Negligence BB

3) Special Situations Where Requirements Not Always Necessary a) Bystander Not in Zone of Danger Seeing Injury to Another Traditionally, a bystander outside the "zone of danger" of physical injury who sees the defendant negligently injuring another could not recover damages for her own distress. A majority of states now allow recovery in these cases as long as:

(i) the plaintiff and the person injured by the defendant are closely related, (ii) the plaintiff was present at the scene of the injury, and (iii) the plaintiff personally observed or perceived the event. Many of these states also drop the requirement of physical symptoms in this situation. Example: Mother sees her child struck by negligently driven automobile on the other side of the street and goes into shock. Most courts would allow recovery.

Duties Owed by Bailor Sole benefit of Bailee

*(1) Sole Benefit of Bailee Bailments* If the bailment is for the sole benefit of the bailee (e.g., the bailor gratuitously loans her lawnmower to the bailee), the bailor *need only inform the bailee of known dangerous defects* in the chattel. There is no duty with regard to unknown defects.

"Attractive Nuisance" Doctrine Most courts impose upon a landowner the duty to exercise ordinary care to avoid a reasonably foreseeable risk of harm to children caused by artificial conditions on his property. Under the general rule, to assess this special duty upon the owner or occupier of land with regard to children on his property, the plaintiff must show the following: (4)

(i) There is a dangerous condition present on the land of which the owner is or should be aware; (ii) The owner knows or should know that young persons frequent the vicinity of this dangerous condition; (iii) The condition is likely to cause injury because of the child's inability to appreciate the risk; and (iv) The expense of remedying the situation is slight compared with the magnitude of the risk.

Duty Regarding Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress A duty to avoid negligent infliction of emotional distress may be breached when the defendant creates a foreseeable risk of physical injury to the plaintiff. The plaintiff usually must satisfy two requirements to prevail:

(i) plaintiff must be within the "zone of danger"; and (ii) plaintiff must suffer physical symptoms from the distress.

Common Foreseeable Intervening Forces Intervening forces that are normal responses or reactions to the situation created by defendant's negligent act are almost always foreseeable. The following are common intervening forces that are almost always foreseeable:

*(1) Subsequent Medical Malpractice* The original tortfeasor is usually liable for the aggravation of plaintiff's condition caused by the malpractice of plaintiff's treating physician. *(2) Negligence of Rescuers* Generally, rescuers are viewed as foreseeable intervening forces, and so the original tortfeasor usually is liable for their negligence. *(3) Efforts to Protect Person or Property* Defendant usually is liable for negligent efforts on the part of persons to protect life or property of themselves or third persons endangered by defendant's negligence. *(4) "Reaction" Forces* Where defendant's actions cause another to "react" (e.g., negligently firing a gun at another's feet), liability generally attaches for any harm inflicted by the "reacting" person on another. *(5) Subsequent Disease* The original tortfeasor usually is liable for diseases caused in part by the weakened condition in which defendant has placed the plaintiff by negligently injuring her; e.g., injury caused by defendant weakens plaintiff, making her susceptible to pneumonia. *(6) Subsequent Accident* Where the plaintiff suffers a subsequent injury following her original injury, and the original injury was a substantial factor in causing the second accident, the original tortfeasor is usually liable for damages arising from the second accident. For example, as a result of defendant's negligence, plaintiff's leg is broken. Walking on crutches, plaintiff falls and breaks her other leg.

Duty of Possessor to Those Off the Premises b) Artificial Conditions As a *general rule*, there is also *no duty* owing for artificial conditions. Two major exceptions exist, however.

*(1) Unreasonably Dangerous Conditions* A landowner is liable for damage caused by unreasonably dangerous artificial conditions or structures abutting adjacent land. Example: While one would not be liable for natural collections of ice on the sidewalk, he might be liable for negligently permitting water to drain off his roof and form ice on the sidewalk. *(2) Duty to Protect Passersby* A landowner also has a duty to take due precautions to protect persons passing by from dangerous conditions, e.g., by erecting a barricade to keep people from falling into an excavation at the edge of the property.

Duties Owed by Bailor Bailments for Hire

*(2) Bailments for Hire* If the bailment is for hire (e.g., the bailor loans her lawnmower to the bailee for a fee), the bailor *owes a duty to inform the bailee of defects known to him, or of which he would have known by the exercise of reasonable diligence*.

*Implied Assumption of Risk* Implied assumption of risk situations are harder to resolve as, of course, the fact issues are difficult to prove.

*1) Knowledge of Risk* Plaintiff must have known of the risk. Knowledge may be implied where the risk is one that the average person would clearly appreciate, e.g., risk of being hit by a foul ball in a baseball game. *2) Voluntary Assumption* The plaintiff must voluntarily go ahead in the face of the risk. However, plaintiff may not be said to have assumed the risk where there is no available alternative to proceeding in the face of the risk, e.g., the only exit from a building is unsafe.

Effect of Res Ipsa Loquitur

*1) No Directed Verdict for Defendant* The doctrine, where applicable, does not change the burden of proof, nor does it create a presumption of negligence. Where the res ipsa element has been proved, the plaintiff has made a prima facie case and no directed verdict may be given for the defendant. *2) Effect of Defendant's Evidence of Due Care* However, the effect of defendant's evidence that due care was exercised has the same effect in a res ipsa case as in all other cases. If the jury rejects the defendant's evidence and draws the permissible inference of negligence, it will find for the plaintiff. If defendant's evidence overcomes the permissible inference that may be drawn from the res ipsa proof, the jury may find for the defendant. Such a finding for the defendant may result even where defendant rests without offering evidence on the issue if the jury elects not to infer negligence.

This reasonable person has the following characteristics, measured by an objective standard: Physical Characteristics

*1) Physical Characteristics*—Same as Defendant's Notwithstanding application of the objective standard, the "reasonable person" is considered to have the same physical characteristics as the defendant. However, a person is expected to know his physical handicaps and is under a duty to exercise the care of a person with such knowledge; e.g., it may be negligent for an epileptic to drive a car.

This reasonable person has the following characteristics, measured by an objective standard: Mental Ability?

*2) Average Mental Ability* Defendant must act as would a person with average mental ability. Unlike the rule as to physical characteristics, individual mental handicaps are not considered; i.e., low IQ is no excuse. Likewise, insanity is no defense, and the defendant is held to the standard of a reasonable person under the circumstances.

This reasonable person has the following characteristics, measured by an objective standard: Level of Knowledge?

*3) Same Knowledge as Average Member of Community* Defendant is deemed to have knowledge of things known by the average member of the community, e.g., that fire is hot. Again, the individual shortcomings of the particular defendant are not considered. On the other hand, *a defendant with knowledge superior to that of the average person is required to use that knowledge.*

Certain Risks May Not Be Assumed Because of public policy considerations, the courts uniformly hold that some risks may not be assumed. These include:

*a) Common carriers and public utilities* are not permitted to limit their liability for personal injury by a disclaimer on, e.g., a ticket, a posted sign, etc. *b) When a statute is enacted to protect a class*, members of that class will not be deemed to have assumed any risk. Example: When a statute imposes safety regulations on an employer, the employee is held not to have assumed the risk where the statute is violated. *c) Risks will not be assumed in situations involving fraud, force, or an emergency.* Thus, for example, one could take action to save his person or property without assuming a risk unless his actions involve an unreasonable risk out of proportion to the value of those rights.

Common Imputed Contributory Negligence Fact Situations The following situations should be noted for bar examination purposes:

*a) Employer and Employee* The contributory negligence of the employee or agent acting within the scope of employment will be imputed to the employer or principal when the latter is a plaintiff suing a third person. *b) Partners and Joint Venturers* The contributory negligence of one partner or joint venturer will be imputed to the other when the other is a plaintiff suing a third person. *c) Husband and Wife* The contributory negligence of one spouse is *not imputed* to the other when the other is a plaintiff suing a third person. *d) Parent and Child* The contributory negligence of the parent or guardian is *not imputed* to the child, nor is the contributory negligence of the child imputed to the parent in actions against a third party. Note: As to sections c) and d) above, note that in a spouse's action for loss of the other spouse's services, or a parent's action for loss of a child's services or recovery of his medical expenses, the contributory negligence of the injured spouse or child will bar recovery by the other spouse or by the parent. This is not because negligence is imputed, but because the loss of services action is derivative and cannot succeed unless the main action succeeds . This result would also be obtained in a wrongful death action. *e) Automobile Owner and Driver* Unless the automobile owner would be vicariously liable for the driver's negligence (because, e.g., the driver was an employee within the scope of employment), the contributory negligence of the driver will not be imputed to her. (Remember, in situations where the owner is a passenger, she may be liable for her own negligence in not preventing the accident.)

Last Clear Chance 1) "Helpless" vs. "Inattentive" Peril Many cases distinguish between "helpless" and "inattentive" peril situations in applying last clear chance rules.

*a) Helpless Peril* Helpless peril exists where plaintiff, through his contributory negligence, puts himself in a position of actual peril from which he cannot extricate himself. In many states, defendant is liable under these circumstances if she had either actual knowledge of plaintiff's predicament or if she should have known of plaintiff's predicament. Other states require actual knowledge. *b) Inattentive Peril* Inattentive peril exists where plaintiff, through his own negligence, is in a position of actual peril from which he could extricate himself if he were attentive. Almost all courts require actual knowledge of plaintiff's predicament on defendant's part.

Effect of Comparative Negligence on Other Doctrines 2) Assumption of Risk

*a) Implied Assumption of Risk* Most comparative negligence jurisdictions have abolished entirely the defense of implied assumption of risk. In these jurisdictions, traditional assumption of risk situations must be broken down into two categories: (1) When the defendant has only a limited duty to the plaintiff because of plaintiff's knowledge of the risks (e.g., being hit by a foul ball at a baseball game), a court may protect the defendant simply by holding that the defendant did not breach his limited duty of care. The defendant will still be liable for reckless conduct. (2) More common is the situation that is a variant of contributory negligence, in that defendant's initial breach of duty to plaintiff is superseded by plaintiff's assumption of a risk (e.g., builder is negligent in not barricading torn-up sidewalk, but pedestrian chooses to use it despite availability of reasonable alternate route). Here, the reasonableness of plaintiff's conduct is relevant: If the plaintiff has behaved unreasonably, plaintiff is contributorily negligent and damages will be apportioned under the state's comparative negligence statute. *b) Express Assumption of Risk* Most comparative negligence jurisdictions retain the defense of express assumption of risk.

Role of Contract in Creating Duty

*a) Nonfeasance—No Duty* In general, for mere nonfeasance, there is no tort duty of care, regardless of whether the defendant promises to undertake action gratuitously or for consideration. Liability for breach of contract extends only to parties in privity. *b) Misfeasance—Due Care Required* However, for misfeasance, failure to perform with due care contractual obligations owed to one may give rise to violation of a legal duty. Example: Pursuant to a contract with the building owner, Defendant inspected and repaired the elevator, and did so carelessly. The elevator operator is injured as a result. Defendant is liable to the operator.

When Statutory Standard Applicable - Negligence Per Se The precise standard of care in a common law negligence case may be established by proving the applicability to that case of a statute providing for criminal penalties (including fines). If this is done, a clearly stated specific duty imposed by the statute will replace the more general common law duty of due care. In proving the availability of the statutory standard, plaintiff must show the following:

*a) Plaintiff Within Protected Class* - The plaintiff must show that she is in the class intended to be protected by the statute. - Example: A statute requiring a landowner to keep a building in safe condition is meant to protect only those rightfully on the premises and not trespassers. *b) Particular Harm to Be Avoided* The plaintiff must show that the statute was designed to prevent the type of harm that the plaintiff suffered. Example: Violation of a Sunday closing law is not evidence of negligence in the case of an accident in a store on Sunday.

Res ipsa loquitur requires the plaintiff to show the following:

*a. Inference of Negligence* Plaintiff must establish that the accident causing his injury is the type that would not normally occur unless someone was negligent. Example: A windowpane fell from a second story window in Defendant's building, landing on Plaintiff. Res ipsa loquitur may apply. *b. Negligence Attributable to Defendant* Plaintiff must establish evidence connecting defendant with the negligence in order to support a finding of liability, i.e., evidence that this type of accident ordinarily happens because of the negligence of someone in defendant's position. This requirement often can be satisfied by showing that the instrumentality that caused the injury was in the *exclusive control* of defendant, although actual possession of the instrumentality is not necessary.

Nonrecoverable Items Certain items are not recoverable as damages in negligence actions. These include:

1) Interest from date of damage in personal injury action; and 2) Attorneys' fees.

Types of Comparative Negligence

1) Partial 2) Pure

When Is a Trespasser "Discovered"?

A trespasser is discovered, of course, when she is actually noticed on the property by the owner or occupier. But in addition, a trespasser is viewed as discovered if the owner or occupier is *notified by information sufficient for a reasonable person to conclude that someone is on the property*.

PRIMA FACIE CASE To establish a prima facie case for negligence, the following elements must be proved:

1. The existence of a *duty* on the part of the defendant to conform to a specific standard of conduct for the protection of the plaintiff against an unreasonable risk of injury; 2. *Breach* of that duty by the defendant; 3. That the breach of duty by the defendant was the *actual and proximate cause of the plaintiff's injury*; and 4. *Damage* to the plaintiff's person or property.

DUTY OF CARE The "Unforeseeable" Plaintiff Problem 1) The Problem The "unforeseeable" plaintiff problem arises when defendant breaches a duty to one plaintiff (P1) and also causes injury thereby to a second plaintiff (P2) to whom a foreseeable risk of injury might or might not have been created at the time of the original negligent act. Example: An employee of Defendant negligently aided a passenger boarding the train, causing the passenger to drop a package. The package exploded, causing a scale a substantial distance away to fall upon a second passenger. Is the second passenger a foreseeable plaintiff?

2) The Solution(s) Defendant's liability to P2 will depend upon whether the Andrews or Cardozo view in Palsgraf is adopted. [Palsgraf v. Long Island Railroad, 248 N.Y. 339 (1928)] Most courts considering this issue have followed the Cardozo view. a) Andrews View - According to the Andrews view in Palsgraf, the second plaintiff (P2) may establish the existence of a duty extending from the defendant to her by showing that the defendant has breached a duty he owed P1. In short, defendant owes a duty of care to anyone who suffers injuries as a proximate result of his breach of duty to someone. b) Cardozo View - According to the Cardozo view in Palsgraf, the second plaintiff (P2) can recover only if she can establish that a reasonable person would have foreseen a risk of injury to her in the circumstances, i.e., that she was located in a *foreseeable "zone of danger."*

Duty Owed Undiscovered Trespassers

A landowner owes *no duty* to an undiscovered trespasser. He has no duty to inspect in order to ascertain whether persons are coming onto his property.

Special Relationship Between Parties

A defendant having a special relationship to the plaintiff (e.g., parent-child, employer-employee) may be liable for failure to act if the plaintiff is in peril.

a) Duty to Disclose Risks of Treatment

A doctor proposing a course of treatment or a surgical procedure has a duty to provide the patient with enough information about its risks to enable the patient to make an *informed consent* to the treatment. *If an undisclosed risk was serious enough that a reasonable person in the patient's position would have withheld consent to the treatment, the doctor has breached this duty.* Example: Patient consents to an operation not necessary to save his life. Patient is not informed that there is a 40% probability of paralysis in such operations, and paralysis results. Since a reasonable person would not have consented to the operation had the risks been disclosed, Doctor has breached his duty of disclosure.

General Duty of Care

A general duty of care is imposed on all human activity. When a person engages in an activity, he is under a legal duty to act as an ordinary, prudent, reasonable person. It is presumed that an ordinary, prudent, reasonable person will take precautions against creating unreasonable risks of injury to other persons. Thus, if the defendant's conduct creates an unreasonable risk of injury to persons in the position of the plaintiff, the general duty of care extends from the defendant to the plaintiff. No duty is imposed on a person to take precautions against events that cannot reasonably be foreseen. Therefore, if at the time of the negligent conduct, no foreseeable risk of injury to a person in the position of the plaintiff is created by the defendant's act, the general duty of care does not extend from the defendant to the plaintiff. In addition, certain other factors such as the status of the parties (e.g., owners or occupiers of land) or statutes may limit or extend this general duty.

*"Wrongful Life" Action* -

A lawsuit by or on behalf of a child with birth defects, alleging that, but for the doctor-defendant's negligent advice, the parents would not have conceived the child or would have terminated the pregnancy so as to avoid the pain and suffering resulting from the child's defects. Not Recognized In most states, the failure to diagnose a congenital defect of the fetus or to properly perform a contraceptive procedure does not permit the unwanted child to recover damages for "wrongful life," even if the child is born handicapped.

*(1) Definition of Licensee*

A licensee is one who enters on the land with the landowner's permission, express or implied, for her own purpose or business rather than for the landowner's benefit.

Duty of Care for Children

A majority of courts take the view that a child is required to conform to the standard of care of a *child of like age, education, intelligence, and experience*. This permits a subjective evaluation of these factors.

"Good Samaritan" Statutes

A number of states have enacted statutes exempting licensed doctors, nurses, etc., who voluntarily and gratuitously render emergency treatment, from liability for ordinary negligence. Liability still exists, however, for gross negligence.

Scope of Invitation for Invitee

A person loses her status as an invitee if she exceeds the scope of the invitation—if she goes into a portion of the premises where her invitation cannot reasonably be said to extend. (Note that the invitation normally does extend to the entrance and steps of a building.) Example: Gas station customer, buying gas, loses status as invitee when she leaves pumps and falls into grease pit inside station. (Reversion to licensee, perhaps even trespasser, status.)

Particular Standards of Conduct Some persons are held to a standard of conduct different from that of the ordinary person. 1) Professionals

A person who is a professional or has special skills (e.g., doctor, lawyer, airplane mechanic, etc.) is required to possess and exercise the knowledge and skill of a *member of the profession or occupation in good standing.* For *doctors, most courts will apply a national standard* of care to evaluate their conduct. The professional must also use such superior judgment, skill, and knowledge as he actually possesses. Thus, a *specialist might be held liable where a general practitioner would not.*

Standard of Care for Contributory Negligence: Rescuers

A plaintiff may take extraordinary risks when attempting a rescue without being considered contributorily negligent. The emergency situation is one of the factors taken into account when evaluating the plaintiff's conduct.

*Alternative Causes Approach* *a) Burden of Proof Shifts to Defendants*

A problem of causation exists where two or more persons have been negligent, but uncertainty exists as to which one caused plaintiff's injury. Under the alternative causes approach, plaintiff must prove that harm has been caused to him by one of them (with uncertainty as to which one). The burden of proof then shifts to defendants, and each must show that his negligence is not the actual cause. Example: Alex and Basil both negligently fire shotguns in Clara's direction. Clara is hit by one pellet, but she cannot tell which gun fired the shot. Under the alternative causes approach, Alex and Basil will have to prove that the pellet was not theirs. If unable to do this, they may both be liable. [Summers v. Tice, 33 Cal. 2d 80 (1948)]

DUTY OF CARE Intended Beneficiaries of Economic Transactions

A third party for whose economic benefit a legal or business transaction is made (e.g., the beneficiary of a will) is *owed a duty of care if the defendant could reasonably foresee harm to that party if the transaction is done negligently*. Note that this is an exception to the general rule that one who suffers only economic loss as a result of another's negligence cannot recover damages in a tort action

"But For" Test

An act or omission to act is the cause in fact of an injury when the injury would not have occurred but for the act. Example: Failure to provide a fire escape is a cause of death of one who is thereby unable to flee a fire, but it is not a cause of death of one who suffocated in bed.

Indirect Cause Cases

An indirect cause case is one where the facts indicate that a force came into motion after the time of defendant's negligent act and combined with the negligent act to cause injury to plaintiff. In short, indirect cause cases are *those where intervening forces are present*. Whether an intervening force will cut off defendant's liability for plaintiff's injury is determined by foreseeability.

Definition of Invitee

An invitee is a person who enters onto the premises in response to an express or implied invitation of the landowner. Basically, there are two classes of invitees: (a) Those who enter as members of the public for a purpose for which the land is held *open to the public*, e.g., museums, churches, airports; and (b) Those who enter for a *business purpose* or other interests of the landowner or occupier, e.g., store customers and persons accompanying them, employees, persons making deliveries, etc.

Avoidable Consequences Distinguished

As we have seen, plaintiff owes a duty to mitigate damages to person or property after the damage is inflicted. If he does not properly do this, then damages will be reduced. Failure to do this, however, is an avoidable consequence, not contributory negligence

Conduct of Persons on Property

An owner of land has a *duty to exercise reasonable care with respect to his own activities on the land* and to *control the conduct of others on his property* so as to avoid unreasonable risk of harm to others outside the property.

1) General Rule—No Affirmative Duty to Act

As a general matter, no legal duty is imposed on any person to affirmatively act for the benefit of others. This general rule is, however, subject to exception, as indicated below.

Collateral Source Rule

As a general rule, damages are not reduced or mitigated by reason of benefits received by plaintiff from other sources, e.g., health insurance, sick pay from employer. Hence, at trial, defendants may not introduce evidence relating to any such financial aid from other sources. A growing number of states have made exceptions to this rule in certain types of actions (e.g., medical malpractice actions), allowing defendants to introduce evidence of insurance awards or disability benefits. Note: These damages rules also are generally applicable to actions based on intentional torts.

Duty to Mitigate Damages

As in all cases, the plaintiff has a duty to take reasonable steps to mitigate damages—in property damage cases to preserve and safeguard the property, and in personal injury cases to seek appropriate treatment to effect a cure or healing and to prevent aggravation. Failure to mitigate precludes recovery of any additional damages caused by aggravation of the injury.

Effect of Contributory Negligence

At common law, plaintiff's contributory negligence completely barred his right to recover. This was so even though the degree of defendant's negligence was much greater than that of plaintiff. The severe consequences of strict application of contributory negligence rules initially caused courts to develop "escape" doctrines, such as last clear chance (below). More recently, however, most jurisdictions have rejected entirely the "all or nothing" approach of contributory negligence in favor of a comparative negligence system (discussed infra).

D. CAUSATION 1. Actual Cause (Causation in Fact)

Before the defendant's conduct can be considered a proximate cause of plaintiff's injury, it must first be a cause in fact of the injury. Several tests exist: But for, substantial factor.

Duty of Care: Common Carriers and Innkeepers

Common carriers and innkeepers are required to exercise a very high degree of care toward their passengers and guests; i.e., they are *liable for slight negligence.*

Duty of Common Carriers

Common carriers are under a *duty to use reasonable care to aid or assist passengers.*

No Defense to Intentional Torts

Contributory negligence is never a defense to an action for an intentional tort or for willful or wanton misconduct.

Custom or Usage

Custom or usage may be introduced to establish the standard of care in a given case. However, customary methods of conduct do not furnish a test that is conclusive for controlling the question of whether certain conduct amounted to negligence.

DAMAGES

Damage is an essential element of plaintiff's prima facie case for negligence. This means actual harm or injury. Unlike the situation for some of the intentional torts, damage will not be presumed. Thus, nominal damages are not available in an action in negligence; some proof of harm must be offered.

Unforeseeable Extent or Severity of Harm—

Defendant Liable In both direct cause and indirect cause cases, the fact that the extent or severity of the harm was not foreseeable does not relieve defendant of liability; i.e., the tortfeasor takes his victim as he finds him. This is also known as the "eggshell-skull plaintiff" rule. Thus, where defendant's negligence causes an aggravation of plaintiff's existing physical or mental illness, defendant is liable for the damages caused by the aggravation. Example: A car negligently driven by D collides with a car driven by P. P suffers a slight concussion, which was foreseeable, and also suffers a relapse of an existing mental illness, which was not foreseeable. D is liable for all of P's damages.

1) Foreseeable Results Caused by Foreseeable Intervening Forces—

Defendant Liable Where defendant's negligence caused a foreseeable harmful response or reaction from an intervening force or created a foreseeable risk that an intervening force would harm plaintiff, defendant is liable for the harm caused.

Direct Cause Cases A direct cause case is one where the facts present an *uninterrupted chain of events* from the time of the defendant's negligent act to the time of plaintiff's injury. In short, there is no external intervening force of any kind. *1) Foreseeable Harmful Results*—

Defendant Liable If a particular harmful result was at all foreseeable from defendant's negligent conduct, the unusual manner in which the injury occurred or the unusual timing of cause and effect is irrelevant to defendant's liability. Example: D is driving her sports car down a busy street at a high rate of speed when a pedestrian steps out into the crosswalk in front of her. D has no time to stop, so she swerves to one side. Her car hits a parked truck and bounces to the other side of the street, where it hits another parked vehicle, propelling it into the street and breaking the pedestrian's leg. D is liable despite the unusual way in which she caused the injury to the pedestrian.

4) Unforeseeable Results Caused by Unforeseeable Intervening Forces—

Defendant Not Liable As a general rule, intervening forces that produce unforeseeable results (i.e., results that were not within the increased risk created by defendant's negligence) will be deemed to be unforeseeable and superseding. A superseding force is one that serves to break the causal connection between defendant's initial negligent act and the ultimate injury, and itself becomes a direct, immediate cause of the injury. Thus, defendant will be relieved of liability for the consequences of his antecedent conduct. Example: D negligently blocks a road, forcing P to take an alternate road. Another driver negligently collides with P on this road, injuring him. Even though D is an actual (but for) cause of P's injury, the other driver's conduct is an unforeseeable intervening force because D's negligence did not increase the risk of its occurrence. Thus, the other driver is a superseding force that cuts off D's liability for his original negligent act.

Direct Cause Cases 2) Unforeseeable Harmful Results—

Defendant Not Liable In the rare case where defendant's negligent conduct creates a risk of a harmful result, but an entirely different and totally unforeseeable type of harmful result occurs, most courts hold that defendant is not liable for that harm. Example: D, a cabdriver, is driving too fast on a busy elevated highway, threatening P, his passenger, with injury. Without warning, the section of highway that D is on collapses because its support beams had deteriorated with age. P is seriously injured. Even if D's negligent conduct was an actual cause of P's injury (because the cab would not have been on that section of the highway but for D's speeding), courts would not hold D liable for the injury to P.

3) Unforeseeable Results Caused by Foreseeable Intervening Forces—

Defendant Not Liable Most intervening forces that produce unforeseeable results are considered to be unforeseeable intervening forces (see below). Similarly, most results caused by foreseeable intervening forces are treated as foreseeable results. In the rare case where a foreseeable intervening force causes a totally unforeseeable result, most courts would not hold the defendant liable. Example: D, a cabdriver, was driving recklessly during a violent windstorm that was blowing large branches and other debris onto the road, creating a risk to P, his passenger, that D would not be able to stop the cab in time to avoid an accident. D slammed on his brakes to avoid a large branch in the road, causing his cab to swerve sideways onto the shoulder of the road. Before he could proceed, another branch crashed onto the roof of the cab, breaking a window and causing P to be cut by flying glass. D is not liable to P even though his negligent driving was the actual (but for) cause of P's injury and the wind that was blowing the branches down was a foreseeable intervening force.

2) Foreseeable Results Caused by Unforeseeable Intervening Forces—

Defendant Usually Liable The problem: Defendant is negligent because his conduct threatens a result of a particular kind that will injure plaintiff. This result is ultimately produced by an unforeseeable intervening force. Most courts would generally find liability here because they give greater weight to foreseeability of result than to foreseeability of the intervening force. An exception exists, however, where the intervening force is an unforeseeable crime or intentional tort of a third party; it will be deemed a "superseding force" that cuts off defendant's liability (see discussion below). Examples: 1) Defendant failed to clean residue out of an oil barge, leaving it full of explosive gas. Negligence, of course, exists since an explosion resulting in harm to any person in the vicinity was foreseeable from any one of several possible sources. An unforeseeable bolt of lightning struck the barge, exploding the gas and injuring workers on the premises. Defendant is liable. 2) Same facts as above example, except that an arsonist caused the explosion. Most courts would not hold Defendant liable here. They think it unfair to make him responsible for such malevolent conduct. The important point here is that an unforeseeable intervening force may still relieve the defendant of liability if it is an unforeseeable crime or intentional tort of a third party.

Imputed Contributory Negligence

EX: Driver and Passenger are involved in an automobile accident with Cyclist. Driver is negligent; Cyclist is also negligent. Passenger, who is injured, brings an action against Cyclist. Cyclist argues that liability should be denied because of Driver's negligence to the same extent as if Passenger had been negligent himself. This is the concept of "imputed contributory negligence." *1) General Rule—Plaintiff May Proceed Against Both Negligent Parties* -As a general rule, a plaintiff's action for his damages is not barred by imputed contributory negligence. He may proceed against both negligent parties as joint tortfeasors to the extent that each is a legal cause of the harm. *2) When Contributory Negligence Is Imputed* Contributory negligence will be *imputed only where the plaintiff and the negligent person stand in such a relationship to each other that the courts find it proper* to charge plaintiff with that person's negligence, i.e., *where plaintiff would be found vicariously liable for the negligent person's conduct* if a third party had brought the action.

As Defense to Violation of Statute by Defendant Contributory negligence is ordinarily a defense to negligence proved by defendant's violation of an applicable statute. But where the defendant's negligence arose from violation of a statute designed to protect this particular class of plaintiffs from their own incapacity and lack of judgment, then plaintiff's contributory negligence is not a defense.

Example: D is exceeding the speed limit in a school zone when a child on his way to school darts into the street without looking. Because of her speed, D is unable to stop and hits the child. Any contributory negligence on the child's part is not a defense to D's violation of the statute, because the statute was designed to protect children on their way to school.

Duties Owed by Bailee *(3) Mutual Benefit Bailments*

If the bailment is for the mutual benefit of the bailor and bailee (typically a bailment for hire such as in the computer repair example above), the *bailee must exercise ordinary due care.*

Duties Owed by Bailee *(2) Sole Benefit of Bailee Bailment*

If the bailment is for the sole benefit of the bailee (e.g., the bailor gratuitously loans her lawnmower to the bailee), the *bailee is liable even for slight negligence*.

Last Clear Chance: Prior Negligence Cases

For last clear chance to operate, defendant must have been able to avoid harming plaintiff at the time of the accident. In short, defendant must have had the "last clear chance" to avoid the accident. Hence, if defendant's only negligence had occurred earlier, e.g., she negligently failed to have the steering wheel fixed, the courts will not apply last clear chance

To Whom Is the Duty of Care Owed?

Foreseeable Plaintiffs

Duties Owed by Bailee *(1) Sole Benefit of Bailor Bailment*

If the bailment is for the sole benefit of the bailor (e.g., the bailor asks his neighbor (the bailee) to take in the bailor's mail while he is on vacation), the *bailee is liable only for gross negligence*.

Effect of Lessor's Covenant to Repair

If the lessor has covenanted to make repairs and reserves the right to enter the leased premises for the purpose of inspecting for defects and repairing them, he is subject to liability for unreasonably dangerous conditions.

Effect of Admission of the Public on Lessor's Duties

If the lessor leases the premises knowing that the lessee intends to admit the public, the lessor is subject to liability for unreasonably dangerous conditions existing at the time he transfers possession where the nature of the defect and length and nature of the lease indicate that the tenant will not repair (e.g., lessor rents convention hall to tenant for three-day period). This liability continues until the defect is actually remedied. A mere warning to the lessee concerning the defect is not sufficient. (The duty of care of tenants and lessors is also covered in the Real Property outline.)

Effect of Voluntary Repairs by Lessor

If the lessor, though under no obligation to make repairs, does so, he is subject to liability if he does so negligently, failing to cure the defect; it is not necessary that his negligent repairs make the condition worse.

Bailment Duties

In a bailment relationship, the bailor transfers physical possession of an item of personal property to the bailee without a transfer of title. The bailee acquires the right to possess the property in accordance with the terms of the bailment. A bailment obligates the bailee to return the item of personal property to the bailor or otherwise dispose of it according to the bailment terms. Example: When the owner of a computer delivers it to a technician to be repaired, the technician becomes a bailee of the computer and the owner is the bailor.

Proximate Cause (Legal Causation)

In addition to being a cause in fact, the defendant's conduct must also be a proximate cause of the injury. Not all injuries "actually" caused by defendant will be deemed to have been proximately caused by his acts. Thus, the doctrine of proximate causation is a limitation of liability and deals with liability or nonliability for unforeseeable or unusual consequences of one's acts.

Standard of Care Owed by Owners and/or Occupiers of Land

In this section, duty problems are resolved by application of special rules that have been developed imposing duties on individuals because of their relationship to property. In some cases, the duty of the owner or occupier depends on whether the injury occurred on or off his premises; in others it depends on the legal status of the plaintiff with regard to the property, i.e., trespasser, licensee, or invitee.

Effect of Comparative Negligence on Other Doctrines 3) Wanton and Willful Conduct

In most comparative negligence jurisdictions, plaintiff's negligence will be taken into account even though the defendant's conduct was wanton and willful" or "reckless." However, plaintiff's negligence is still not a defense to intentional tortious conduct by the defendant.

Duty of Care: Automobile Driver to Guest

In most jurisdictions today, the duty owed by the driver of an automobile to a rider is one of *ordinary care*. *Guest Statutes* A few states have guest statutes. Under these statutes, the driver's only duty to a nonpaying rider is to refrain from gross or wanton and willful misconduct. Note that guest statutes do not apply to "passengers," i.e., riders who contribute toward the expense of the ride; they are owed a duty of ordinary care.

Duty of Places of Public Accommodation

Innkeepers, restaurateurs, shopkeepers, and others who gather the public for profit have a duty to use reasonable care to aid or assist their patrons and to prevent injury to them from third persons.

Standard of Care for Contributory Negligence: Remaining in Danger

It may be contributorily negligent to fail to remove oneself from danger, e.g., remaining in a car with a drunk driver.

Tenant Remains Liable to Invitees and Licensees

Keep in mind that the potential liability of the lessor for dangerous conditions on the premises does not relieve the tenant, as occupier of the land, of liability for injuries to third persons from the dangerous conditions within the tenant's control.

Effect of Comparative Negligence on Other Doctrines 1) Last Clear Chance

Last clear chance is not used in most comparative negligence jurisdictions.

1) "Partial" Comparative Negligence

Most comparative negligence jurisdictions will still bar the plaintiff's recovery if his negligence passes a threshold level. In some of these states, a plaintiff will be barred if his negligence was more serious than that of the defendant (i.e., the plaintiff will recover nothing if he was more than 50% at fault). In the other states, a plaintiff will be barred from recovering if his negligence was at least as serious as that of the defendant (i.e., the plaintiff will recover nothing if he was 50% or more at fault). *a) Multiple Defendants* If several defendants have contributed to plaintiff's injury, most of these states use a "combined comparison" approach to determine the threshold level (i.e., plaintiff's negligence is compared with the total negligence of all the defendants combined).

Duty Owed Discovered Trespassers

Once a landowner discovers the presence of a trespasser, he is under a duty to exercise ordinary care to warn the trespasser of, or to make safe, artificial conditions known to the landowner that involve a risk of death or serious bodily harm and that the trespasser is unlikely to discover. *warn of man-made death traps* There is no duty owed for natural conditions and less dangerous artificial conditions. The owner or occupier also has a duty to *exercise reasonable care in the exercise of "active operations" on the property*.

Assumption of Duty to Act by Acting

One who gratuitously acts for the benefit of another, although under no duty to do so in the first instance, is then under a duty to act like an ordinary, prudent, reasonable person and continue the assistance. Example: Defendant, under no duty to aid Plaintiff who has been injured, picks her up and carries her into a room. He then leaves her there unattended for seven hours and Plaintiff's condition is worsened. Defendant, having acted, may be considered to have breached his duty to act reasonably.

Peril Due to Defendant's Conduct

One whose conduct (whether negligent or innocent) places another in a position of peril is under a duty to use reasonable care to aid or assist that person.

Duties of a Lessor of Realty General Duty Rule

Ordinarily, tort liability in regard to conditions on the property is an incident of occupation and control. Thus, when the owner leases the entire premises to another, the lessee, coming into occupation and control, becomes burdened with the duty to maintain the premises in such a way as to avoid unreasonable risk of harm to others. Similarly, where the owner leases portions of the premises to tenants, the *owner continues to be subject to liability for common areas* as a landowner for unreasonably dangerous conditions in those portions of the premises such as corridors, entry lobby, elevators, etc., used in common by all tenants, or by third persons, and over which the owner has retained occupation and control. THERE ARE EXCEPTIONS!

DUTY OF CARE Prenatal Injuries - actionable?

Prenatal injuries are actionable; i.e., a duty of care is owed toward a fetus. The *fetus must have been viable* at the time of injury. (Most states also permit a wrongful death action if the fetus dies from the injuries.)

2) Partial Comparative Negligence Jurisdiction—Multiple Defendants Plaintiff is 40% negligent in causing the accident and suffers $100,000 in damages. D1 is 35% negligent and D2 is 25% negligent.

Plaintiff can recover $60,000 from either D1 or D2 under joint and several liability rules. Note that if D1 or D2 also suffered damages, each of them would have a claim against the other two negligent parties because each one's negligence is less than the total negligence of the other two.

3) Pure Comparative Negligence Jurisdiction Plaintiff is 30% negligent and Defendant is 70% negligent in causing the accident. Each party suffers $100,000 in damages.

Plaintiff has a right to recover $70,000 from Defendant, and Defendant has a right to recover $30,000 from Plaintiff. Defendant's damages will be *offset* against Plaintiff's damages, and Plaintiff will have a net recovery of $40,000.

Damages Recoverable in the Action Personal Injury

Plaintiff is to be compensated for all his damages (past, present, and prospective), both special and general. This includes fair and adequate compensation for economic damages, such as medical expenses and lost earnings, and noneconomic damages, such as pain and suffering. Plaintiff is also entitled to compensation for impaired future earning capacity, discounted to *present value* so as to avoid an excess award; i.e., plaintiff receives an amount that, if securely invested, would produce the income that the jury wishes him to have. *1) Foreseeability Irrelevant* As noted above in the proximate cause section, it is generally not necessary to foresee the extent of the harm. In other words, a tortfeasor takes the victim as he finds him. *2) Emotional Distress Damages* Plaintiff's noneconomic damages include damages for any emotional distress suffered as a result of the physical injury. Example: Plaintiff was struck by a piece of metal when the engine blew on a defectively manufactured lawnmower. The piece of metal lodged in his spine at an inoperable location, significantly increasing his risk of future paralysis. In plaintiff's products liability action against the manufacturer of the lawnmower, plaintiff can recover damages not only for his physical injury but also for the emotional distress he suffers from his knowledge of the risk of paralysis, because it arises out of the physical injury caused by the defective product.

Plaintiff's Freedom from Negligence in Res Ipsa

Plaintiff must also establish that the injury was not attributable to him, but may do so by his own testimony.

Partial Comparative Negligence Jurisdiction—Single Defendant Plaintiff is 30% negligent and Defendant is 70% negligent in causing the accident. Each party suffers $100,000 in damages.

Plaintiff will recover $70,000 from Defendant: $100,000 minus 30% ($30,000). Defendant will recover nothing from Plaintiff because Defendant was more than 50% at fault.

Standard of Care for Contributory Negligence: Violation of Statute by Plaintiff

Plaintiff's contributory negligence may be established by his violation of a statute under the same rules that govern whether a statute can establish defendant's negligence

Punitive Damages

Punitive damages generally are not available in negligence cases. However, if the defendant's conduct was "wanton and willful," reckless, or malicious, most jurisdictions permit recovery of punitive damages

Concurrent Causes

The "but for" test applies where several acts combine to cause the injury, but none of the acts standing alone would have been sufficient (e.g., two negligently driven cars collide, injuring a passenger). But for any of the acts, the injury would not have occurred.

2) "Pure" Comparative Negligence

The "pure" variety of comparative negligence, adopted in a third of the comparative negligence states, allows recovery no matter how great plaintiff's negligence is (e.g., if plaintiff is 90% at fault and defendant 10%, plaintiff may still recover 10% of his damages). *On the MBE, pure comparative negligence is the applicable rule unless the question specifies otherwise.*

*Compare — "Wrongful Birth" and "Wrongful Pregnancy"* -

The *child's parents, however, DO have an action*: either for *failure to diagnose the defect ("wrongful birth")* or for *failure to properly perform a contraceptive procedure ("wrongful pregnancy")*. The mother can recover damages for the unwanted labor (medical expenses and pain and suffering). If the child has a defect, parents may recover the additional medical expenses to care for the child and, in some states, damages for emotional distress. If the child is born healthy in a wrongful pregnancy case, most cases do *not* permit the parents to recover child-rearing expenses, just damages for the unwanted labor.

What Is Applicable Standard of Care? Basic Standard—

The Reasonable Person Defendant's conduct is measured against the reasonable, ordinary, prudent person.

Where is the attractive nuisance doctrine applied?

The attractive nuisance doctrine has been applied to abandoned automobiles, lumber piles, sand bins, and elevators. Bodies of water are generally not dangerous conditions because the dangers are viewed as obvious and well-known. If, however, a body of water contains elements of unusual danger to children, it may be characterized as a dangerous condition, e.g., logs or plants floating in the water, or a thick scum that appears to be a path on the water.

Res Ipsa Loquitur

The circumstantial evidence doctrine of res ipsa loquitur ("the thing speaks for itself") deals with those situations where the fact that a particular injury occurred may itself establish or tend to establish a breach of duty owed. Where the facts are such as to strongly indicate that plaintiff's injuries resulted from defendant's negligence, the trier of fact may be permitted to infer defendant's liability.

Last Clear Chance

The doctrine of last clear chance, sometimes called "the humanitarian doctrine," permits the plaintiff to recover despite his own contributory negligence. Under this rule, the person with the last clear chance to avoid an accident who fails to do so is liable for negligence. (In effect, last clear chance is plaintiff's rebuttal against the defense of contributory negligence.) Example: Bowater negligently parked his car on the railroad tracks. The train engineer saw him in time to stop but failed to do so. The engineer had the last clear chance, and thus the railroad will be liable for the accident.

Standard of Care in Emergency Situations

The existence of an emergency, presenting little time for reflection, may be considered as among the circumstances under which the defendant acted; i.e., he must act as the reasonable person would under the same emergency. The emergency may *not* be considered, however, *if it is of the defendant's own making.*

Independent Intervening Forces Independent intervening forces also operate on the situation created by defendant's negligence but are independent actions rather than natural responses or reactions to the situation. Independent intervening forces may be foreseeable where defendant's negligence increased the risk that these forces would cause harm to the plaintiff.

The following are common fact situations involving independent intervening forces: *(1) Negligent Acts of Third Persons* Defendant is liable for harm caused by the negligence of third persons where such negligence was a foreseeable risk created by defendant's conduct. Example: D negligently blocked a sidewalk, forcing P to walk in the roadway, where he is struck by a negligently driven car. D is liable to P. *(2) Criminal Acts and Intentional Torts of Third Persons* If defendant's negligence created a foreseeable risk that a third person would commit a crime or intentional tort, defendant's liability will not be cut off by the crime or tort. Example: D, a parking lot attendant, negligently left the keys in P's car and the doors unlocked when he parked it, allowing a thief to steal it. D is liable to P. *(3) Acts of God* Acts of God will not cut off defendant's liability if they are foreseeable. Example: D, a roofer, negligently left a hammer on P's roof at the end of the day. P is struck by the hammer when a strong wind blows it off the roof. D is liable to P.

Duty of Possessor to Those Off the Premises a) Natural Conditions

The general rule is that a landowner owes *no duty* to protect one outside the premises from natural conditions on the land. Example: One is not liable for bugs that live in trees on one's land but that "visit" the neighbors from time to time. Note: An *exception exists for decaying trees next to sidewalks or streets in urban areas.*

5) Violation of a Civil Remedy Statute

Where the statute in question provides for a civil remedy, plaintiff will sue directly under the statute; i.e., it is not a common law negligence case.

Misfeasance

The incorrect, improper or wrongful performance of a lawful act.

Duty owed to invitee

The landowner owes an invitee a *general duty to use reasonable and ordinary care in keeping the property reasonably safe* for the benefit of the invitee. This general duty *includes the duties owed to licensees* (to warn of or make safe nonobvious, dangerous conditions known to the landowner and to use ordinary care in active operations on the property) *plus a duty to make reasonable inspections* to discover dangerous conditions and, thereafter, make them safe. *(a) Warning May Suffice* The requirement to "make safe" dangerous conditions usually is satisfied if a reasonable warning has been given. *(b) Obviousness of Danger* A duty to warn usually does not exist where the dangerous condition is so obvious that the invitee should reasonably have been aware of it. "Obviousness" is determined by all of the surrounding circumstances. Example: A banana peel visible on the floor of a supermarket might not be considered obvious if a shopper's attention would likely be diverted by shelf displays.

Duty of Lessor to Lessee

The lessor is obligated to give warning to the lessee of existing defects in the premises of which the lessor is aware, or has reason to know, and which he knows the lessee is not likely to discover on reasonable inspection.

Duty Owed Anticipated Trespassers

The majority of states now treat anticipated trespassers on generally the *same basis as discovered trespassers* in terms of the duty owed them by the landowner. *When Is a Trespasser "Anticipated"?* -An "anticipated trespasser" situation arises where the landowner knows or should reasonably know of the presence of trespassers who constantly cross over a section of his land. (Although note that if the owner has posted "no trespassing" signs, this might serve to convert these "anticipated" trespassers into "undiscovered" trespassers.)

Property Damage

The measure of damages for property damage is the reasonable cost of repair, or, if the property has been almost or completely destroyed, its fair market value at the time of the accident. Courts generally do not permit recovery of emotional distress damages for negligent harm to property.

nonfeasance

The omission to perform a required duty or the failure to act when a duty to act existed. Nonfeasance can more loosely be defined as "not doing something which you ought to do." The term "nonfeasance" commonly appears in the areas of contract and tort law. For example, in contract law, failure to perform the obligations of a contract altogether constitutes "nonfeasance" and could give rise to a suit for breach of contract. In the context of negligence, nonfeasance may be actionable where a landowner failed to warn invitees of concealed and dangerous conditions on their property and an invitee was injured. In contrast, misfeasance and malfeasance refer to acts which are improperly performed or wrongful.

Duty Owed to Licensee

The owner or occupier owes a licensee a duty to warn of or make safe a dangerous condition known to the owner or occupier that creates an unreasonable risk of harm to the licensee and that the licensee is unlikely to discover. *No Duty to Inspect* The owner or occupier has no duty to a licensee to inspect for defects nor to repair known defects. *Duty of Care for Active Operations* The owner or occupier also has a duty to exercise reasonable care in the conduct of "active operations" for the protection of the licensee whom he knows to be on the property. *Social Guests Are Licensees* The social guest is a licensee. Performance of minor services for the host does not make the guest an invitee.

Express Assumption of Risk

The risk may be assumed by express agreement. Such exculpatory clauses in a contract, intended to insulate one of the parties from liability resulting from his own negligence, are closely scrutinized but are generally enforceable. (Note that it is more difficult to uphold such an exculpatory clause in an adhesion contract.)

Duty of Care: Minimum Age for Capacity To Be Negligent

There is a minimum age for which it is meaningful to speak of a child being capable of conforming his conduct to a standard of care. *Most courts, however, do not fix this age at any arbitrary figure*. Each case is dealt with in terms of whether there is evidence that the individual child—plaintiff or defendant—has the experience, intelligence, maturity, training, or capacity to conform his conduct to a standard of care. It is unlikely, nonetheless, that a court would view a child below the *age of five* as having the capacity to be negligent. Or, to put it another way, it is unlikely that a court would impose a legal duty to avoid injuries to others or himself upon a child who is under five.

Contributory Negligence Standard of Care for Contributory Negligence: General Rule

The standard of care required is the same as that for ordinary negligence.

Comparative Negligence

The vast majority of states now permit a contributorily negligent plaintiff to recover a percentage of his damages under some type of comparative negligence system. In every case where contributory negligence is shown, the trier of fact weighs plaintiff's negligence against that of defendant and reduces plaintiff's damages accordingly. Example: Defendant negligently drove through a stop sign and collided with Plaintiff, who was contributorily negligent by driving inattentively. Plaintiff suffers damages of $100,000. If a jury finds that Plaintiff was 30% negligent and Defendant was 70% negligent, Plaintiff will recover $70,000.

Duties of Vendor of Realty

The vendor, at the time of transfer of possession to the vendee, has the duty to disclose concealed, unreasonably dangerous conditions of which the vendor knows or has reason to know, and of which he knows the vendee is ignorant and is not likely to discover on reasonable inspection. The vendor's responsibility continues until the vendee should have, in the exercise of reasonable care in inspection and maintenance, discovered and remedied the defect.

Characterization of Privileged Entrants

There may be a problem of characterization regarding persons entering the premises in exercise of a privilege, e.g., police, firefighters, census takers, etc. In some situations, they are characterized as licensees, in others as invitees. The following rules should be noted: (a) An entrant *serving some purpose of the possessor generally is treated as an invitee*, e.g., garbage collectors, mail carriers, etc. (b) One who comes *under normal circumstances during working hours generally is treated as an invitee*, e.g., census takers, health inspectors, etc. (c) Under the "*firefighter's rule*," police officers and firefighters are generally *treated like licensees* rather than invitees, based on public policy or assumption of risk grounds. They cannot recover for a landowner's failure to inspect or repair dangerous conditions that are an inherent risk of their law enforcement or firefighting activity.

*Applied in Enterprise Liability Cases*

This concept has been extended in some cases to encompass industry groups. Example: Daughters of women who took the anti-miscarriage drug diethylstilbestrol ("DES") contracted cancer as a result of the drug manufacturer's negligence. However, because the cancer appeared many years after the DES was ingested, it was usually impossible to determine which manufacturer of DES had supplied the drug taken by any particular plaintiff. Several courts have required all producers of DES unable to prove their noninvolvement to pay in proportion to their percentage of the market share. [See Sindell v. Abbott Laboratories, 26 Cal. 3d 588, cert. denied, 449 U.S. 912 (1980)]

Foreseeability of Harm Is True Basis of Liability Under the traditional "attractive nuisance" doctrine, it was necessary for the child/plaintiff to establish that she was lured onto the property by the attractive nuisance/dangerous condition.

This no longer is the case. Most jurisdictions have substantially revised their attractive nuisance doctrines to bring them within general negligence concepts. Foreseeability of harm to a child is the true basis of liability and the element of attraction is important only insofar as it indicates that the presence of children should have been anticipated by the landowner.

Duties Owed by Bailee *(4) Modern Trend*

Today the trend is away from such classifications and toward a rule that considers *whether the bailee exercised ordinary care under all the circumstances*. These circumstances include, e.g., value of the goods, type of bailment, custom of a trade, etc.

Additional Tests for Actual Cause

Under certain circumstances, the "but for" test is inadequate to determine causation in fact. The courts must rely upon other tests. Joint Causes-Substantial Factor Test Alternative Causes

Duties of Possessor to Those on the Premises

Under the traditional rule followed in many jurisdictions, the nature of a duty owed by an owner or occupier of land to those on the premises for dangerous conditions on the land depends on the legal status of the plaintiff with regard to the property, i.e., trespasser, licensee, or invitee. Note, though, that close to half the states have abolished the distinction between licensees and invitees and simply apply a reasonable person standard to dangerous conditions on the land. A few of these states have gone even further and abolished the trespasser distinction as well.

Duty of Care: Children Engaged in Adult Activities

Where a child engages in a potentially dangerous activity that is normally one that only adults engage in, most cases hold that he will be required to conform to the same standard of care as an adult in such an activity, e.g., driving an automobile, flying an airplane, driving a motorboat.

*Multiple Defendants Problem*

Where more than one person may have been in control of the instrumentality, *res ipsa loquitur generally may not be used* to establish a prima facie case of negligence against any individual party. Example: Plaintiff left the operating room with an injury to part of her body that was healthy prior to entering the operating room. The injury was not in the zone of the original operation. Under the traditional rule, res ipsa loquitur may not be available to establish that any individual in that room was negligent. This is so despite the fact that, clearly, someone was negligent. However, many courts today take a different approach in such cases where defendants have control of the evidence, requiring each defendant to establish that his negligence did not cause the injury. [See, e.g., Ybarra v. Spangard, 25 Cal. 2d 486 (1944)] Compare: The doctrine would be available in all states where a particular defendant had the power of control over the site of the injury. For example, Plaintiff sues Surgeon after a sponge was left in his body at the site of the surgery. Even though Surgeon left it to her assistants to remove the sponges and close up the wound, her responsibility and power of control over the surgery itself allows Plaintiff to use res ipsa loquitur against her.

*1) Joint Causes—Substantial Factor Test*

Where several causes commingle and bring about an injury—and any one alone would have been sufficient to cause the injury—it is sufficient if defendant's conduct was a "substantial factor" in causing the injury. Example: Two fires meet and burn a farm. Either fire alone would have done the damage without the other. Under the "but for" test, neither was the "cause," since, looking at either fire alone, the loss would have occurred without it. Rather than reach this result, the courts consider as causes all those things that were a "substantial factor" in causing injury.

BREACH OF DUTY

Where the defendant's conduct falls short of that level required by the applicable standard of care owed to the plaintiff, she has breached her duty. Whether the duty of care is breached in an individual case is a question for the trier of fact. Evidence may be offered to establish the standard by which defendant's conduct is to be measured, e.g., custom or usage, applicability of a statute, etc.

Duty of Easement and License Holders to Trespassers

While employees and independent contractors acting on behalf of the landowner have the status of the landowner, persons with an easement or license to use the land do not; they *must exercise reasonable care to protect the trespasser.* Example: Power Company obtains an easement from Leonard to run high-tension wires across Leonard's land. Because of Power Company's negligent failure to maintain the wires, one of them falls and injures Plaintiff, an undiscovered trespasser on Leonard's land. Power Company is liable to Plaintiff.

DUTY OF CARE Rescuers Is D liable if if he negligently puts himself or a third person in peril and plaintiff is injured in attempting a rescue?

Yes. A rescuer is a foreseeable plaintiff as long as the rescue is not reckless; hence, defendant is liable if he negligently puts himself or a third person in peril and plaintiff is injured in attempting a rescue. Note, however, that the *"firefighter's rule"* (infra, 3.d.2)c)(2)(c)) may bar firefighters and police officers, on public policy or assumption of risk grounds, from recovering for injuries caused by the risks of a rescue

c) Other Situations: The plaintiff may be able to recover without proving the two requirements for this tort in other special situations where the defendant's negligence creates a great likelihood of emotional distress. These include:

a defendant providing an erroneous report that a relative of the plaintiff has died or a defendant mishandling a relative's corpse.

Excuse for Violation of Statutes Violation of some statutes may be excused:

a) Where compliance would cause more danger than violation; e.g., defendant drives onto wrong side of road to avoid hitting children who dart into his path; or b) Where compliance would be beyond defendant's control; e.g., blind pedestrian crosses against light.

4) Effect of Compliance with Statute Even though the violation of an applicable criminal statute may be negligence, compliance with it will not necessarily establish ...

due care. If there are unusual circumstances or increased danger beyond the minimum that the statute was designed to meet, it may be found that there is negligence in not doing more.

1) Plaintiff Must Be Within the "Zone of Danger" The plaintiff usually must show that her distress has been caused by a threat of

physical impact; i.e., she was within the "zone of danger." Example: Driver negligently ran a red light and skidded to a stop inches away from Pedestrian, who was properly crossing the street in a crosswalk. Pedestrian's shock from nearly being run over caused her to suffer a heart attack. Pedestrian can recover for negligent infliction of emotional distress because she was in the zone of danger.

2) Plaintiff Must Suffer Physical Symptoms from the Distress For the plaintiff to recover damages, most courts usually require that the defendant's conduct cause the plaintiff emotional distress that manifests itself in

physical symptoms (e.g., a nervous breakdown, miscarriage, or heart attack, but note that severe shock to the nervous system that causes physical symptoms will satisfy this requirement). A growing minority of states have dropped the requirement of physical symptoms.

3) Effect of Establishing Violation of Statute Most courts still adhere to the rule that violation of a statute is "negligence per se." This means that

plaintiff will have established a *conclusive presumption of duty and breach of duty.* (Plaintiff still must establish causation and damages to complete the prima facie case for negligence.) A significant minority of courts, however, are unwilling to go this far. They hold either that (i) a rebuttable presumption as to duty and breach thereof arises, or (ii) the statutory violation is only prima facie evidence of negligence.

Under the "*firefighter's rule*,"

police officers and firefighters are generally *treated like licensees* rather than invitees, based on public policy or assumption of risk grounds. They cannot recover for a landowner's failure to inspect or repair dangerous conditions that are an inherent risk of their law enforcement or firefighting activity.

Duty to Prevent Harm from Third Persons Generally, there is no duty to prevent a third person from injuring another. In some situations, however, such an affirmative duty might be imposed. In such cases, it must appear that

the defendant had the actual ability and authority to control the third person's action. Thus, for example, bailors may be liable for the acts of their bailees, parents may be liable for the acts of their children, employers may be liable for the acts of their employees, etc. It is generally required for imposition of such a duty that the defendant knows or should know that the third person is likely to commit such acts as would require the exercise of control by the defendant.

b) Special Relationship Between Plaintiff and Defendant The defendant may be liable for directly causing the plaintiff severe emotional distress when a duty arises from the relationship between the plaintiff and the defendant, such that

the defendant's negligence has great potential to cause emotional distress. Many states drop the requirement of physical symptoms in this situation as well. Example: Doctor negligently confused Patient's file with another and told Patient he had a terminal illness. Patient, who in fact did not have the illness, was shocked and became nauseated as a result. Patient can recover for negligent infliction of emotional distress. Although there was no threat of physical impact from Doctor's negligence, negligently providing a false diagnosis of a terminal illness creates a foreseeable risk of severe emotional distress to the patient.

Violation of Statute

the existence of a duty owed to plaintiff and breach thereof may be established by proof that defendant violated an applicable statute.

Users of Recreational Land In almost all states, a different standard applies by statute to users of recreational land. If an owner or occupier of open land permits the public to use the land for recreational purposes without charging a fee, the landowner is NOT liable for injuries suffered by a recreational user unless

the landowner willfully and maliciously failed to guard against or warn of a dangerous condition or activity. Example: The owner of a large tract of undeveloped rural land who permits the general public to use a pond on the land for swimming and fishing would be covered by this type of statute, whereas the owner of a swimming pool who permits his house guests to swim whenever they visit would not be covered by the statute (he would owe his guests the usual duties owed to licensees).

The general rule of proximate cause is that the defendant is liable for all harmful results that are

the normal incidents of and within the increased risk caused by his acts. In other words, if one of the reasons that make defendant's act negligent is a greater risk of a particular harmful result occurring, and that harmful result does occur, defendant generally is liable. This test is based on foreseeability.

Assumption of Risk The plaintiff may be denied recovery if he assumed the risk of any damage caused by the defendant's acts. This assumption may be expressed or implied. To have assumed risk, either expressly or impliedly,

the plaintiff must have known of the risk and voluntarily assumed it. It is irrelevant that plaintiff's choice is unreasonable. Assumption of risk is not a defense to intentional torts. It is, however, a defense to wanton or reckless conduct.

What Is a Dangerous Condition in the Attractive Nuisance Doctrine?

where something on the land is likely to cause injury to children because of their inability to appreciate the risk. This *usually is an artificial condition*, but in some circumstances a natural condition might suffice.