NAIS 14 Midterm Terms

Pueblo Revolt

1680, revolt of indigenous laborers led by shaman named Pope'. Killed colonists and priests and got Spanish out of modern-day New Mexico for 12 years. Brought on by decades of mistreatment but stalled by fear of punitive killings by the Spanish like the 1599 Acoma Massacre. Pueblos blamed the destabilization of the agrarian society on Spanish cultural impositions. Laid siege to Santa Fe, successfully expelled the Spanish. The most successful Indian War in American history, as, for a period of time, it fully expelled the Spanish.

Deerskin trade

A form of the fur trade that particularly emerged during the 17th century between the Cherokees and the English. Similar to the fur trade, it intensified the trade of guns and alcohol, leading to the further spread of disease. In the Southeast, changes to the economic makeup based on an increased demand for deerskin was a cause of the Yamasee War.

Abenakis

Algonquian-speaking people based in Canada and the U.S. (particularly Maine). Samoset, an Abenaki chief, was notable for being the first Native to make contact with the English colonists of the Plymouth settlement in early 1621. Notably, he welcomed them in English, surprising them by suggesting an extensive history of trade with Europeans. Moreover, he welcomed them--suggestion a knowledge of their value in trade and willingness to engage with them. Later allied with the French in colonial conflicts of the 18th century.

Mohegans

Algonquian-speaking people in Connecticut, originally unified with the Pequot but split off after a major Pequot fort was destroyed in 1637 during the Pequot War. Allied with the English against other Native tribes during King Philip's War, and provided scouts and military personnel to the English during the 18th century. Mohegans and Pequots have resurged today to become some of the most influential groups in Southern CT.

Moctezuma

Aztec emperor defeated and killed by insurgent Aztecs in 1520. Though he had a few successors, he is generally regarded as the last influential Aztec emperor before its collapse to the Spanish. His death briefly precedes the Spanish seizure of Tenochititlan, which took place in 1521.

Cahokia

Cahokia, a city of 10-30k residents (same as London) which sits near present-day St. Louis, was Ancient America's one true major city. Known for complex organization and construction, including elaborate buildings and large mounds like Mound 72. Represents "Big Bang" of Native culture--focal point of cultural influence in the US during Middle Ages, esp in regard to intellectual and spiritual practices. Linked via trade to the Atlantic, Rockies, and Appalachia. Founded around 1050, declined by 1350, many suspect due to climate change. No one knows positively the descendants of Cahokians. Evidence of massive society that developed before the Euro Middle Ages.

Chaco Canyon

Chaco Canyon is a historical site in present-day New Mexico. From roughly 900-1150 CE, it was a cultural center for the Anasazi peoples. A dozen towns and roughly 200 outlying villages constructed here. The Anasazi accomplished many architectural feats here, building complexes so tall they remained the largest American buildings until the 19th century. Anasazis prob emigrated in late 12th century due to climate change in what is known as the Great Migration.

Cherokees

Cherokees were a tribe which originated in Appalachia. Early allies of the English in the deerskin trade. Agrarian and lived in permanent villages. Allied with the British against the Shawnee, but eventually went to war with them in the 18th century. Less affected by smallpox epidemic.

Diego de Vargas

Diego de Vargas was a Spanish explorer responsible for the Reconquest of New Mexico in 1692, twelve years after the Spanish had been successfully expelled from the area due to the Pueblo Revolt. He surrounded Santa Fe with his soldiers, forcing the Pueblo people to surrender. The reconquest of New Mexico represents a disunity of the Pueblo people after the Revolt, as they no longer had a common cause, making them vulnerable to reconquering.

Francisco Vasquez de Coronado

Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was a Spanish explorer who led initial expeditions into the Mexico, the Southwestern United States and Great Plains from 1540 to 1542 (contemporary w/ de Soto). Coronado, in contrast with Onate, was motivated by profit, particularly by the myth of the seven cities of gold promulgated in Spanish culture. He went as far North as Kansas, finding the ancient Native city of Quivira, yet did not find gold. While he represents initial Spanish interactions with Natives, then, his mission failed to live up to its practical intent.

Samuel de Champlain

French explored who, after Cartier, was the second major explorer from France to travel the St. Lawrence River. By the time he arrived, Stadacona and Hochelaga had been eradicated such that Champlain referred to Northern Canada as a "virgin," loosely-populated land. Established French settlement today known as Quebec and Quebec City (formerly Stadacona) in 1608, created the first accurate coastal map of Eastern Canada. Champlain also introduced guns to Native warfare, permanently changing the course of Native American history. To stimulate the fur trade, he made trading furs and slaves necessary to get guns. As such, Champlain was responsible for his allies' betrayal of their roots in the name of economic development like the fur trade.

Jacques Cartier

French explorer who traveled the St. Lawrence River in 1534 and then 1536. Visited Hocheloga (today's Montreal) and Stadaconna (Quebec City). Had originally hoped his travels would lead him to Asia. He and his crew were nursed to health by Mi'kmak Indians w/ Hemlock, as they had scurvey. First European to map out the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Contrast w/ Canada he saw vs Champlain in 1603.

Hernando Cortes

Hernando Cortes was a Spanish conquistador who, in 1519, Cortes established Veracruz, the first Spanish colony in Mexico. By 1521, he had conquered the Aztec empire using horses, gunpowder, and steel weapons. In Reconquista fashion, Cortes brought militant Christianity to the Aztec Empire. Beyond technological advantages, Cortes succeeded in against the Aztecs because other, subjugated indigenous people rebelled against the Aztecs with him, hoping to be freed. Brought significant portions of Mexico under Spanish control by the early 1520s.

Hernando de Soto

Hernando de Soto was a Spanish explorer who made contact with Florida in 1540, traveling deep into the Southeastern United States. He was a notoriously brutal imperialist, killing swaths of Natives along his journey. He, like Coronado further west, was driven by a desire for gold. De Soto and crew's depopulation of the Native Southeast/MS River Valley was so immense that when the French came decades later, they saw no structural evidence of earlier Native civs (mounds, chiefdoms, etc.). Much like Coronado, de Soto, amidst his macabre expedition, failed to find gold, and de Soto died in present-day Louisiana.

Hochelaga

Iroquois city that is currently known as Montreal. Cartier and his crew arrived there on his voyage, as it is an intersection with the Ottawa River. Catier reports having been received warmly by the Iroquois, who in fact nursed he and his crew to health when they were ill with scurvey. By the time Champlain arrived, it had been eradicated, likely by epidemic disease.

Jean de Brebeuf (Document: Mission to the Hurons)

Jean de Brebeuf was one of the original three Black-robed Jesuit priests who embarked to Canada on a French mission to convert its Native peoples to Christianity. In 1634, Brebeuf led a Jesuit mission to Huron country, but were resisted. Only when masses of Hurons began dying of smallpox did he gain a considerable rate of conversion. In his primary source, Brebeuf critiques the religious and marital practices of the Hurons as untrue, and characterizes them as thieves and liars. Nonetheless, he praises their hospitality. He acknowledges that many convert because the French seem to be in better health. In instructions to future Jesuits, he calls on them to be affectionate toward the Hurons to gain their respect. Father LaForgue, the once-intransigent priest in Black Robe, is based on Brebeuf.

John Eliot

John Eliot was a Puritan English missionary in New England during the mid-to-late 17th century. He was responsible for the John Eliot Bible, the first Bible printed in North American, which was written in Massachusett Indian dialect. He was also responsible for the aggregation of Natives into "praying towns," in which they could learn Puritan religious traditions. All told, Eliot was the most influential religious leader in the conversion of Native peoples during the English invasion of New England during the 17th century.

John Smith

John Smith was the leader of the English settlement at Jamestown, one of the earliest colonial forays into Virginia, and later was Admiral of New England. Smith was said to have been kidnapped by by members of the Powhatan chiefdom in 1607 and saved by his daughter, Pocahontas, though this story lacks credibility, and Pocahontas was most likely performing a role in a ritual. Smith made increasing demands of Natives for food, leading to conflict when he left in 1609. Also constructed maps and accounts of the New World highly influential to later colonialism.

Juan de Onate

Juan de Onate was a Spanish explorer who traveled to New Spain (specifically NM) in 1598. As opposed to earlier explorers to the territory, like Coronado, Onate's mission was not to profit, but to proselytize. His message to indigenous people represented a clear dichotomy between conversion and death. In addition, he sought to make permanent colonies of the territories to which he travelled, bringing women and children with him. He thus represents a development of various motives within the Spanish colonial enterprise. Onate is also infamous for perpetrating the 1599 Acoma Massacre, and further ordering the cutting off of many survivors' feet.

King Philip's War

King Philip's War, lead by Metacom (King Philip), a chief of the Wampanoag people, was a war fought against the English in 1675/76 in resistance to the perceived over settlement and cultural imposition of the English in New England. Before the war, Massasoit (Metacom's father) had established cordial relations with the English when they arrived on the Mayflower. However, the English had repeated violated these cordial terms, calling for the seizure of all Native guns and murdering a Wampanoag person. The Natives in the war were defeated by the English, leading to a vulnerable political position, yet before this, both Native and English people were massively slain.

Woodhenge

Large calendar post discovered in the 1960s which shed light on the cultural/technological practices of the Cahokians. Prob built 900-1100 CE. Thought to demonstrate that Cahokians adhere to solar calendar.

Monks Mound

Largest pyramid in Cahokia, largest pre-Columbia earthwork in the Americas. About the same size as Great Pyramid of Giza. Prob built 900-950 CE. Outlined of a temple points to advanced ceremonial culture of MS societies.

Jacques Marquette

Marquette was a French Jesuit Missionary who traveled down the Mississippi River in 1673 alongside explorer and trader Louis Jolliet. They were particularly in search of a water passage that would take them directly to the Far East. In so doing, Marquette was the first European of any kind to explore and map out the Northern region of the MS River Valley. In particular, the two men travelled and interacted with indigenous tribes particularly around present-day Wisconsin and Illinois. At the mouth of the AR River, Marquette met with Quapaw Indians and had a telling cultural interactions. They greeted him with dancing, feasts, and their women for sex. They also attempted to ingratiate he and his party to their religious rituals. All of this--generosity and an introduction to their culture--was seen as a conflict-aversion technique by the Quapaws.

Massasoit

Massasoit was the chief of the Wampanoag people when the Mayflower passengers arrived at the Plymouth colony in 1620. Formulated initial alliance with the colonists so they could help defend him against the Narragansets, who were attacking the Wampanoags when they were depleted by disease. Maintained cordial relations with the English, such that his son, Metacomet, took on the honorary title Philip.

1779-84 smallpox epidemic

Massive pandemic during the American Rev that spread from SA to Canada. Struck first in MX City and traveled international trade routes. Cleared massive swaths of land from population, driving the postwar American expansion West. This was complemented by high infant mortality and the disproportionate death of women.

Metacomet (Document: John Easton, "Metacomet Explains the Causes . . .")

Metacomet (or Metacom), the second son of Massasoit, was chief of the Wampanoag people during the escalation of English religious and cultural influence over New England in the late 17th century. He led the resistance to the English during King Philip's War. He was assassinated by the English in 1676.

Choctaws

Native tribe indigenous to Oklahoma, coalesced during 17th century. Formulated a treaty with the English during the 18th century promising to obey their laws and provide defense against the French and hostile tribes in exchange for goods and continued right to share their land. Survive in considerable numbers today. Invaded and victimized by de Soto during 1540s.

Westos

One of the initial tribes to engage in the slave trade with the English in Jamestown during the 17th century. Traded slaves for guns, which they used to conduct more slave raids. They even expanded their raids to Carolina, GA, and FL. Westos paid the price of this trade, and were destroyed in 1682 by Shawnee Indians until Carolina traders' orders.

Navajos (Document: Navajo Emergence Story)

One of the largest present-day American Indian tribes. Distinguished as "Navajos" during 1620s by the Spanish, prob traveled South from Canada perhaps 500 years before. Interacted and developed culture with Spanish and Pueblos. Their origin story, which goes through multiple versions of the world before their lineage is established, represents a belief that conflict produces misfortune, while healing and good relations between sexes are necessary for harmony. Aside from being a highly influential Native group today, the Navajos' creation story represents their cultural ethos in medicine, respect, and fairness to others.

Pocahontas

Pocahontas, frequently depicted in American culture, was the daughter of Powhatan. Supposedly saved John Smith, after Smith left brokered diplomacy between Powhatans and the English. Married John Rolfe in 1614, helped restore peace, and traveled with him to England, where she died in 1617.

Popé/Po'pay (Document: Declaration of the Indian Juan)

Pope was the leader of the 1680 Pueblo Revolt against Spanish colonial forces. He was a religious leader/medicine man in the San Juan Pueblo. In the declaration of the Indian Juan, he says that Pope was motivated by the extensive disrespect of Pueblo religious traditions by the Spanish, and formulated a discreet network of revolt from Pueblo to Pueblo. He also orchestrated an expulsion of Spanish culture from the area according to the document.

Powhatan

Powhatan was the chief of the Powhatan people, native to Virginia. He initially tried to incorporate the Jamestown colonists into his domain, causing conflict. Powhatan was also more infuriated when he discovered Smith's unwillingness to be a subordinate chief, as he modeled his colonialism on the Spanish's actions in Mexico. By 1644, the English had defeated the Powhatan chiefdom, expelling Indians from Virginia.

Praying Towns

Praying Towns describe settlements John Eliot established around Boston in the mid 17th century. They were model English Puritan communities (derived from the doctrine of Calvinism) where Natives could learn about English culture and Puritan tradition. They reflected the massive and systematic push for indigenous conversion to Christianity that coincided with the Puritan arrival in New England.

Pueblo Bonito

Pueblo Bonito is the largest great house in the Chaco Canyon, making it one of the Anasazis' foremost architectural accomplishments. Occupied by Anasazis from the 9th century to the 12th century. Could have housed hundreds of people, and had hundreds of rooms. Also contained various underground ritual centers, leading some to think it was a large place of worship. Represents considerable achievements of indigenous people in society-building pre-Columbian exchange.

Requerimiento

Requerimiento was a Spanish dictate from 1513 that invaders must give Natives a choice to become Christian upon invading Spanish territory. If the Natives deny, war are enslavement come next. However, this dictate was written in Spanish, making it impossible for Natives to understand or negotiate with conquering soldiers. As such, Requerimiento essentially represents a performative technique which Spanish invaders like Cortes, Pizzaro, and de Soto employed to readily and pseudo-ethically usurp indigenous lands and peoples. Abolished by the crown in 1556.

Mound 72

Small ridgetop mound that sheds light into ritual/burial practices of Natives, with Cahokia elites buried inside it. Originally excavated by Melvin Fowler in the 1960s/70s. Points to further tradition of sacrificing "retainers" upon the death of elites. This points to how the discovery of Cahokia revealed mass human sacrifice and mortuary practice never before seen in indigenous societies in North America

Cabeza da Vaca

Spanish explorer who explored Native settlements throughout the Southern U.S. (esp Southwest) due to a shipwreck before returning to Spanish settlement in Mexico in 1537. One of the earliest known explorers of this area of America, and considered an early anthropologist for his exhaustive survey of Indian tribes that he encountered.

Mississippian societies

Spreading form the MS Valley after 700 CE, Mississippian societies were stable, agri-based settlements near floodplains. Populous, complex ceremonial/poly struck. Residences of elite sat atop earthen mounds. Cahokia is a perfect example of a Mississippian society. Example of a highly complex pre-contact group of societies.

Squanto

Squanto was a 16th to 17th century Native man from a community called Patuxet who was kidnapped by English sailors and brought to Europe. He escaped and found passage to America, but upon his arrival, he discovered his entire community had been eradicated. As such, he stayed with early Europeans, teaching them how to survive, operate agriculture, and gather resources.

Encomienda

System of labor used in various Spanish territories in the Americans (notably in the Acoma Pueblo) during the 16th and 17th centuries. Indigenous people of these areas provided the Spanish with labor and tribute, and in return got Christian missions, which theoretically educated and protected them. Displays dominance of Spanish colonization over its territory, also eventually instigated developments like the Pueblo Revolt because of its deeply unfair nature. When external variables like climatic conditions affected Indians' ability to harvest tributes, they were tortured.

"The Indian Bible"

The "Indian Bible" was the first Bible printed in North America. It was developed by John Eliot in collaboration with Massachusett Indian interpreters in order to create a version of the Bible which could be read by literate Native peoples. It is thus not only significant as a historical first, but as a representation of the vigorous steps Puritan missionaries took to try and increase Native engagement with the Christian faith.

1696 smallpox epidemic

The 1696 Smallpox Epidemic, known as the Great Southeastern Smallpox Epidemic, was an epidemic of smallpox which particularly impacted the Native Southeast in the late 17th century, and was responsible for massive depopulation in many Native communities. Historians like Kelton view it as having been brought on by the formation of the slave, gun, and alcohol trade, which caused the constant movement of Europeans, Natives, and thus germs across the region. It was the first large-scale encounter with smallpox in the region, and it is seen as a primary direct cause for the depopulation of the Native Southeast.

Acoma

The Acoma Pueblo was a Pueblo complex in contemporary New Mexico which became occupied by the Spanish during the mid-to-late 16th century. Encountered by Coronado around 1540. In 1599, Juan de Onate led the Acoma Massacre as a counter to their resistance of Spanish colonial practices. This three-day massacre killed roughly 20% of all Acoma people and scared them into slavery and the Encomienda system. Despite this decimation, the Acoma led the Pueblo Revolt, and have a strong presence in the area to this day, putting Acoma among the oldest continuously-inhabited areas in the United States.

Algonquians

The Algonquian people, in contrast to Algonquins, are a diverse group of Native peoples, unified by the fact that they speak the Algonquian language family. While Algonquins are a part of this group, tribes in the Plains, East, and Central United States like the Blackfoot, Ojibwe, and Massachusett Indians are also Algonquian.

Algonquins

The Algonquins are a particular Native tribe, indigenous to Eastern Canada. They were an initially ally to the Jesuit French who arrived in Canada, actively engaging with them in trade and being diplomatic with Samuel Champlain. In Black Robe, Algonquins, while hesitant to accept Christianity, are seen as the primary allies of the French as they traverse Canada.

Anasazi

The Anasazi broadly refers to the ancestral group of the Pueblos. They inhabited Arizona, NM, CO, and Utah. Observable within Anasazi communities is presages of Pueblo architecture, particularly in the stone/earth dwellings they built along the walls of cliffs. Additionally mastered the cultivation of corn and the study of astrology.

Beaver Wars

The Beaver Wars were a series of conflicts from the 1630 onward between the Iroquois and their Dutch trading partners vs the Hurons, Algonquins, and other trading partners of the French. Each combatant, back by different European business interests, conflicted over territory. Beaver pelts were a scarce resource, and they were necessary for trade in guns and alcohol. As such, the Iroquois attempted to trade and cultivate in French territory, starting the conflict. These intermittent conflicts led to a pervasive loss of life, including the mass-killing of several tribes (including the Hurons) by the brutal Iroquois. In addition, alliances such as those between the Iroquois and English set up alignments that would persist during the French and Indian War.

Bering Strait

The Bering Strait is an underwater passage between the Pacific and Arctic oceans. When above ground, it connects the Russian Far Eat with Alaska. It is the subject of a theory that indigenous Americans migrated to N and S America between 12-14k years ago (though this number is constantly updated) via the Strait. This is refuted by many indigenous leaders, who claim America is their place of ultimate origin based on religious beliefs.

Chickasaws

The Chickasaws were a Native tribe in MS with outposts in KY, AL. Interacted with de Soto during his voyage. Most prominent slave traders during the seventeenth century, esp with English traders. Pivotal for maintenance of English and French power in the SE. French waged war against Chickasaws in 18th century. Emerged from ruins of Mississippian societies with Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks.

Great League of Peace

The Great League of Peace, formed sometime before direct contact with Europeans, banded tribes who spoke Iroquoian languages together into a confederacy. Previously, several such tribes had formed loose confederacies, but this was a much more systematic organization. Europeans, upon contact, referred to it as the Five Nations (Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas). Provides an example of pre-contact indigenous diplomacy, as the League caused peace between Iroquoian peoples during a time of prolonged warfare, uniting in common defense. Further, some believe the League influenced the US Constitution, in the federalist balancing of tribal autonomy with supremacy of the League.

Great Swamp Fight

The Great Swamp Fight was a pivotal battle in King Philip's War which took place in December 1675. After Narraganset Indians conducted a raid on the English, a large New England army (1,000+ men, along with some Pequots) surrounded and destroyed the Narragansetts' main fort, killing over 600 people. The battle represents a pivotal moment in the war, a commentary on Native alliances with colonists, and a testament to the brutality of King Philip's War as a whole. Also compelled Narragansetts, who had formerly allied with the English, to join Metacom's resistance.

Hurons

The Hurons were a group of indigenous people who banded together in the mid-17th century after collapse due to epidemic and war with the Iroquois. In Black Robe, a Huron village is the target of Jesuits, who wish to begin a Catholic settlement there. In real life, Hurons frequently interacted with Jesuits, especially during the 1620s, as the Jesuits lived among them. Jesuits created the first Huron-language dictionary during this time.

Iroquois (Document: "Iroquois Creation Story")

The Iroquois were a large band of Iroquoian-speaking people, bound together by the League of Peace. They traded extensively and had complex political organization. Their creation story involves the idea that the world was created on the back of a giant sea turtle. Passed down orally, showing prominence of oral tradition within certain indigenous communities. Essential themes: women in Iroquois society, duality of good and evil, need for balance.

Jesuits

The Jesuits were a group of Catholic missionaries founded in 1540 by St. Ignatius of Loyola. In this course's context, they were known for militantly converting Natives to Christianity in Canada. However, their efficacy was mixed. We can see this in Black Robe, in which Laforgue unsuccessfully tries to convert Algonquins and Iroquois for much of the movie, or in the testimony of a Mi'qmaq Indian, who, after years of conversion attempts, still readily asserts his culture's superiority over that of the French. In particular, Jesuits were portrayed as ineffective at converting the French to Christianity. Indian people did often adopt elements of the Catholic religion, though most commonly concluded with syncretic traditions. Most Iroquois resisted French conversion attempts, while Algonquins were more amenable.

Mi'kmaqs (Document: A Mi'kmaq Questions French Civilization)

The Mi'kmaq's were a Native tribe indigenous to Quebec as well as Northern areas in Maine. Significantly, they interacted with Cartier upon his journey to Canada in 1536. When he arrived, they immediately displayed beaver pelts--suggesting both willingness to trade furs and experience with fur trading networks. They were notably critical of the French; in the document, a Mi'kmaq Indian views their lives as fundamentally happier and more stable than the French's lives, claiming that they are more practical, have stronger religious and cultural traditions, and that they do not live in constant subsistence mode like the French.

Pequot War (Document: "Cooperation, Contagion, and Conflict")

The Pequot War of 1636-38 occurred between the Pequots and an alliance of English colonists and other Native tribes in New England. The Pequots declared war in response to loss of life due to disease and competition w/ the English over economic interests. 700 Pequots killed/taken captive by the end, with many sold into slavery. Bradford describes how the Narragansets and English brutally attacked a palisaded Pequot fort during this time by setting fire to it and assaulting men at all exits. English reports sometimes (falsely) estimated the damage spelled the complete demise of the Pequots.

Yamasee War

The Yamasee war was a military conflict that occurred between 1715 and 1717 in response to the extensive mistreatment, enslavement, and depopulation of Natives in the Carolina territory. Conflict was Yamasee and several other Native peoples vs the British. This conflict ended up further aggravating the spread of disease and causing greater loss of indigenous life. Many colonists were also killed, but the depopulation of natives due to the conflict was considerable enough to invoke major tribal realignment in the Southeast. It also marked the effective end of a major Native slave trade in the Southeast.

1633-34 smallpox epidemic ((Document: "Cooperation, Contagion, and Conflict")

This epidemic hit Massachusetts in 1633, devastating the Pequots and other tribes in the Connecticut Valley. In his accounts of Plymouth, Bradford estimates this epidemic's mortality at roughly 50% of the Indian population around the CT River. English were less affected, allowing them to dominate land and fur trade in the area in ways that provoked the Pequot War.

Narragansetts

Tribe indigenous to Rhode Island, part of the Algonquian language family. Considerably affected in number by the Great Swamp Fight, which destroyed one of their key forts, despite being neutral in that war despite being formally neutral. Allied with English against the Pequots in the earlier Pequot War, for which they were rewarded with captives (1637).

Giovanni da Verrazzano

Verrazzano's voyage to the East Coast represents the rapid response of Natives to mistreatment after the establishment of the Columbian exchange. Natives on the coast of Maine, where he and his crew arrived in 1524, refused to trade with them or even let them ashore. Presage to the clash between Natives and Europeans that would follow the Columbian Exchange.

Wampanoags

Wampanoags were an initial ally of English colonists upon their arrival at Plymouth in 1620. Notable figures include Massasoit, Metacom. Indigenous to MA and parts of RI. Severely reduced in number, though not eradicated, by King Philip's War.

William Bradford (Document: "Cooperation, Contagion, and Conflict")

William Bradford, who had been among the first pilgrims, governed the Plymouth Colony from 1621-1657. He wrote detailed accounts of life in Plymouth, from initial interactions with Samoset and Squanto, to the effects of the smallpox epidemic in the 1630s, to the Pequot War. In this sense Bradford symbolizes many focal points of the early colonial enterprise in New England. Meanwhile, his rather apathetic viewpoint toward Native loss of life demonstrates an attitude of Puritan, English cultural superiority that protruded many English actions during this era.