of the thought, cognitive expression, or motor program

cued recall (exp. 4) concept

contextual learning: kicking stores in memory our surroundings when learning a task

degree of freedom (DF)

coordination process which an individual constrains or condenses the available DF into the smaller number necessary to achieve a goal

developmental motor control theory (developmental biodynamics)

coordinative structures dynamical systems neuronal group selection

classic experiment #4

cued recall

Which of the following describes the effect of practice on reaction time? a. Reaction time becomes shorter. b. Practice keeps reaction time from increasing even when stimulus-response alternatives increase. c. The skill becomes automatic. d. all of the above

d

____________ is the stage of information processing in which the person organizes the motor system to produce the desired output. a. Stimulus identification b. Response selection c. Response interpretation d. Response programming

d

reaction to something _______________ with time

decreases

Taxonomy of motor abilities

defines the fewest independent ability categories which might be most useful and meaningful in describing performance in the widest variety of tasks

motor skills are learned through

developing motor programs

DCD

developmental coordination disorder motor impairment in the absence of neurological disease (clumsiness) 6% of american school children don't put together motor program very well, don't estimate well

what attention divides our resources

divided

Perceptual narrowing results in which of the following? a. ability to detect fewer stimuli b. focus on the most pertinent information c. shifts in attention d. missing certain types of information in the environment e. all of the above

e

Reaction time and decision making are influenced by which of the following? a. number of possible stimuli b. response compatibility c. number of choices d. practice e. all of the above

e

ADHD symptoms

easily distracted have trouble focusing on any one thing show impulsive behaviors overly active

Motor skill

emphasizes movement and does not require much thinking. examples: sprint racing, weightlifting, wrestling

discrete tasks

especially those with a relatively large cognitive component are forgotten relatively quickly

Automatic Processing

fast, not attention demanding, organized in parallel, and involuntary; comes with practice

recognition memory is the _______ one we see

first

discrete skill

free throw shot

GMP

generalized motor programs

babies have recognition memory in the form of

habituation

reaction time (RT)

improves with age into 20's and stable until 60's

Saccule

in Otolith Roughly vertical Detects vertical acceleration Detects head tilt

Attention and Skilled Performance

in many skills, there is an overwhelming amount of relevant and irrelevant info that can be processed; performer's problem is how to cope with potential overload; performer must learn what to attend to and when to attend to it

constraints model

individual task environmental

parameter feedback

informs learners of ways to adapt the generalized motor program to meet environmental demands

program feedback

informs learners of ways to produce the fundamental relative motion pattern

When discussing information processing, ____________ is the information a person receives for processing.

input

what accounts for divided attention (2)

interference (getting broken up with while driving) automation and attention deployment skills (driving is basically second nature)

divided attention

limitation in the capacity to handle info from environment

our attention is

limited

"cocktail party phenomenon" (popular, not classic)

loud party trying to talk to another person and fade out background

Dynamic balance

maintenance of equilibrium while in motion

Static balance

maintenance of equilibrium while stationary

neuronal group selection combines

maturation theory and dynamic systems

chunking

memorize stuff in categories relate info to something

long-term memory

more permanent unlimited capacity unlimited duration (hours, days, years)

cerebral palsy (CP)

most common cause of physical disability in childhood disorder that primarily affects a person ability to move and to maintain balance and posture

down syndrome

most commonly identified cause of mental retardation motor behavior driven by cognition

coordinative structures

motor programs control groupings of muscles with associated joints

Schema Theory

motor programs stored in memory are not specific records of the movements to be performed

recognition of stimulus and initiation of movement

movement time and response time

choice RT

multiple stimulus

synergies

muscle grouping

External (anticipation) timing

need to precisely time our movement initiation with the movement of an external object

memory recognition

noticing whether a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced less complicated (multiple choice)

Savings Score

number of trials required to attain a level of proficiency achieved in acquisition phase

dependency

occurs if feedback is given too often

ADHD

one of the most common neurobehavioral disorders of childhood and adults 3-7% of children

simple RT

one stimulus

successful motor performance

perceptual recognition (attention) speed of memory functions neuromuscular response time

Fits stages were specifically designed to consider:

perceptual-motor learning placing heavy emphasis on cognitive processes

Balance

postural stability

the single most important factor leading to motor skill acquisition is

practice

we are not ________ we are ______________

pre wired self organizing

alertness

preparation of system

developmental differences due to

processing strategies rather than structural (capacity)

Hicks Law

processing time increases as information load (complexity) increases RT (ability) -more load you give me the more ability goes down

self-organizing properties

rate controller (limiter maturation and advanced aging

habituation

reaction to stimulus declines

3 kinds of schema

recall recognition motor

Warm-up decrement

refers to a specific type of retention deficit due to the loss of an activity set * brought on by the passage of time, but eliminated once the performer completes several trails

dishabituation

renewed response to a new stimulus

Inverted-U Principle

represents a view of the relationship between arousal and performance; increasing arousal level generally enhances performance, but only to a point

Error Detection Capability

represents another goal or practice - the learner who is able to detect and analyze errors independently and make corrections is far more skilled and more self-sufficient

Cognitive skill

requires lots of thinking. example: in games such as soccer and field hockey, knowledge of the rules, game objectives and team tactics are cognitive in nature, and are associated with the decision-making element of game play

According to the textbook, what is the second information processing stage?

response selection

is the stage of information processing in which a person decides what to do with the information provided.

response selection

Moderate Arousal

results in best performance

continous tasks

retained very well over long periods of no practice

memory

retention and subsequent retrieval of information

continuous skill

riding a bike, swimming, walking remember these skills longer

dynamical systems (2)

self organizing properties subsystems (constraints)

Broad Focus

sensitivity to large number or wide range of cues at same time

Schema Theory

set of general rules, concepts, and relationships (schemas) to guide performance in keeping with the concepts of GMP

Controlled Processing

slow, attention demanding, serially organized, and volitional as a large part of conscious info processing activities; performing two info processing tasks together can completely disrupt both tasks

3 things motor program puts together

space time force

According to the text, what is the first information processing stage?

stimulus identification

motor schema

storage of "movement elements" and the relationship of these elements to each other

individual constraints

structural (body) functional (speed, balance, strength, etc.)

incoding is the hardest thing for a young person

take it in and store it

Mind to Muscle

techniques that regulate arousal; involve cognitive activities such as relaxation, meditation, and visualization (creating a mental picture)

Muscle to Mind

techniques that regulate arousal; involve somatic activities such as breathing exercises, progressive relaxation, and contraction and relaxation technique

Anticipation that involves predicting when an environmental event will occur is called ____________.

temporal anticipation

Psychological fidelity

the degree to which the behaviors produced in a simulator are identical to the behaviors required by the criterion task

Fidelity

the degree to which the simulator mimics the criterion task

Physical Fidelity

the degree to which the surface features of a simulation and the criterion task are identical

Transfer

the gain in the capability to perform one task as a result of practice of another task -use different task during retention than the acquisition OR same task but different conditions

memory recall

the more advanced form of memory involves remembering a stimulus that is not present

Retention

the persistence of performance follow a retention interval -same task in both acquisition and retention

parameterization

the process of selecting a specific parameter, such as force

processing speed

the rate of speed at which info is processed I am about 2x faster than a 5 year old and a 75 year old

target skills

the skills a person wishes to be able to perform

define Far transfer

transfer of learning of one task to a different task

application of schema theory

variability in practice promotes GMP

motor programming of B and A

walk 15 months learn to bike and swim!

Fitt's Law

when performers attempt to do something more quickly, then typically do it less accurately

External Cues

work best for beginners

Manual dexterity

​Ability to make a skillful arm-hand movements to manipulate fairly large objects under speeded conditions

Arm-hand steadiness

​Ability to make precise arm-hand positioning movements where strength and speed are minimized; includes maintaining arm-hand steadiness during arm movement or in a static arm position

Wrist, finger speed

​Ability to make rapid and repetitive movements with the hand and fingers, and/or rotary wrist movements when accuracy is not critical

Aiming

​Ability to rapidly and accurately move the hand to a small target

Reaction Time

​Ability to respond rapidly to a signal when it appears

Rate control

​Ability to time continuous anticipatory movement adjustments in response to speed and/or direction changes of a continuously moving target or object

Large capacity

Holds much of the information received by the receptors.

Internal Wide Focus

feel of full swing

Memory stores

*For each type of memory we'll examine: 1) Quantity: -How much information can be stored there i.e. how much can your short term memory hold? 2) Duration: -How long is it stored there. 3) Contents: -The types of information stored.

Brief Duration

*Information is cleared out quickly to make room for new incoming information. *Cleared in 2 ways: 1) Decays rapidly (it just fades) 2) Overwritten by new information

Types of sensory memory

*There is a different sensory store for each sensory modality (visual, hearing, touch, smell, etc) 1) Visual Sensory Register -Iconic Memory (Visions sensory memory) 2) Auditory Sensory Register -Echoic Memory (hearing)

Why have a sensory memory?

1) There is so much information continually presented to our senses and we are limited in our ability to process all that information. 2) So, sensory memory holds sensory information long enough to make sense of that receptor information. -Like hitting pause on TV and then hit play again.  -This avoids losing information while processing other information.

3 Characteristics of sensory memory

1) Veridical storage 2) Large capacity 3) Brief Duration

Some memory facts

1) Your short term memory is whatever you're currently thinking about 2) So when you pull something from your long term memory, you pull it into short term memory. 3) Long term memory is a behind the scenes kind of processing, like the storage room in the back.

stimulus identification stage

the first stage of information processing; during this stage, the input is recognized and identified

verbal-cognitive stage

the initial stage of learning, in which verbal and cognitive processes dominate the learner's activity

coincidence anticipation

a type of task that requires performers to produce movements that coincide in time,space, or both with an external object or event; sometimes referred to as anticipation timing - ex: catching or hitting a ball

closed skill

a skill performed in an environment that is predictable or stationary and that allows performers to plan their movements in advance

open skill

a skill performed in an environment that is unpredictable or in motion and that requires performers to adapt their movements in response to dynamic properties of the environment

External Focus

a target, such as an object to be struck or the intended effect that the action will have on the environment; pay attention to cues or info in environment; results in more skilled performance

contextual interference effect

a collection of findings showing that certain conditions that depress performance during practice produce more learning as measured on delayed tests of retention; higher for random practice than for blocked practice

generalized motor program

a motor program that defines a pattern of movement rather than a specific movement; this flexibility allows performers to adapt the generalized program to produce variations of the pattern that meet various environmental demands

consistent mapping

a performance situation for which a given stimulus pattern always requires the same response

varied mapping

a performance situation for which a given stimulus pattern requires different responses at different times or under different circumstances

blocked practice

a practice sequence in which a significant amount of time is spent on one task before practicing the next tasks; individuals rehearse the same skill repeatedly

constant practice

a practice sequence in which people rehearse only one variation of a given class of skills during a session

schema

a set or rules relating movement outcomes to the parameters set by a performer - ex: short distance of a throw or small amount of force

Sustained Attention

after a while, concentrating on a single target of our attention becomes progressively harder; factors know to affect include motivations, arousal, fatigue, and environmental factors; vigilance

Directing Attention

attention is limited and become even mores so when a learner is anxious; focus on most relevant source of the task or info; ID most relevant cues and direct toward those

Low Arousal

attentional focus is wide; a great deal of info is picked up

High Arousal

attentional focus narrows to most relevant cues; performance improves up to a point

External Narrow Focus

center of glove

elaboration hypothesis

contextual interference in random practice during early rehearsal that causes people to appreciate the distinctiveness of different tasks, which is beneficial for for performance in a retention test

knowledge of results

conveys information about the degree of goal achievement

knowledge of performance

conveys information about the quality of the action

prescriptive feedback

describes the errors a learner makes and suggests something to correct the errors

negative reinforcement

designed to encourage the repetition of an action by withdrawing unpleasant feedback

desirable difficulties

elements of practice that make effective performance more difficult to achieve during practice yet result in more effective learning later on

Shifts of Attention

events in environment; monitoring and correcting hid or her own actions; planning future actions; doing many other processes that compete for the limited resources of attentional capacity

intermittent feedback

feedback that is given only occasionally; is more effective for learning than feedback given after every performance

Internal Narrow Focus

feeling in left knee

Info Processing Under High Arousal

fewer stimuli detected; focus narrows to most pertinent info; attention shifts; RT slows

Closed Skills

focus on movement itself

Open Skills

focus should be on external or environmental info

summary feedback

given after a series of performance attempts; provides learners with information about each attempt

Stroop Effect

humans can process two stimuli during stimulus ID stage which results in longer info processing time

forgetting or spacing hypothesis

hypothesis that random practice prevents the repetition of a given task on successive attempts, allowing short term forgetting, which requires the learner to generate the solution on every trial (whereas blocked practice does not); the method of generating the solution is learned, which is effective on delayed tests of retention

More Arousal is Better

in sports like football when tackling, or basketball

Less Arousal is Better

in sports like gold, archery, balance beam; anything in which precision is needed

Managing Arousal

process gold instead of outcome goals; set realistic goals; beginners need to focus on one thing; if learner feels demands of task are attainable and realistic, they are less likely to be overly aroused when performing

extrinsic (augmented) feedback

sensory information provided by an outside source

intrinsic feedback

sensory information that comes from producing movements; information may come from outside of the body (exteroception) or within the body (proprioception)

intrinsic feedback

sensory information that occurs normally when performers produce movements; it can come from sources outside the body or inside the body

Perceptual Narrowing

tendency for perceptual field to shrink under stress with high arousal; important mechanism because it allows the person to devote more attention to sources of stimuli that are most critical right then

retrieval practice

the act of recovering a motor problem and its parameters from long term memory; facilitated by a random-practice schedule

invariant features

the characteristics of a movement that remain constant when the surface features of the movement change

target context

the environmental context in which people want to be able to perform a target skill or skills