Neuro Exam #4 (Ch.15-18)
Locations of brain mechanisms of emotion are:
"Mosaic" not "Center"
PFC
"feelings" "top-down" control Takes in a lot of information & gives cognitive component of fear response; also determines whether or not the corticolimbic system stays active (snake or stick?)
The gooseflesh skin and leg spasms of opioid withdrawal syndrome are the basis for the expressions:
"going cold turkey" and "kicking the habit"
polygraph
"lie detector test"; a method of interrogation that employs ANS indexes of emotion to infer the truthfulness of a person's response.
Methamphetamine:
"meth"; commonly used in its potent, smokeable, crystalline form: crystal meth; a relative of amphetamine
Top‐down
(descending) control to terminate amygdala output
*5 commonly abused substances: How do they work? TABLE*
*5 commonly abused substances: How do they work? TABLE* (tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, stimulants, heroine)
Physical Dependence
*not all physical dependence is alike* - Early views of addiction emphasized - severe withdrawal and physical dependence - Cocaine & cannabis: relatively minor physical dependence
How much is one drink?
- 0.6 ounce serving of wine: 5 oz in volume; 12% alc/ volume - 0.6 ounce serving of beer: 12 oz in volume; 5% alc/ volume - 0.6 ounce serving of hard liquor: 1.5 oz in volume; 40% alc/ volume
Malt liquor
- 40 oz volume - 8% alc/ volume - 3.2 oz oc alcohol per volume - 5.3 std drinks per bottle
Studies with knock-out (KO) mice
- 5‐HT 1A knock‐out (KO) mice are more anxious. - Anxiolytic effects of SSRIs are lost in 5‐HT 1A KO mice
Advantages and disadvantages of oral ingestion:
- Advantage: its ease and relative safety - Disadvantage: its unpredictability
Aggressive behavior in human males:
- Aggressive behavior does not increase at puberty as testosterone levels in the blood increase. - Aggressive behavior is not eliminated by castration. - Aggressive behavior is not increased by testosterone injections that elevate blood levels of testosterone.
Anxiolytics
- Also used to treat anxiety. - increase inhibitory synaptic transmission via GABAA receptors. - benzodiazepines (BDZ) & barbiturates
Summary of anxiety disorders
- Anxiety disorders are the most prevalent of all psychiatric disorders. - most difficult to treat; lead to other disorders - Genetic predisposition is important, but so too are environmental factors - Evidence suggests amygdala hyper‐activity and PFC hypo‐ activity in anxiety disorders
Klüver‐Bucy Syndrome
- Bilateral removal of temporal lobe (including the amygdala and hippocampus) (on both sides) - symptoms: docility, inappropriate tameness, hypersexuality, hyperorality & hyperphagia - emotional deficits occur from amygdala removal on both sides - lack of fear - most symptoms are attributed to damage to the amygdala. - found in monkeys
2 receptors for THC:
- CB1 - one of the most prevalent metabotropic receptors in the brain + other parts of body - CB2 - found throughout the CNS and in the cells of the immune system
Current, Binge, and Heavy Alcohol Use among People Aged 12 to 20: 2017 results:
- Current use (7.4 M) in the past month - Binge use (4.5 M); M: ≥5 drinks in 2 hr & F: ≥4 drinks in 2 hr - Heavy use (0.9 M); ≥5 binges in past 30 d
Several changes in brain function have been associated from initial drug taking to habitual drug taking:
- Difference in how the striatum of drug addicted individuals reacts to drugs & drug-associated cues; striatal of drug taking is shifted from the nucleus accumbens to the dorsal striatum - Impairments in function of the prefrontal cortex
The problem of fear
- Fear is a natural reaction to threat, danger - Fear can promote survival - Exaggerated fear can impair an otherwise normal life
negative emotion
- Feelings of sadness, guilt, anxiety - recurrent thoughts of death or suicideBipolar disorder (BD, Manic-depression)
HPA axis dysfunction
- HPA axis in depression: sustained high levels of cortisol disrupted negative feedback - Dexamethasone Suppression Test
How does alcohol affect the brain function of drinkers?
- It interferes with the function of 2nd messengers inside neurons - It disrupts GABAergic and glutaminergic transmission - It leads to DNA methylation - It triggers apoptosis - It is a neurotoxin
Findings from research on laboratory animals that focused attention on the nucleus accumbens:
- Laboratory animals self-administered microinjections of addictive drugs directly into the nucleus accumbens - Microinjection of addictive drugs into the nucleus accumbens produced a conditioned place preference for the compartment in which they were administered - Lesions to either the nucleus accumbens or the ventral tegmental area blocks the self-administration of additive drugs into the general circulation or the development of drug-associated conditioned place preferences - Both the self-administration if addictive drugs and the experience of natural reinforcers were found to be associated with elevated levels of extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens
Increasing dose of alcohol results: from greatest to least
- Loss of consciousness & death - Severe mental and physical impairments - Motor incoordination - Relaxed inhibitions & impaired judgement - Relaxation & elevated mood
Evidence that the mesocorticolimbic pathway plays an important role in mediating intracranial self-stimulation:
- Many of the brain sites at which self-stimulation occurred are part of the mesocorticolimbic pathway - Intracranial self-stimulation is often associated with an increase in dopamine release in the mesocorticolimbic pathway - Dopamine agonists tend to increase intracranial self-stimulation and dopamine antagonists tend to decrease it. - Lesions of the mesocorticolimbic pathway tend to disrupt intracranial self-stimulation
Self‐help stress relievers to get your stress under contro
- Meditation, yoga or deep breathing - Getting regular physical activity - Getting enough sleep - Eating a healthy diet - Managing your time - Cutting back on obligations
Moderate doses vs. high doses of alcohol results:
- Moderate dose: various degrees of cognitive, perceptual, verbal, & motor impairment + a loss of control that can lead to a variety of socially unacceptable actions. - High dose: unconsciousness + if blood levels reach 0.5%, there is a risk of death from respiratory depression.
Neural Basis of Major Depression
- Monoamine theory - HPA axis dysfunction - Neurogenic hypothesis - Corticolimbic and corticostriatal dysfunction
Neurobiology of anxiety disorders
- Neurotransmitter systems - Behavioral genetics - Endocrine changes - Corticolimbic circuit dysfunction
4 phases of full-blown alcohol withdrawal syndrome:
- Phase 1: 6-8 hour after the cessation of alcohol consumption; is characterized by anxiety, tremor, nausea, & tachycardia - Phase 2: 10-30 hours after cessation of drinking; characterized by hyperactivity, insomnia, hallucinations - Phase 3: 12-48 hours after cessation; defining feature = convulsive activity - Phase 4: 3- 5 days after cessation & last up to a week; is called delirium tremens (DTs).
Place Conditioning
- Rodents repeatedly receive drug in 1 of 2 chambers (drug in 1, saline in other side) - On test day, animal freely chooses to enter either side and as a result spends more time in drug‐paired side
Typical social doses of marijuana vs. high doses:
- Social dose: subtle; wouldn't even know someone was high - High dose: impair psychological functioning; short-term memory is impaired and the ability to carry out tasks involving multiple steps to reach a specific goal declines
Drug injections into skin, large muscles, and veins:
- Subcutaneously (SC) into the fatty tissue just beneath the skin - Intramuscularly (IM) into the large muscles - Intravenously (IV) directly into veins at points where they run just beneath the skin
Nicotine:
- The major psychoactive ingredient of tobacco; is most commonly administered through inhalation - Acts on nicotinic cholinergic receptors in the brain - Is a teratogen - 2 common methods of nicotine inhalation: 1. Smoking - inhaling the smoke from the burning of tobacco (ex: cigarettes, cigars); most common method 2. Vaping- inhaling a vapor that contains nicotine (ex: e-cigarettes)
How are drug withdrawal effects and conditioned compensatory responses similar and different?
- They are both responses that are opposite to the unconditioned effect of the drug. - Drug withdrawal effects are produced by elimination of the drug from the body, whereas conditioned compensatory responses are elicited by drug-predictive cues in the absence of the drug. - In real life situations, it is nearly impossible to tell them apart.
Common stressors in college students
- academic performance - financial matter - relationships - family matters - coronavirus - perceived stressors
Prefrontal cortex (PFC)
- cognitive and behavioral control - decision making, how to behave - "making up your mind" - receives lots of info from ventral stream & dorsal stream
Behavioral disorder
- compulsive drug‐seeking and drug‐using behavior - cravings
Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
- conflict monitoring - error detection
Contingent drug tolerance vs. conditioned drug tolerance difference:
- contingent drug tolerance studies focus on what subjects do while they are under the influence of drugs - conditioned drug tolerance studies focus on the situations in which drugs are taken
The case of patient SM
- deficient conditioned (learned) fear - difficulty recognizing fearful facial expression - history of poor life choices - Urbach-Wiethe disease
when thinking about physical dependence, have to consider:
- early vs. chronic alcohol use - opioids vs. cannabis
Neuroleptic Antipsychotics
- high‐affinity D2 receptor antagonists - side effects resemble Parkinson's Disease
Manic behaviors include:
- hyperactivity, talkativeness, rapid speech - racing thoughts - belief of special powers - inflated self‐ esteem - sleep less - excessive involvement in risky behaviors
Chronic, relapsing disorder
- long-lasting - drug‐free periods followed by relapse to drug use
anhedonia
- low self‐worth (worthlessness) - loss of interest in pleasurable activities
"Atypical" antipsychotics
- lurasidone (Latuda) - cariprazine (Vraylar) used to treat bipolar disorder
Marijuana
- name commonly given to the dried flower buds of female Cannabis plants - psychoactive effects are largely attributable to a constituent called: THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) - contains More than 80 cannabinoids - subtle, difficult to measure, & greatly influenced by the social situation.
Major depressive disorder (MDD)
- negative emotion - anhedonia - cognitive impairment
The severity of withdrawal symptoms depends on the:
- particular drug in question - on the duration and degree of the preceding drug exposure - on the speed with which the drug is eliminated from the body
Mixing emotion with reason:
- pull lever & 1 person dies or don't & 4 people do - push man to death to save 4 or let 4 die Shows same scenario but physical contact changes people's decisions
During distribution, the drug must reach what to cause an effect?
- reach active sites - go out of blood and into brain - would have to pass many cell membranes through BBB - have to be membrane permeable; lipid-soluble
Alcohol
- route of administration: oral ingestion - absorption: from stomach to blood - distribution to the brain easily crosses BBB by decreasing glutamate and increasing GABA receptors - metabolism: 95% in liver; other 5% in lungs - elimination: urine & breathe ("breathalyzer")
General side effects of atypical antipsychotics
- sedation: H1, ACh, α1 antagonism - cardiometaolbic: • weight gain • type 2 diabetes • cardiovascular risk
The amygdala is important in
- social behavior - absolutely required for fear learning - for survival
Monoamine theory
- states that MDD results from under‐activity of 5‐HT and NE systems (mostly wrong) - is based largely on pharmacology of antidepressant medications - does not account for therapeutic lag: - low transmitter -> up‐ regulation - therapeutic lag may be due to receptor down‐regulation or desensitization
Cannibis
- the common hemp plant; has 3 species: cannabis sativa, cannabis indica, & cannabis ruderalis. - Usual mode of consumption: to smoke these flowers in a joint (a cigarette of marijuana) or a pipe, but can also be ingested orally if first baked into an oil-rich substrate, such as a chocolate brownie, to promote absorption from the gastrointestinal tract.
Classic opioid withdrawal syndrome:
- usually begins 6-12 hours after the last dose - First withdrawal sign = increase in restlessness, pacing, fidget, watery eyes, running nose, yawning, sweating - Then fitful sleep - Wake up = chills, shivering, profuse sweating, gooseflesh, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, dilated pupils, tremor, muscle pains, spasms
Anticonvulsants
- valproic acid (Depakote) - lamotrigine (Lamictal)
What makes a substance addictive?
- what our bodies do to a substance - feels rewarding - reinforcing properties
Alcohol consumption legal limit =
0.08%
Each T cell has 2 types of receptors on its surface
1 for molecules that are normally found on the surface of phagocytes and other body cells, and 1 for a specific foreign antigen.
Tolerance can only be categorized by
1 on experience and 1 on learning associations
Body has 4 lines of defense to keep it from being overwhelmed:
1. Behavioral immune systems 2. A variety of surface barriers; major surface barrier = skin 3. The innate immune system 4. The adaptive immune system
Contextual fear conditioning has been produced in the laboratory in 2 ways:
1. By the conventional fear conditioning procedure 2. By delivering aversive stimuli in a particular context in the absence of any other conditional stimulus.
3 basic types of evidence for the linkage of stress and susceptibility to infectious disease in humans:
1. Correlational studies in humans have found correlations between stress level and numerous measures of health 2. Controlled experiments conducted with laboratory animals show that stress can increase susceptibility to infectious disease in these species. 3. A few partially controlled studies of humans have added greatly to the weight of evidence.
4 important points about the amygdalae and medial prefrontal cortex roles in the perception and experience of human emotion:
1. Emotional situations produce widespread increases in cerebral activity, not just in the amygdalae and prefrontal cortex. 2. All brain areas activated by emotional stimuli are also activated during other psychological processes. 3. No brain structure has been invariably linked to particular emotion. 4. The same emotional stimuli often activate different areas in different people.
Animal literature on drug self-administration has suggested 2 additional factors that may play a role in drugs and relapse:
1. Environmental enrichment after drug withdrawal has reduced cue- and stress-induced, but not drug-priming-induced, relapse of drug self-administration. 2. A few brief exposures to drug reinforcers can reliably reduce relapse of cocaine self-administration
2 major findings of offspring of male rats who have been administered opioids:
1. Exhibit more severe opioid withdrawal symptoms 2. Display decreases in synaptic plasticity
Darwin's theory of the evolution of emotional expression 3 main ideas:
1. Expressions of emotion evolve from behaviors that indicate what an animal is likely to do next. 2. If the signals provided by such behaviors benefit the animal that displays them, they will evolve in ways that enhance their communicative function, and their original function may be lost 3. Opposite messages are often signaled by opposite movements and postures, an idea called the principle of antithesis.
Adaptive immune system differs from the innate immune system in 4 respects:
1. I evolved more recently, first appearing in early vertebrates 2. It is slower; its immune reaction to pathogens takes longer to be fully manifested. 3. It is specific in the sense that it reacts against specific antigens. 4. It has a memory; once it has reacted against a particular pathogen, it reacts more effectively against that same pathogen in the future.
4 important findings emerged from research on neural bases of schizophrenia:
1. Individuals who have not been diagnosed with schizophrenia but are at risk for the disorder display volume reductions in some parts of the brain (ex: hippocampus). 2. Extensive brain changes already exist when patients first seek medical treatment and receive their first brain scans. 3. Subsequent brain scans reveal that the brain changes continue to develop after the initial diagnosis. 4. Alterations to different areas of the brain develop at different rates.
What are the stages of addiction?
1. Initial Drug Taking 2. Habitual Drug Taking 3. Drug Craving & Repeated Relapse
Video recordings have contributed to 4 important qualifications of Ekman's original theory:
1. It is now clear that Ekman's 6 primary facial expressions of emotion rarely occur in pure form - they are ideals with many subtle variations. 2. The existence of other primary emotions has been recognized. 3. Body cues, not just facial expressions, are known to play a major role in expressions of emotion. 4. There is evidence that Ekman's 6 primary facial expressions may not be as universal as originally believed.
Alcohol neuroadaptions:
1. Neuroadaptations such as increased Glu & decreased GABA R's lead to functional tolerance. Also metabolic tolerance. 2. Following drug removal, the neuroadaptations are unchecked - seizure prone. 1
2 main difficulties in diagnosing particular psychiatric disorders:
1. Patients suffering from the same disorder often display different symptoms 2. Patients suffering from different disorders often display many of the same symptoms
How are Anxiety and depression related
1. People with mood disorders often experience tremendous anxiety 2. People with anxiety disorders may develop mood disorders 3. Pharmacotherapies are similar
2 problems with early stress research on nonhumans:
1. Problem of ethics 2. Studies that use extreme, unnatural forms of stress are often of questionable scientific value.
Clinical trials are conducted in 3 separate phases:
1. Screening for safety: 1st phase; determines whether the drug is safe for human use and, if so, to determine how much of the drug can be tolerated. Subjects are typically healthy paid volunteers. Always begins with tiny injections, which are gradually increased. 2. Establishing the testing protocol: 2nd phase; established protocol (the conditions) under which the final tests are likely to produce a clear result. Conducted on volunteer patients suffering from the target disorder; tests usually include placebo-control groups & their design are usually double blind. 3. Final testing: 3rd phase; double-blind, placebo-control study on large numbers (many thousands) of patients suffering from the target disorder. 2 independent successful tests are required to convince government regulatory agencies.
The failure of detoxification as a treatment for addiction is not surprising for 2 reasons:
1. Some highly addictive drugs (cocaine & amphetamines) do not produce severe withdrawal distress 2. The pattern of drug taking routinely displayed by many habitual drug users involves an alternating cycle of binges and detoxification.
Research on self-administration of stimulants has led to 2 major conclusions abt the mechanisms of drug addiction:
1. That all addictive drugs activate the mesocorticolimbic pathway 2. Dopamine is important for the reinforcing properties of all addictive drugs
Factual support for Dopamine theory of schizophrenia:
1. The antipsychotic drug reserpine was known to deplete the brain of dopamine & other monoamines by breaking down the synaptic vesicles in which these NTs are stored. 2. Drugs such as amphetamine and cocaine, which can trigger episodes that resemble schizophrenia in healthy users, were known to increase the extracellular levels of dopamine and other monoamines in the brain.
Support for neurodevelopmental theory of schizophrenia:
1. The fact that schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders share many of the same causal factors (genetic risk factors, environmental triggers) 2. The study of two 20th-century famines: Nazi-induced Dutch famine of 1944-1945 & the Chinese famine of 1959-1961; fetuses whose pregnant mothers suffered in those famines were more likely to develop schizophrenia as adults.
3 reasons why stress-produced decreases in immune function may not be reflected in an increased susceptibility to infectious disease:
1. The immune system seems to have many redundant components; thus, disruption of one of them may have little or no effect on vulnerability to infection. 2. Stress-produced changes in immune function may be too short-lived to have substantial effects on the probability of infection. 3. Declines in some aspects of immune function may induce compensatory increase in others.
Research on psychedelics 3 important conclusions:
1. The psychedelic effects of classical hallucinogens, such as LSD, mimic the positive symptoms of schizophrenia by acting as an agonist of the serotonin type-2a receptor. 2. That antagonists of the serotonin type-2a receptor are effective antipsychotics (risperidone). 3. Dissociative hallucinogens (ketamine) mimic the negative symptoms of schizophrenia by acting as antagonists of glutamate receptors.
2 things about tolerance:
1. The same dose of drug has a smaller effect. 2. A greater dose of drug is required for the desired effect.
Categories of aggressive and defensive behaviors are based on 3 criteria:
1. Their topography (form) 2. The situations that elicit them 3. Their apparent function
Brain imaging studies 3 points that have advanced our understanding of the brain mechanisms of emotion in fundamental ways:
1. brain activity associated with each human emotion is diffuse - there is no center for each emotion. 2. There is virtually always activity in motor and sensory cortices when a person experiences an emotion. 3. Similar patterns of brain activity tend to be recorded when a person experiences an emotion, imagines an emotion, or sees somebody else experience that emotion.
There are 2 ways of extinguishing true expressions from false ones:
1. microexpressions (brief facial expressions) of the real emotion often break through the false one 2. There are often subtle differences between genuine facial expressions and false ones that can be detected by skilled observers.
Problems with Papez' Cicruit:
1. some structures have more than 1 job 2. left out amygdala 3. left out prefrontal cortex
If schizophrenia were purely a genetic disorder, the MZ twin concordance would be
100%
When did U.S. Congress make it illegal for anybody to possess, sell, or use heroin?
1924
Symptoms of opioid withdrawal are typically most severe in the
2nd or 3rd day after last injection; by seventh day, all symptoms have disappeared
Diagnosis of schizophrenia requires that symptoms persist for at least
6 months
what is addiction? What does it include?
A chronic relapsing behavioral disorder; NOT DSM-5 Includes.... - physical dependence - compulsive behavior - craving & relapse
α2
AR antagonists; Remeron
Rewarding in animal studies:
Animals conditioned to associate one side with drug show preference for that side
1st line Medications for the Treatment of Anxiety Disorders are
Antidepressants - SSRIs (Paxil, Lexapro) - often the only treatment for OCD
Behavioral genetics
Anxiety disorders are heritable (run in family; genetic) Ex: Panic Disorder • 3 - 5x increased risk of lifetime prevalence in family members • Concordance rates in MZ twins is about 3x higher than DZ twins. • Heritability estimates h2 = 0.4 - 0.5.
What does alcohol attack?
Attacks almost every tissue in the body
The fear conditioning paradigm
Before learning: neutral stimulus (CS) Learning Trials: US (shock) + CS (tone) pairing Recall: CS alone - Gains ability to learn stimulus & know that something bad will happen. - Play CS (tone) alone to know if rodent is afraid after learning and he is because he knows something bad is coming.
Mechanism of action
Bind to/ Block DA transporters (DAT) that normally remove DA from the synapses, which causes higher #'s of dopamine in synapse which leads to feelings of reward.... euphoria
Both reserpine and chlorpromazine do what?
Both antagonize transmission at dopamine synapses but in different ways: reserpine by depleting the brain of dopamine & chlorpromazine by binding to dopamine receptors.
How do opioids exert their effects?
By binding to receptors whose normal function is to bind to endogenous opioids.
How can we compare the adverse effects of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, and heroin?
By comparing the prevalence of their abuse in society as a whole & by comparing their global death rates
What is currently the dominant approach being used to study the brain mechanisms of human emotion?
Cognitive neuroscience
Drugs of abuse increase
DA signaling in the mesotelencephalic reward pathway
Alcohol increases
DA via mechanisms involving many targets: Glu, GABA & opioids
Decreased blood levels of BDNF VS Increased blood levels of BDNF
Decreased blood levels of BDNF might be a: biomarker for depression Increased blood levels of BDNF might be a: biomarker for the successful treatment of depression.
What does alcohol do during distribution
Decreases glutamate & increase GABA receptors
How does Alcohol increase AP firing of DA neurons, more DA release
Decreases glutamate (inhibits receptors) + increases GABA + increases opioid
Polygraph detects _______ not _______
Detects AND activity, not lies.
Neuroadaptions when drug is exposed vs removed
Drug exposure induces neuroadaptations opposite to drug effects, causing tolerance. Following drug removal, the neuroadaptations produce withdrawal effects.
How hard will an animal work for drugs?
Drug-self administration test: - Rodents will learn to press a bar to receive drug into the brain or into general circulation - All known substances of abuse support self‐administration: mimics human substance use
SNRI & NDRI
Effexor, Cymbalta, Wellbutrin (SNRIs): (ex: reboxetine) have proven to be just as effective as SSRIs in the treatment for depression
Darwin believed
Facial expression is akin to a vestigial tailbone; his facial expressions = wrong
What factors facilitate the acquisition of drug self administration and which protect the acquisition of drug self-administration in rats?
Facilitate: food restriction, social stress, environmental stress Protect: environmental enrichment, social interaction, access to nondrug reinforces
The sound signal from an auditory conditional stimulus travels from what to what?
From the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus to reach the amygdala directly, or indirectly via the auditory cortex.
Imaging studies show that
GABAA receptors in limbic areas are targets of anxiolytics • blocking BDZ action in limbic areas blocks anxiolytic effects
What has been shown to be important / present in anxiety disordes?
GABAa receptors & SSRIs
Diathesis:
Genes give a predisposition; Genetic vulnerability: Alters anatomical development of prefrontal cortex, hippocampus + Deficits in neuronal excitability, plasticity
Endocrine change
HPA axis & the stress response • CRH / cortisol • Role of early life experiences • Early life experiences shape the HPA axis and anxiety • Mother‐infant interactions alter anxiety‐ like behavior in the adult offspring • HPA axis activation, cortisol release • behavioral measures of anxiety
Route of administration
How we get substances into our body.... • Oral ingestion • Injection • Inhalation • Across mucous membranes
How do psychoactive drugs influence the nervous system?
In many ways.... - Some drugs act diffusely on neural membranes throughout the CNS - Others act in a more specific way: by binding to particular synaptic receptors, by influencing synthesis, transport, release, or deactivation of particular NTs, or by influencing the chain of chemical reactions elicited in postsynaptic neurons by the activation of their receptors
In a cat with Klüver‐Bucy syndrome, there has been examined
Inappropriate sexual behavior (such as with a dog)
Dexamethasone Suppression Test
Injection of DEX does NOT lower cortisol levels, indicating dysfunction in the negative‐ feedback system
feeling =
Internal, subjective experience
How does alcohol increase opioids
It increases synthesis & release of endogenous opioids
James-Lange theory vs Cannon-Bard theory emotional experience:
James-Lange theory: emotional experience depends entirely on feedback from autonomic and somatic nervous system Cannon-Bard theory: emotional experience is totally independent of such feedback.
James-Lange theory and Cannon-Bard theory views on emotional specificity of the autonomic nervous system:
James-Lange theory: says that different emotional stimuli induce different patterns of ANS activity and that these different patterns produce different emotional experiences. Cannon-Bard Theory: claims that all emotional stimuli produce the same general pattern of sympathetic activation, which prepares the organism for action.
The action of most drugs are terminated by enzymes synthesized by the
LIVER
Severe stress may precede onset of
MDD
direct pathway
MGN to amygdala; projects via auditory cortex
indirect pathway
MGN to cortex to amygdala
MAOi's
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors - inhibits the activity of MAO - hypertensive crisis ("cheese effect")
Chance of monozygotic twins having Tourette's disorder versus dizygotic twins:
Monozygotic twins: 80% chance Dizygotic twins: 20% chance
Neurogenic hypothesis for AD meds
NE & 5‐HT increased, BDNF increased, increased survival & neurogenesis • reverse stress‐induced damage • restore function of hippocampus and mPFC
Are drugs the only substance to which humans become addicted?
NO
Can you observe physiological arousal & cognition?
NO
Is Sz a direct result of too much DA?
NO - The problem of the therapeutic lag - Different drugs have different effects but similar therapeutic outcomes
Is all physical dependence alike?
NO: Not all physical dependence is alike
do the terms addiction / drug abuse appear in DSM‐5?
NO; The terms addiction / drug abuse do not appear in DSM‐5
Can drug tolerance develop to all effects of a drug?
NO; drug tolerance often develops to some effects of a drug but not to others
Does marijuana bear any resemblance to opioid narcotics?
NO; marijuana bears no resemblance to opioid narcotics.
Is the amygdala a single brain structure?
NOOO
Is drug tolerance a unitary phenomenon?
NOOO; there is no single mechanism that underlies all examples of it
It is clear that tobacco and alcohol have a greater....
Negative impact than marijuana, cocaine, and heroine
What happens when a cigarette is smoked?
Nicotine and some 4,000 other chemicals known as tar are absorbed through the lungs.
Can marijuana cause brain damage?
No damage that can reasonably be attributed to marijuana use has been found in the brains of living or decreased marijuana users.
Is Sz due to over-activity of D2 receptors?
No, but.... - D2 receptors are important (other receptors; brain damage) - other factors that can affect early brain development (perinatal complications, stress, and maternal malnutrition or viral infection) - Dutch Famine of 1944
Intracranial Self‐Stimulation (ICSS)
Olds & Milner (1950's) hypothesized that animals self‐stimulate sites that activate natural reward circuits
The amygdala has extensive reciprocal connections with the
PFC
Methamphetamine and amphetamine users, but not cocaine users, have a greater risk of developing:
Parkinson's Disease
What pathway plays a key role in fear conditioning?
Pathway from medial geniculate nucleus to the amygdala
Formerly Anxiety Disorders (Aren't recognized as anxiety disorders anymore)
Post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) • Trauma and Stressor‐ related Disorders Obsessive‐compulsive disorder (OCD) • Obsessive‐Compulsive and Related Disorders
What brain structures are involved in both major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders?
Prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, & amygdala.
Rapid absorption = Slow absorption =
Rapid absorption = high abuse potential Slow absorption = low abuse potential
What makes an antipsychotic "atypical"?
Receptor affinity & DA‐ergic side effect profile less severe
What are the health hazards of marijuana use?
Respiratory symptoms such as bronchitis & coughing most common and cardiovascular symptoms such as increase in likelihood of a heart attack.
first-line antidepressants
SNRI & NDRI, α2, Mixed action AD's, MAOi's, TCAs, SSRIs
Anxiety‐like behavior in rodents is reduced by
SSRIs
SSRIs
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors - Fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft) - Block re‐uptake of 5‐HT only
Neurogenic hypothesis for stress
Stress = increased cortisol, decreased BDNF, atrophy & loss of neurogenesis • loss of BDNF, damages hippocampus & PFC • genetic & environmental factors confer vulnerability
What did Darwin argue about particular emotional responses?
That particular emotional response, such as human facial expressions, tend to accompany the same emotional states in all members of a species. Believed expressions of emot
Neural Structures Controlling Emotion:
The Limbic system: Papez' Circuit & other circuits
Is the auditory cortex useless?
The auditory cortex is NOT useless, it is just slow
Many drug-addicted people prefer which route of injection?
The intravenous route because the bloodstream delivers the drug directly to the brain.
What is activated when both paradigms are used?
The medial temporal lobes
Conditioned compensatory responses:
Theory proposed by Siegel that conditional stimuli that predict drug administration come to elicit conditional responses opposite to the unconditional effects of the drug & produce situationally specific tolerance.
What's the issue with the right hemisphere model and the valence model?
They have no supported evidence because they're too general.
How does alcohol decrease glutamate
Through Less glu release by Inhibition of glu receptors
TCAs
Tricyclic antidepressants - imiprimine (Tofranil) - block re‐uptake of NE & 5‐HT
Mixed action AD's
Viibryd, Trintellix
Are there a lot of reasons for starting a substance?
YES
Are things that most of us find pleasurable often less pleasurable to the habitual drug user?
YES
Can alcohol consumption of a male parent have effects on subsequent generations?
YES
Do opioids produce transgenerational epigenetic effects?
YES
Does alcohol and all substances cross the BBB easily?
YES
Does dopamine play an important role in the rewarding effects of addictive drugs and natural reinforcers?
YES
Has marijuana consumption been shown to produce transgenerational epigenetic effects?
YES
Is it true that the number of deaths from overdose on prescription or illegal opioids now exceeds that of car accidents?
YES
Is the conditional response always similar to the unconditional response?
YES
Does marijuana have neuroprotective effects?
YES! It has been found that those individuals who tested positive for marijuana use were 80% less likely to die from brain injury than nonusers of marijuana.
Is there a strong genetic component to Sz?
Yes
Are emotional functions lateralized?
Yes, the left and right cerebral hemispheres are specialized to perform different emotional functions.
Do stimulants have long-term adverse effects on the health of habitual users?
Yes, there is some evidence that they do.
Alcohol is what kind of depressant
a CNS depressant
Novelty seeking:
a behavioral trait commonly associated with initial drug taking in humans
Endocannabinoids:
a class of endogenous cannabinoid neurotransmitters
Amygdala complex
a cluster of many nuclei (what the amygdala is)
Glaucoma:
a disorder characterized by an increase in the pressure of the fluid inside the eye
Tourette's disorder:
a disorder of tics; usually begins early in life, symptoms become more severe/complex as the patient ages. Develops in 0.3-1% of the global population. 4x more frequent in ,a;e children than in female children.
The amygdala is composed of:
a dozen or so major nuclei, which are themselves divided into subnuclei (which all are structurally distinct with different connections and likely different functions).
Carminative:
a drug that expels gas from the digestive tract, thereby reducing stomach cramps and flatulence
Antipsychotic drug:
a drug that is meant to treat certain symptoms of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS):
a form of transcranial magnetic stimulation that involves the noninvasive delivery of repetitive magnetic pulses at either high frequencies (5 pulses per sec) or low frequencies (less than 1 pulse for sec) to specific cortical areas - usually the prefrontal cortex. Are believed to stimulate & inhibit activity within those brain regions to which they are applied. Improve depressive symptoms.
Anhedonia:
a general inability to experience pleasure
Anhedonia
a general inability to experience pleasure in response to natural reinforces
Urbach-Wiethe disease
a genetic disorder that often results in calcification of the amygdala and surrounding anterior medial temporal lobe structures in both hemispheres; is a natural lesion bone deposits build up on both sides of amygdala
narcotic
a legal term generally used to refer to opioids; in many states marijuana has been legally classified as this before
Psychosis:
a loss of touch with reality
Korsakoff's syndrome:
a neuropsychological disorder characterized by memory loss, sensory & motor dysfunction, and in advanced stages, severe dementia; caused from high consumption of alcohol & thiamine deficiency
Spandrel:
a non adaptive byproduct of an adaptive evolutionary change
nucleus accumbens
a nucleus of the central striatum
Depression
a psychiatric disorder; affects 2-5% of the global population. Females trice as likely to receive diagnosis of depression. Clinical depression or Major depressive disorder: said to be suffering from this when anhedonia/deep depression last for 2 weeks or longer.
Schizophrenia (Sz)
a psychotic disorder characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, attention, motor behavior, affect and life functioning; a neurodevelopmental disorder.; "the splitting of psychic functions"
Clozapine can cause
a rare, but lethal blood disorder in about 1 - 2% of people who use it.
physical dependence =
a really bad way to define addiction; individuals who suffer with withdrawal reactions when they stop taking a drug are said to be physically dependent on the drug.
Drug priming
a single exposure to the formerly misused drug
Echolalia:
a speech pattern exhibited by some individuals with schizophrenia; vocalized repetition of some or all of what had just been heard.
Family studies and twin studies show
a strong genetic basis of MDD - runs in families - twin concordance rates MZ 60%, DZ 15%
Mesotelencephalic dopamine system:
a system of dopaminergic neurons that projects from the mesencephalon into various regions of the telencephalon. Consists of nigrostriatal pathway and mesocorticolimbic pathway.
Paresis
a term that means weakness; weakness in movement; NOT paralysis
Place conditioning is
a test where drugs & saline are on separate sides of box; on test day the hatch opens between compartments & subject can choose where to go; goes to drug.... conditioned place preference
Early exposure to severe stress can have a
a variety of adverse effects on subsequent developments .
Children subjected to maltreatment or other forms of severe stress display
a variety of brain and endocrine system abnormalities.
After several pairing of the tone and the shock, the rat responds to the tone with:
a variety of defensive behaviors (freezing & increased susceptibility to startle) and sympathetic nervous system responses (increased heart rate & blood pressure).
Chronic smokers are highly susceptible to:
a variety of potentially lethal lung disorders, including pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema and lung cancer + cancer of larynx, mouth, esophagus, kidneys, pancreas, bladder, & stomach. + cardiovascular diseases
Axons of the substantia nigra & the ventral tegmental area project to
a variety of telencephalic sites; including specific regions of the prefrontal cortex, the limbic cortex, the olfactory tubercle, the amygdala, the septum, the dorsal sirutaim, and the nucleus accumbens.
heroin rush
a wave of intense abdominal, orgasmic pleasure that evolves into a state of serene, drowsy euphoria
The amygdala is common site of
abnormal electrical activity causing epilepsy (TLE)
Elimination rate =
about 1 drink per hour
Inhalation
absorbed into the bloodstream through the rich network of capillaries in the lungs; ex: tobacco and marijuana
What do our bodies do with substances?
absorption into the blood -> distribution in active sites & inactive sites -> metabolism in liver or kidney -> elimination (urine, sweat, feces, breath)
Prefrontal cortex is thought to
act on the lateral nucleus of the amygdala to suppress conditioned fear.
Corticolimbic circuit
activity coordinated by amygdala,; determines course of action; is important in a lot of negative emotional responses
neuroadaptions =
adapted neural changes
heroin
addition of 2 acetyl groups to the morphine molecule which greatly increased its ability to penetrate the BBB, more patent analgesic than morphine
Risk-assessment test
after a single brief exposure to a cat on the surface of a laboratory burrow system, rats flee to their burrows & freeze. Then, they engage in a variety of risk-assessment behaviors before their behavior eventually returns to normal. Measure anxiety is the amount of time the rats spend in freezing & in risk assessment.
Opioid system must be active in order for
alcohol to feel rewarding
Butyrophenones:
all bind effectively to D2 receptors but not to D1 receptors; haloperidol & other antipsychotic drugs in its chemical class
Phenothiazines:
all bind effectively to both D1 and D2 receptors; chlorpromazine & other antipsychotic drugs in the same chemical class
all information except what goes through what
all information except sense of smell goes through the thalamus
The amygdala receives input from:
all sensory systems and is believed to be the structure in which the emotional significance of sensory signals is learned & retained.
Atypical antipsychotics:
also known as second-generation antipsychotics; are drugs that are effective against schizophrenia but yet do not bind strongly to D2 receptors; are often the drugs of choice for the treatment of schizophrenia
Guilty-knowledge technique
also known as the concealed information test; circumvents the problem of an elicited emotional response from all suspects in real life by assessing the suspect's reaction to a list of actual and contrived details of the crime that they would only know. Innocent vs. guilty react differently depending on if it was actually them or not.
stress
also stress response; a cluster of physiological changes when the body is exposed to harm or threat
The primary mechanism by which cocaine and its derivatives exert their effects is by:
altering the activity of dopamine transporters
Cannon-Bard theory
alternative to James-Lange theory; claimed that emotional stimuli have 2 independent excitatory effects: they excite both the feeling of emotion in the brain and the expression of emotion in the autonomic and somatic nervous systems. Parallel theory.
learning about tone requires the
amygdala
Functional brain imaging studies of emotion have commonly observed lateralization in the:
amygdale - more activity is often observed in the left amygdala.
Withdrawal syndrome
an adverse physiological reaction that occurs from the elimination of significant amounts of a drug that have been in the body for a period of time.
teratogen
an agent that can disturb the normal development of the fetus
Dorsal striatum
an area that is known to play a role in habit formation and retention
Reserpine
an early herbal remedy, depletes DA
Laudanum:
an opium potion; is a very popular mixture of opium and alcohol
Anxiety is
an unpleasant feeling fear and apprehension that persists in the absence of threat. It is debilitating & causes severe distress. chronic fear that persists in the absence of any direct threat - is a common psychological correlate of stress.
Seyle attributed the stress response to the activation of the:
anterior pituitary adrenal cortex system.
Generalized anxiety disorder
anxiety disorder characterized by extreme feelings of anxiety & worry about a large number of different activities or events.
The features of anxiety disorders that separate them from episodes of normal anxiety are
are the long duration and high intensity.
dose response curve
as drug dose increases, drug effect increases; a graph of the magnitude of the effect of different doses of the drug; drug tolerance shifts this to the right
Long-term cytokine release:
associated with a variety of adverse health consequences.
Phases of drug development:
basic research -> government agency approval -> human clinical trials (3 phases) -> application to begin marketing by government agency -> selling to the public
The developmental period during which early stress can adversely affect neural and endocrine development begins:
before birth
Addicted individuals have been found to have:
behavioral problems; make poor decisions, engage in risk taking, deficits in self-control, over-eating, compulsive gambling, kleptomania, compulsive shopping as addictive behavior
Compulsive behavior
behaviors people with substance abuse disorders engage in; they feel powerless to do something different/ continue to use knowing it's harmful. Even with bad illnesses/ respiratory issues.... addict will still keep using bc they have been for years
defensive behaviors
behaviors whose primary function is to protect the organism from threat or harm.
aggressive behaviors
behaviors whose primary function is to threaten or harm.
Removal of temporal lobe in an ape resulted in it
being nice
Bilateral lesions to the auditory thalamus (medial geniculate nucleus)
block fear conditioning to a tone.
lesions of the amygdala
block fear conditioning tone
Bilateral hippocampus lesions
block the subsequent development of a fear response to the context without blocking the development of the fear response to the explicit conditional stimulus.
The blood‐brain barrier (BBB)
blocks the entry of many substances into brain tissue from the circulatory system; a protective filter that makes it difficult for many potentially dangerous bloodborne-chemicals to pass from the blood vessels of the CNS into the extracellular space around CNS neurons and glia.
testosterone levels
blood level of testosterone is the only measure used in many studies but it is not the best measure. What matters more are the testosterone levels in the relevant areas of the brain, even though studies focused on these are rare.
Once a drug enters the bloodstream, it is carried to the:
blood vessels of the central nervous system.
Direct and indirect routes
both routes are capable of mediating fear conditioning to simple sounds; if only one is destroyed, conditioning progresses normally.
Chronic alcohol consumption produces:
brain damage, which is produced both directly & indirectly
metabolites
breakdown of products of the body's chemical reactions
Alcohol is eliminated via
breathe
Decorticate cats:
cats whose cortex has been removed; respond aggressively to the slightest provocation
VTA
cell bodies of many dopaminergic neurons
Phagocytes
cells that engulf and destroy pathogens
The amygdala is thought to control defensive behavior via outputs from the
central nucleus of the amygdala.
Physiological arousal
changes hr, respiration, sweat
Functional tolerance
changes to receptor systems drug acts on; drug targets change (ex: GLU and GABA); changes effects of alcohol making it less intoxicating & have to drink more
There is a long history of evidence showing
changes to the brain in schizophrenia. - Enlarged ventricles: M > F; negative symptoms - decreased brain volume: total brain size, prefrontal cortex (PFC), hippocampus - disorganized anatomy: PFC,,hippocampus
Smokers syndrome
characterized by chest pain, labored breathing, wheezing, coughing, and a heightened susceptibility to infections of the respiratory tract.
Delirium tremens (DTs):
characterized by disturbing hallucinations, bizarre delusions, disorientation, agitation, confusion, hyperthermia, & tachycardia.
Cannabinoids:
chemicals of the same chemical class as THC; can be psychoactive; most are found in a sticky resin covering the leaves and flowers of the plant; this resin can be extracted and dried to form a dark corklike material called hashish.
Bronchitis
chronic inflammation of the bronchioles of the lungs
Addiction is a
chronic, relapsing behavioral disorder; it's continual use of a drug until eventually can't live w/o it; has tolerance & withdrawal
James Papez
cingulate gyrus & hypothalamus; papez' circuit
Ekman & Freisen
claimed that facial expressions are learned or innate (universal); experimented on non-western tribes men & concludes that facial expressions are universal across cultures & development proposed the 6 primary facial expressions
Signals of aggression and submission must be
clearly distinguishable; evolve in opposite directions
Stimulants =
cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine; drugs whose primary effect is to produce general increases in neural and behavioral activity. All have a similar profile of effets, but they differ greatly in their potency.
Drug injection
common in medical practice; effects = strong, fast, and predictable.
Stress responses are:
complex and varied with the exact response depending on the stressor, its timing. The nature of the stressed person, and how the stressed person reacts to the stressor.
Kleptomania:
compulsive shoplifting
Environment (CS) elicits
conditioned compensatory responses.
tone =
conditioned stimulus
Alcohol is eliminated at a
constant rate
Positively Reinforcing
consuming the drug increases the likelihood that the preceding behavior will occur again
ACC tells PFC about the
context so that PFC can make up its mind
Active placebo
control drugs that have no therapeutic effect but produce side effects similar to those produced by the drug under evaluation.
The HPA axis
controls endocrine stress response
amygdala sits in
corticolimbic circuit
Corticolimbic and corticostriatal dysfunction
corticolimbic recognizes danger and organizes adaptive behavioral responses. corticostriatal is involved in reward learning and goal-directed behavior
Hippocampus controls
cortisol response to threat; is developed from very young experiences of our life
Lateral nucleus of the amygdala
critically involved in the acquisition, storage, and expression of conditioned fear.
auto receptors
decrease ap firing of serotonin neurons; act as the breaks
Hypothermia
decrease in body temperature
increased drug exposure =
decreased adaptive neural changes
Pathway to the periaqueductal gray of the midbrain elicits appropriate
defensive responses
Onset of SSRIs effects are
delayed (therapeutic lag); take weeks to work • due to receptor (de)sensitization? • try to find short circuit to increase serotonin • don't know how it works/ why it takes so long
Anxiety is related to
depression
In BD, people cycle between
depression and mania
Habitual smokers & vapers who stop their nicotine inhalation experience a variety of withdrawal effects such as:
depression, anxiety, restlessness, irritability, constipation, & difficulties sleeping and concentrating.
The diathesis-stress model
describes the interaction between genes and environment
SSRI treatment
desensitizes 5-HT 1A autoreceptors, normalizing 5-HT release
Phagocytosis:
destruction of pathogens by phagocytes; is thought to be one of the first immune reactions to have evolved.
tolerance.
develops when repeated drug exposure results in decreased sensitivity to the drug; take it repeatedly and don't feel effects as much
The relationship between genetics and environment is a
diathesis-stress model
People under stress often change their
diet, exercise, sleep, drug use, any of which could influence immune function.
All different routes of administration have
different effects ; slow vs. fast
The relation between aggression and testosterone levels is:
difficult to interpret because engaging in aggression activity can itself increase testosterone levels.
Antibody-mediated immunity
directed by B cells (B lymphocytes)
Cell-mediated immunity:
directed by T cells (T lymphocytes)
Olds and Milner (1954):
discovered intracranial self-stimulation
pathogens
disease-causing agents.
It is widely believed that the main effect of stress on the immune function is
disruptive
Bilateral lesions to auditory cortex:
do not block fear conditioning to a tone.
Lateral septal lesions:
do not increase aggression; rats with lateral septal lesions do not initiate more attacks, but they are hyperdefensive when threatened.
alpha =
dominant
Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) does not decrease
dopamine levels
corticostriatal circuit
dopamine release; organizes behaviors to get towards goal; motivated behavior
Mesocorticolimbic pathway:
dopaminergic neuron axons that have their cell bodies in the central tegmental area and project to various cortical and limbic sites
Nigrostriatal pathway:
dopaminergic neuron axons that have their cell bodies in the substantia nigra and project to the dorsal striatum; degeneration of this is associated with Parkinson's disease
Learning plays a major role in:
drug tolerance
Mood stabilizers
drugs that effectively treat depression or mania without increasing the risk of mania or depression, respectively. Do not eliminate all symptoms. Many produce side effects: weight gain, tremor, blurred vision, dizziness.
Psychoactive drugs
drugs that influence subjective experience and behavior by acting on the nervous system.
Benzodiazepines
drugs that lower anxiety and reduce stress; work right away/very fast; are used less due to chemical structure increase inhibitory GABA transmitter (make inhibition stronger); increase inhibition = certain brain areas turn off widely prescribed for the treatment of anxiety disorders; ex: chlordiazepoxide (Librium) & diazepam (valium). Also prescribed as hypnotics, anticonvulsants, & muscle relaxants. Is the most widely prescribed psychoactive drug. Have agonistic action on GABAa receptors. side effects: sedation, ataxia, tremor, nausea, & a withdrawal reaction that includes rebound anxiety. Are ADDICTIVE so usually prescribed for short-term use.
Psychedelic drugs:
drugs whose primary action is to alter perception, emotion, and cognition; include a variety of other drugs such as dissociative hallucinogens (ketamine & phencyclidine)
In most people, each facial expression begins on which side and what does this imply?
each facial expression begins on the left side of the face, and when fully expressed, is more pronounced there implies right hemisphere dominance for facial expressions.
modern biopsychological view
each of the 3 principal factors in an emotional response can influence the other 2; factors= the perception of the emotion-inducing stimulus, the autonomic and somatic responses to the stimulus, and the experience of the emotion.
SSRIs
effective anxiolytics • GAD, Social anxiety, OCD, PTSD serotonin agonists that exert their agonistic effects by blocking the reuptake of serotonin from synapses.
jekyll side of opioids
effective as analgesics, treatment of cough and diarrhea; bring risk of addiction
Lithium carbonate
effective in all phases of illness; mood stabilizer - the "gold standard" - manic, depressive, maintain remission
Many cocaine-dependent, methamphetamine dependent, and amphetamine dependent users have been found to have:
electrocardiographic abnormalities.
Effects of stress on the hippocampus appear to be mediated by
elevated-glucocorticoid levels
Environments in which fear-inducing stimuli are encountered can come to:
elicit fear
The medial portions of the prefrontal lobes are the sites of:
emotion-cognition interaction that have received the most attention
Cingulate gyrus damage =
emotional damage
William James View
emotional stimulus -> physiological -> emotional
orbicularis oculi:
encircles the eye and pulls the skin from the cheeks and forehead toward the eyeball; normally contracted only by genuine pleasure
2 classes of endogenous opioid neurotransmitters that bind to receptors:
endorphins & enkephalins
Lymphocytes have receptors for:
epinephrine, norepinephrine, and glucocorticoids.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
episode of depression and lethargy typically recur during particular seasons - usually winter months. Suggested that episodes are triggered by the reduction in sunlight.
Multimodal (including emotional) inputs are
evaluated and integrated by the PFC
positive incentive
expected pleasure-producing
we develop tolerance only to the effects we
experience (contigent tolerance)
stressors
experiences that induce the stress response; all produce the same core pattern of physiological changes, whether psychological or physical. produce physiological reactions that participate in the body's inflammatory responses.
Developing tolerance to anticonvulsant effects of alcohol depends on
experiencing the anticonvulsant effect
Hypothalamus is critical for the
expression of aggressive responses and that the function of the cortex is to inhibit and direct these responses.
Exteroceptive stimuli:
external, public stimuli, such as the drug-administration environment; most demonstrations of conditioned drug tolerance are this
Rapid absorption (IV, inhalation) leads to
fast onset & short duration
The PFC is important for the extinction of
fear
Most biopsychological research on emotion has focused on:
fear & defensive behaviors
Auditory fear conditioning
fear conditioning that uses a sound as a conditioned stimulus.
Acute tolerance
feelings of intoxication are reduced during elimination of alcohol; reduced subjective effect of alcohol when body is eliminating alcohol relative to absorbing the alcohol you feel the effects during absorption, but as alc is eliminated you don't feel the effects; you feel "sober" or "okay to drive" even though your blood alcohol concentration is way to high
Synthetic opioids:
fentanyl & oxycodone; both more potent & more addictive than heroin
Chlorpromazine:
first antipsychotic drugs discovered; has a calming effect; helpful for patients with psychosis; alleviates the symptoms of schizophrenia is a receptor blocker at dopamine synapses; it binds to dopamine receptors without activating them, keeping dopamine from activating them
Innate immune system:
first component of the immune system to react quickly and generally near point of entry of pathogens to the body. Reaction includes a complex, but general, array of chemical and cellular reactions.
Hans Seyle
first described the stress response in 1950s; explained how it produces adaptive changes that help the animal respond to the stressor (mobilization of energy resources) and it produces changes that are maladaptive (enlarged adrenal glands).
James-Lange theory
first physiological theory of emotion proposed by James and Lange in 1884; claimed that emotion-inducing sensory stimuli are received and interpreted by the cortex, which triggers changes in the visceral organs via the autonomic nervous system and in the skeletal muscles via the somatic nervous system. Then, the autonomic and somatic responses trigger the experience of emotion in the brain. Reverse theory.
Unnatural housing and testing conditions finding
found that more naturalistic housing and testing conditions reduce drug self-administration; findings suggest that human drug addiction might be prevented by improving the environment and life choices of those most vulnerable to addiction
Dr. William Steward Halsted:
founder of John Hopkins medical school, "the father of modern surgery", was addicted to morphine & cocaine
Most studies of the cerebral lateralization of emotion have employed:
function brain-imaging methods with complex & variable results.
Tolerance to psychoactive drugs is largely
functional
Two categories of tolerance
functional tolerance & metabolic tolerance
Most common finding in heavy alcohol users with or without Korsakoff's syndrome:
general loss of cortical white & gray matter
Molecular mechanisms involve epigenetic changes in
glucocorticoid (cortisol) receptor (GR) expression in the hippocampus
Both T cells and B cells have receptors for:
glucocorticoids
GR =
glutocordicoid receptors
DSM-5
guides diagnosis; is the current edition of the diagnostic and statistical manual of the american psychiatric association
The Mind-Blowing Case of Phineas Gage:
gunpowder exploded while he was working which launched tamping iron through his face, skull, and brain out the other side. Survived but his personality and emotional life had totally changed. His damage affected both medial prefrontal lobes, which we now know are involved in planning, decision making, and emotion.
The case of Charles Whitman, the Texas tower sniper:
had a walnut-sized tumor in his right amygdala and killed 16 people.
Case of S.P., The woman who couldn't perceive fear:
had right amygdala & adjacent tissues removed to treat epilepsy; following surgery....no deficit in recognizing facial expressions of fear & had no difficulty specifying which emotion would go with particular sentences. Also had no difficulty using facial expressions upon request to express various emotions.
6 primary facial expressions
happy, sad, angry, surprise, fear, disgust
Calcification
hardening by conversion to calcium carbonate, the main component of bone.
memory B cells
have a long life and accelerate antibody-mediated immunity if there is a subsequent infection by the same microorganism.
MAO inhibitors
have several side effects; most dangerous = cheese effect (people who take MAO inhibitors and consume tyramine rich foods run the risk of stroke caused by surges in blood pressure; foods such as cheese, wine, & pickles which contain tyramine (a potent elevator of blood pressure))
salutary
health-promoting
Short-term cytokine-induced inflammatory responses
help the body combat infection
Monoamine theory of depression:
holds that depression is associated with underactivity at serotonergic & noradrenergic synapses. Theory largely based on the fact that monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, & selective monoamine-reuptake inhibitors are all agonists of serotonin monoamine-reuptake, or both.
Current version of the dopamine theory:
holds that excessive activity at D2 receptors is one factor in the disorder but that there are many other factors as well; proposed that schizophrenia is caused by excessive activity in the mesocorticolimbic pathway.
right hemisphere model
holds that the right hemisphere is specialized for all aspects of emotional processing: perception, expression, & experience of emotion.
Little Albert
holy unethical experiment; child who loved white rabbits; associates relationship between rodent & loud noise (US) US made him afraid/cry
Psycho‐pharmacology
how drugs modify behavior
Neuro‐pharmacology
how drugs modify brain activity
Positively reinforcing =
how hard will you work for the drug; for the money to buy it?! usually will do anything to get money for drug in order to self administer it
Pharmacology
how substances (drugs) affect an organism
Neuro‐ psycho‐ pharmacology
how substances act on the brain to modify thought, emotion, behavior.
Behavioral immune systems
humans are motivated to avoid contact with individuals who are displaying symptoms of illness and their bodies are primed to respond more aggressively to infection when they perceive signs of infection in others.
HPA =
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
Amygdala output to the
hypothalamus, brainstem and prefrontal cortex regulates the physiology, behavior, and cognition
The amygdala is important for survival, but....
if overworked, bad things can happen
Cytokines are produced by cells of the:
immune system & nervous system
GABAA receptors are
important drug targets
Serotonin receptors are
important targets
crack
impure residue of cocaine hydrochloride; is a potent, cheap, smokeable form of cocaine. Is impure, consumed by smoking, and difficult to study.
Users of cocaine report feeling:
in a wave of well-being, feel self-confident, alert, energetic, friendly, outgoing, fidgety, and talkative, have less than usual desire for food & sleep, EUPHORIA feeling state
Raphe nuclei
in brainstem; contains many serotonergic neurons/ releases serotonin
term "cut"
in drugs means stretched by the addition of some other substance
Tolerance to the hypothermic effects of alcohol occur only when tested
in the same room where repeated alcohol exposure (US) occurred.
Inapropriate tameness =
inappropriate behavior
Cocaine & Amph
increase DA & can exacerbate or induce symptoms of Sz
Decrease opioid =
increase of sober days
Testosterone
increases social aggression in the males of many species; aggression is largely abolished by castration in these species.
Diuretic
increases the production of urine by the kidneys.
drug sensitization
increasing sensitivity to a drug; the opposite of developing tolerance; can be situationally specific
Medical risk of opioid addiction are
indirect
Cocaine sprees:
individuals who are addicted to cocaine tend to go on these; binges in which extremely high levels of intake are maintained for periods of a day or two. During this, users become increasingly tolerant to the euphoria-producing effects of cocaine.
Effects of stress on the hippocampus can be induced and blocked by:
induced by corticosterone (a major glucocorticoid) and blocked by adrenalectomy (surgical removal of the adrenal glands).
Stress can increase susceptibility to
infectious diseases.
One of the first reactions of the innate immune system to the invasion of pathogens is:
inflammation (swelling)
Pancreatitis:
inflammation of the pancreas
Gastritis: inflammation of the stomach
inflammation of the stomach
cognitive impairment
inflexibility
Once a psychoactive drug has penetrated the CNS, it can
influence neural activity by acting on neural membranes or acting on neurotransmitters & receptors.
Alcohol increases dopamine signaling by
inhibiting glutamate receptors (less excitation) & increasing GABA allosterically (binds to a dif. site that GABA does), & increases opioids.
CNS depressant
inhibits activity of central nervous system
Addiction is an end stage following
initial drug use and habitual drug use characterized by: • compulsive drug‐seeking and • compulsive drug‐using behavior • despite negative consequences
Which is the fastest route of administration
injection
With new drug treatments (e.g. clozapine), simple explanations of Sz are
insufficient
Hippocampus is thought to:
interact with part of the amygdala to mediate learning about the context of fear-related events.
Interoceptive stimuli:
internal, private stimuli; just as effective as exteroceptive stimuli
Tics:
involuntary, repetitive stereotyped movements or vocalizations.
vaccination
involves administering a weakened form of a virus so that if the virus later invaded, the adaptive immune system is prepared to act against it.
Incentive-sensitization theory
is able to explain why some drug users become habitual users & others do not, and is able to explain the discrepancy between the hedonic value and the positive-incentive value of a drug taking in addicted persons.
Cirrhosis
is extensive scarring of the liver that can be caused by chronic alcohol consumption; is the major cause of death among heavy alcohol users.
The corticostriatal circuit
is involved in reward learning and goal‐directed behavior
TLE
is often associated with emotional disturbances • aggression, depression, fear & anxiety
pattern of use is
is problematic and leads to impairment or distress
Neuroplasticity theory of depression:
is that depression results from a decrease of neuroplastic processes in various brain structures (ex: the hippocampus), which leads to neuron loss & other neural pathology.
Relapse
is unique; stop for years/long time until 1 day.... wild idea pops up.... "maybe this time will be different".... over time returns to using
Fear has 3 important qualities:
it is the easiest emotion to infer from behavior in various species; it plays an important adaptive function in motivating the avoidance of threatening situations; and chronic fear is one common source of stress
The direct subcortical pathway to the amygdala has adaptive advantage because
it produces a rapid response to environmental danger
A key point of incentive-sensitization theory:
it's not the pleasure (liking) of taking the drug that is the basis of habitual drug use & addiction; it is the anticipated pleasure of drug taking (the wanting or craving for the drug).
Major feature of Selye's landmark theory:
its assertion that both physical and psychological stressors induce the same general stress response (assertion bene proven to be partly correct).
Voluntary facial paresis
know as Duchenne smile; impaired activation of face muscles with emotion but normal voluntary activation
deficient fear learning
know what's happening but are unable to learn the relationship between the tone and the shock (fear). Are unable to learn stimulus that are predictive of bad things happening.
Emotional facial paresis
known as pyramidal motor system/ smile; no smile because emotional facial expression = impaired
he situational specificity of drug tolerance effects are
large, reliable, & general
Popular opium potions:
laudanum, godfrey's cordial, & dalby's carminative
antibodies
lethal receptor molecules; are released into the intracellular fluid, where they bind to the foreign antigens and destroy or deactivate the microorganisms that possess them.
Stressors:
life experiences (stressors) shape the course of Sz
Hedonic liking:
liking
substance must be what to diffuse through membrane?
lipid‐soluble
Metabolic tolerance
liver enzymes metabolize alcohol faster; bodies metabolize more rapidly due to repeated exposure so have to drink more; increase of activity of liver enzymes
What can you observe to know how afraid something is?
look at blood pressure & freeze scale
alcohol poisoning =
loss of consciousness & can result in death
Risk of cocaine sprees
loss of consciousness, seizures, respiratory arrest, heart attack, stroke
Emphysema
loss of elasticity of the lung from chronic irritation
Harrison Narcotics Act:
made it illegal to sell or use opium, morphine, or cocaine in the United States; didn't include heroin
immune system
made up of the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system
MDD =
major depressive disorder
amygdala
major role in emotion!
Cognition
make decisions based on the nature of the experience; how you feel about it (possibly choose to avoid it) • memories • strategic planning • "feeling"
Social aggression in many species occurs more commonly among
males than females
Papez' Circuit
mammillary bodies of hypothalamus -> Anterior nucleus of thalamus -> cingulate gyrus -> hippocampus -> back to mammillary bodies by fornix
Fluoxetine:
marketed as prozac; first SSRI to be developed; structure is a slight variation of that of imipramine & other tricyclic antidepressants. No more effective than imipramine in treating depression.
Brief maternal separation elicits
maternal nurturing behaviors • licking, grooming, ached‐back nursing • pups are resilient to stress as adults • cortisol decreases; anxiety decreases
Cortical route is the only route capable of:
mediating fear conditioning to complex sounds.
Psychosomatic disorders:
medical disorders in which psychological factors play a casual role.
Conspecifics:
members of the same species
2 events have helped clarify the relation between stress and immune function:
meta-analysis of stress and immune function, and the discovery of the bidirectional role played by cytokines in the innate immune system.
During metabolism the drug is
metabolized or broken down; creating metabolites metabolism is the process by which liver enzymes stimulate the conversion of active drugs to inactive forms; this eliminates a drug's ability to pass through lipid membranes of cells so that it can no longer penetrate the BBB
Primary treatments for heroin addiction
methadone & buprenorphine (both have a high and long-lasting affinity for opioid receptors
substance use disorder can be
mild, moderate or severe
Smoking during pregnancy increases the likelihood of:
miscarriage, stillbirth, early death of the child, psychiatric disorders during adolescence, & other health consequences.
Failure to find unqualified support for either the James-Lange theory or the Cannon-Bard theory led to the:
modern biopsychological view.
dopamine transporters
molecules in the presynaptic membrane that normally remove dopamine from synapses and transfer it back into presynaptic neurons.
antigens
molecules, usually proteins, that can trigger an immune response.
Medial prefrontal lobes have been hypothesized to:
monitor the difference between outcome and expectancy, to encode stimulus value over time, to persist the likelihood of error, to mediate the conscious awareness of emotion stimuli, and to mediate social decision making.
The goal in treating bipolar disorder (BD) is
mood stabilization
Opioids
morphine, codeine, & other drugs that have similar structures or effects are commonly referred to as this; have a jekyll-and-hyde character.
Chronic psychological stress:
most frequently implicated in ill health.
Oral ingestion
most preferred route; drugs are swallowed and dissolve in the fluids of the stomach and are carried to the intestine, where they are absorbed into the bloodstream.
Amphetamine
most widely misused stimulants, usually consumed orally in the potent form called d-amphetamine (dextroamphetamine). Can produce a syndrome of psychosis called amphetamine psychosis (similar to cocaine effect).
The expression of schizophrenia-related genes is associated with:
multiple aspects of brain development, myelination, transmission at glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses, & changes in dopaminergic neuron physiology.
For auditory fear conditioning to occur, what is necessary?
necessary for signals elicited by the tone to reach the medial geniculate nucleus but not the auditory cortex.
Common cocaine withdrawal symptoms:
negative mood swings & insomnia
Sz is a __________________ disorder
neurodevelopmental disorder; • Diathesis: Genetic vulnerability • Stress: Early‐life events: Perinatal complications, Inflammatory processes • Developmental errors in PFC: "negative" symptoms • PFC is inefficient in "top‐ down" regulation of subcortical areas: deficits in corticostriatal circuit controlling DA; "positive" symptoms
5 commonly used drugs
nicotine, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, and opioids
Withdrawal would include
no drug; just neuroadaptions
in contingent tolerance.... no location + new people =
no tolerance -> risk of OD
Is there any single criterion for differential diagnosis?
no, there is no single criterion for differential diagnosis
Drug self-administration paradigm:
nonhuman animals press a lever to inject drugs into themselves through implanted cannulas.
Conditioned place-preference paradigm:
nonhuman animals repeatedly receive a drug in one compartment (the drug compartment) of a 2 compartment box.
NE & 5‐HT
norepinephrine & serotonin
Another approach to study the lateralization of emotions is based on
observing the asymmetry of facial expressions.
Buerger's disease
occurs in abt 12 of 100,000 individuals, mostly in male smokers - the blood vessels, especially those supplying the legs, become constricted. Gangrene may eventually set in & amputations may take place.
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS):
offspring of mothers who consume substantial quantities of alcohol during pregnancy can develop this; has a worldwide prevalence of 0.7%. A child with this suffers from some or all of the following symptoms: brain damage, intellectual disability, poor coordination, poor muscle tone, low birth weight, delayed growth, and/or physical deformity.
How are blood levels of testosterone often inferred?
often inferred from saliva levels because saliva is safer and easier than collecting blood.
Cross tolerance
one drug can produce tolerance to other drugs that act by the same mechanism
galstic ulcers
one of the first medical disorders to be classified as psychosomatic; are painful lesions to the lining of the stomach and duodenum, which in extreme cases can be life threatening. Seemed to be caused by bacteria. About 500,000 new cases are reported each year in the U.S.. Antibiotics and psychological treatments used for treatment.
"Atypical" antipsychotics
on‐ and off‐label use with multiple diagnoses; thymic stabilizer • Clozaril (clozapine) • Zyprexa (olanzapine) • Seroquel (quetiapine) • Risperdal (risperidone) • Geodon (ziprasidone) • Abilify (aripiprazole)
Prolonged separation results in
opposite changes; cortisol increases; anxiety increases
hypomania
opposite of depression; characterized by a reduced need for sleep, high energy, and positive affect. During periods of hypomania, people are talkative, energetic, impulsive, positive, & very confident. Can be very effective at certain jobs and fun to be with.
mania
opposite of depression; same features as hypomania but taken to an extreme. Has additional symptoms: delusions of grandeur, overconfidence, impulsivity, and distractibility. Usually involves psychosis.
2 facial muscles contracted during genuine smiles
orbicularis oculi & zygomaticus major
Craving & relapse
overwhelming urges to use even when they know it's bad.... picks up and uses again • chronic tendency to relapse • driven by craving
analgesics
painkillers
The hippocampus appears to be what to stress:
partially susceptible to stress-induced effects; the reason for this susceptibility may be the particularly dense population of glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus.
suppression paradigms
participants are directed to inhibit their emotional reactions to unpleasant films or pictures
reappraisal paradigms
participants are instructed to reinterpret a picture to change their emotional reaction to it.
Dominance hierarchies:
pecking orders
Bipolar disorder:
people who experience periods of clinical depression and periods of hypomania or mania; affects about 3% of the global population. Is a serious psychiatric disorder with one of the highest rates of attempted & completed suicide. Bipolar disorder type II: persons who only experience bouts of depression and hypomania. Bipolar disorder type I: persons who only experience bouts of depression, hypomania, and bouts of mania, or only experience mania.
Pharmacological:
pertaining to the scientific study of drugs
Cell mediated immune reaction begins when a:
phagocyte ingests a foreign microorganism.
Microglia:
phagocytes that are specific to the central nervous system
Early attempts to explain the phenomenon of drug addiction are attributed to
physical dependence
Physical-dependence theories of addiction:
physical dependence traps addicted individuals in a vicious circle of drug taking and withdrawal symptoms.
There is good evidence that all kinds of psychological stressors act like:
physical stressors
There are 3 primary components of emotional experience
physiological arousal, behavior, & cognition
Hippocampus
plays a key role in memory for spatial location; it is reasonable to expert that it would be involved in contextual fear conditioning.
drugs' hedonic
pleasurable effects
Categories of aggressive and defensive behaviors in rats
predatory aggression, social aggression, intraspecific defense, defensive attacks, freezing and flight, maternal defensive behaviors, risk assessment, & defensive burying.
Cocaine
prepared from the leaves of the coca shrub, which grows primarily in western South America. Typically consumed by snorting or by injection. More than 18 million people used cocaine in the past year across the globe.
Tobacco is the leading cause of
preventable death and disease in developed nations. It contributes to more than 6.5 million deaths a year across the globe; abt 1 in every 10 deaths.
The amygdala assesses the emotional significance of the sound basis of:
previous encounters with it and then the amygdala activates the appropriate response circuits
Addiction causes a person
problems; causes impairment. distress
Glucocorticoids:
produce many of the components of the stress response.
Neuroadaptations underlying tolerance also
produce withdrawal effects
Hallmark of addiction:
propensity to relapse
The reward hypersensitivity theory of bipolar disorder:
proposed that bipolar disorder results from a dysfunctional brain reward system that overreacts to rewards or the lack thereof.
valence model
proposes that the right hemisphere is specialized for processing the negative emotion and the left hemisphere is specialized for processing positive emotion.
Siegal and his colleagues
prosed that drug users may be particularly susceptible to the lethal effects of a drug overdose when the drug is administered in a new context; believed drug users become tolerant to a drug if they repeatedly take it in same environment, while drug users that administer in an unusual situation have no tolerance effects present to counteract the effects of the drug.
Empathogens:
psychoactive drugs that produce feelings of empathy
Cocaine psychosis
psychotic symptoms; sometimes mistakenly diagnosed as schizophrenia.
zygomaticus major
pulls the lip corners up; controlled voluntarily
Tachycardia
rapid heartbeat
The route of administration of a drug influences the:
rate at which and the degree to which the drug reaches its sites of action in the body.
Carlsson and Lindqvist revision to dopamine theory of schizophrenia:
rather than high dopamine levels, the main factor in schizophrenia was presumed to be high levels of activity at dopamine receptors.
Elevated-plus-maze test:
rats are placed on 4 armed plus sign shaped maze that rests about 50 cm above floor; 2 arms have sides; 2 arms have no sides; measure of anxiety is the proportion of time the rats spend in the enclosed arms, rather than venturing onto the exposed arm.
Defensive-burying test:
rats are shocked by a wire-wrapped wooden dowel mounted on the wall of a familiar test chamber. Measure of anxiety is the amount of time the rats spend spraying bedding material from the floor of the chamber at the source of the shock with forward thrusting movements of their head and forepaws.
Depression is often divided into 2 categories:
reactive depression: depression triggered by an obvious negative experience (ex: death of a friend, loss of a job) endogenous depression: Depression with no apparent cause (ex: case of S.B.)
Corticolimbic circuit dysfunction
recognizes danger and organizes adaptive behavioral responses.
The corticolimbic circuit
recognizes danger and organizes adaptive behavioral responses.
Stress has been shown to:
reduce dendritic branching in the hippocampus, to reduce adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus, to modify the structure of some hippocampal synapses, and to disrupt the performance of hippocampus-dependent tasks.
Exposure to a psychoactive drug can:
reduce the # of receptors for it, decrease the efficiency with which it binds to existing receptors, or diminish the impact of receptor binding on the activity of the cell.
Surgical removal of the seizure focus (TLE) often
reduces the psychiatric symptoms
Positive-incentive value:
refers specifically to the anticipated pleasure associated with an action (wanting to take a drug)
hedonic value
refers to the amount of pleasure that is actually experienced (at times taking the drug is not as pleasurable as it once was)
sham rage
refers to the exaggerated, poorly directed aggressive responses of decorticate animals; only elicited with hypothalamus present
Connection between VTA & nucleus accumbens leads to
relationship between stimulating & reward
Adrenal medulla:
releases epinephrine and norepinephrine; stressors activate the sympathetic nervous system which causes this to increase its release
Biopsychologist can overcome the problem of vague, subjective, everyday concepts by basing their search for neutral mechanisms on the thorough descriptions of:
relevant behaviors, the environments in which they occur, and the putative adaptive functions of such behaviors.
our cognitive side does what
remembers and avoids scary memories/ emotional experiences (ex. encountering a snake)
Early stress research on nonhumans tends to involve extreme forms of stress such as:
repeated exposure to electric shock or long periods of physical restraint.
Translational research
research designed to translate basic scientific discoveries into effective clinical treatments.
Bacteria helicobacter pylori:
responsible for all cases of gastric ulcers except those caused by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents such as aspirin. Damages stomach wall.
GR in the hippocampus
returns cortisol to pre‐stress level
Drugs of abuse share 2 important properties
rewarding & positively reinforcing
Addiction potential of a substance is influenced by
route of administration
Schizophrenia with catatonia
schizophrenia characterized by long periods of immobility and waxy flexibility
in contingent tolerance.... drug w particular environment =
seen tolerance
Intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS)
self administering brief bursts of weak electrical stimulation to specific sites in own brain; brain sites are called pleasure centers
Behavior of lesioned rats is commonly referred to as
septal aggression or septal rage.
1A =
serotonin receptors
Anxiety disorders involve
several interacting mechanisms: • transmitter systems • endocrine changes • corticolimbic circuit dysfunction
After repeated exposure, the dose response curve does what
shifts to the right; which means you would have to drink more to feel the effect your looking for
The case of Sigmund Freud:
shows that nobody is immune to the addictive effects of drugs and allowed comparison between the 2 addictive drugs with which Freud had problems; stopped using cocaine after using for 3 years; stopped smoking but then picked it up again; wrote how it was affecting his health but still didn't stop smoking; got cancer and knew smoking was the cause yet kept smoking; hospitalized for heart condition & stopped but then started smoking after out of hospital; he continued smoking no matter the consequence....
Effects of cocaine sprees:
sleeplessness, tremors, nausea, hypothermia, and in rare, cases, psychotic symptoms.
Lymphocytes:
specialized leukocytes that are the main cells of the adaptive immune system; are produced in bone marrow and the thymus gland and are stored in the lymphatic system until they are activated. 2 major classes: T cells and B cells
physical dependence
state in which removal of the drug induces a withdrawal response
Cannon & Bardes
stated that hypothalamus is important in response
Most drug self-administration studies have been done with
stimulants
Rewarding pathway
stimulate fibers between VTA & nucleus accumbens
Cortisol levels increase following
stress • normally follows a rhythm
distress
stress that disrupts the health or aspects of functioning
eustress
stress that improves health or other aspects of functioning
Different causes of relapse in addicted individuals identified:
stress, drug priming, exposure to cues, & conditioned compensatory responses (can increase craving)
Gastric ulcers occur most commonly in people living in:
stressful situations, and stressors can produce gastric ulcers in laboratory animals.
Cytokines:
stressors produce an increase in blood levels of this; a group of peptide hormones that are released by many cells and participate in a variety of physiological and immunological responses, causing inflammation and fever. attract leukocytes and other phagocytes into the infected area. Promote healing of damaged tissue once the pathogens are destroyed.
Cravings =
strong urges to take the drug; they are powerful & overwhelm the ability to do something different
substances produce
strong withdrawal responses
Clinical trials:
studies conducted on volunteers with the disorder to assess the therapeutic efficacy of an untested drug or other treatment.
Chronic (long-lasting) stressors:
such as caring for an ill relative or experiencing a period of unemployment. Adversely affect the adaptive immune system.
Discovery of the selective binding of butyrophenones to D2 receptors led to an important revision in the dopamine theory of schizophrenia:
suggested that schizophrenia is caused by hyperactivity specifically at D2 receptors, rather than at dopamine receptors in general.
Many studies of medial prefrontal lobe activity employ
suppression paradigms or reappraisal paradigms.
Direct health hazards of chronic exposure are
surprisingly minor, no serious ill-effects; constipation, pupil constriction, menstrual irregularity, and reduced sex drive
Pathway to the lateral hypothalamus elicits appropriate:
sympathetic responses
All first-line antidepressants increase the
synaptic levels of monoamine transmitters such as NE and 5-HT
3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, or ecstasy):
taken orally; a potent relative of amphetamine; is considered an empathogen.
All cocaine and other stimulants increase the level of dopamine in the synapse, but they all have a different _________.
target
Hypothermic:
temperature reducing
Other circuits
temporal lobe (esp. the amygdala) & prefrontal cortex
One of the most widely publicized findings about alcohol:
that moderate drinking reduces the risk of coronary heart disease
Neuroleptics
the 1st antipsychotic drugs, are potent dopamine D2 receptor antagonists • chlorpromazine (Thorazine) • haloperidol (Haldol) • fluphenazine (Prolixin)
What is important to note about the CS?
the CS doesn't change from US & then become the CS; it is NEUTRAL before learning & then has predictive qualities/ emotional significance post learning when paired with a US
Stress produces widespread changes in the body through its effects on
the anterior-pituitary adrenal cortex system and the sympathetic-nervous-system adrenal medulla system.
Positive-incentive theories of addiction:
the assumption that most addicted individuals take drugs not to escape or to avoid the unpleasant consequences of withdrawal, but rather to obtain the drugs' positive effects; hold that the primary factor in most cases of addiction is the craving for the positive-incentive properties of the drug.
Medial geniculate nucleus:
the auditory relay nucleus of the thalamus
bullying
the chronic social theta that induces subordination stress in the members of many species.
Research on the role of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) in emotion has focused on 2 issues:
the degree to which specific patterns of ANS activity are associated with specific emotions and the effectiveness of ANS measures in polygraph (lie detection).
2 pathways from medial geniculate nucleus to the amygdala:
the direct one & indirect one
opium
the dried form of sap exuded by the seed pods of the opium poppy; has several psychoactive ingredients, most notable = morphine and codeine, its weaker relative.
fear
the emotional reaction to threat; is motivating force for defensive behaviors
fear conditioning
the establishment of fear in a response to a previously neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) by presenting it, usually several times, before the delivery of an aversive stimulus (the unconditional stimulus).
Anandamide
the first endocannabinoid neurotransmitter to be isolated and characterized; from a word that means "internal bliss"
Rewarding =
the high; feels good
Facial feedback hypothesis:
the hypothesis that our facial expressions influence our emotional experience
Target-site concept:
the idea that the aggressive and defensive behaviors of an animal are often designed to attack specific sites on the body of another animal while protecting specific sites on its own.
General behavior problem:
the inability to refrain from a behavior despite its adverse effects
a cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms indicates that
the individual continues using the substance despite significant substance‐related problems
Peripartum depression
the intense, sustained depression experienced by some women during pregnancy, after they give birth,or both. Associated with about 13% of pregnancies.
Prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus project to
the lateral nucleus of the amygdala.
Most commonly employed physiological measure of stress:
the level of circulating glucocorticoids.
Mesencephalon:
the midbrain
Anxiety disorders are the
the most prevalent of all psychiatric disorders and are also the most difficult to treat & may lead to other disorders
Cocaine hydrochloride
the nefarious white powder extracted from the coca paste.
Central intent of the incentive-sensitization theory is that:
the positive-incentive value of addictive drugs increases with repeated drug use in addiction-prone individuals.
Contextual fear conditioning:
the process by which benign contexts come to elicit fear through their association with fear-inducing stimuli.
immunization
the process of creating immunity through vaccination.
First major event in the study of biopsychology of emotion:
the publication in 1872 of Darwin's book: The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals.
Embodiment of emotions:
the re-experiencing of related patterns of motor, autonomic, and sensory neural activity during emotional experiences.
Seyle concluded that stressors acting on neural circuits stimulate:
the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary.
Inflammation is triggered by
the release of chemicals from damaged cells
Subordination stress:
the result when a conspecific threat becomes an enduring feature of daily life. Is often studied in the form of dominance hierarchies.
2 prominent theories of the cerebral lateralization of emotion:
the right hemisphere model and the valence model
Cocaine and other stimulants have
the same general behavioral effects and mechanism of action; they amp you up
Schizophrenia is clearly not
the simple result of too much dopamine, or overactive dopamine receptors. • "Atypical" antipsychotic medications • Brain changes in schizophrenia • Genetic contributions to schizophrenia
Psychoneuroimmunology
the study of interactions among psychological factors, the nervous systems, and the immune system.
The neurons that compose the mesotelencephalic dopamine system have their cell bodies in 2 midbrain nuclei:
the substantia nigra & the ventral tegmental area
in physiological arousal
the sympathetic nervous system amps up
The dopamine theory of Sz states
the symptoms of schizophrenia are caused by a functional excess of dopamine (DA)
Dopamine theory of schizophrenia:
the theory that schizophrenia is caused by too much dopamine and, conversely, that antipsychotic drugs exert their effects by decreasing dopamine levels.
Transgenerational epigenetics:
the transmission of epigenetic changes to subsequent generations (ex: smoking).
control question technique
the usual interrogation method in which the physiological response to the target question ("Did you steal the purse") is compared with the physiological responses to control questions whose answers are known ("Have you ever been in jail before?").
Aggressive responses of decorticate animals are abnormal in 2 respects
they are inappropriately severe and are not directed at particular targets
cannulas
thin tubes
Acute (brief) stressors:
those lasting less than 100 minutes such as public speaking, an athletic competition, or a musical performance. Lead to improvements in immune function.
Darwin's theory accounts for the evolution of:
threat displays
Chronic/Deep brain stimulation:
through implanted electrode; has shown to have therapeutic effects in some depressed patients who have failed to respond to other treatments. Implant tip of stimulation electrode into an area of white matter of the anterior cingulate gyrus in the medial prefrontal cortex. Stimulator (implanted under skin) delivers continuous pulses of electrical stimulation that can't be detected by a patient. Some strikingly positive results: substantial improvements, largely symptom free, improved for at least 1 year.
Incubation of drug craving:
time-dependent increase in cue-induced drug craving and relapse; cues presented soon after withdrawal are less likely to elicit craving and relapse than cues presented later
We gain tolerance to what
to drug effects rather than the drugs themselves
Chronic alcohol use leads to
tolerance
Contingent tolerance
tolerance that depends on experiencing the drug effects; test for this in before-after design experiments; EXPERIENCE NEEDED
Conditioned tolerance
tolerance that is maximally expressed in the presence of drug‐ predictive stimuli; situational specificity of tolerance
Monoamine oxidase (MAO):
treats depression; an enzyme that breaks down monoamine neurotransmitters in the cytoplasm of the neuron.
Neutral stimuli that signal the impending delivery of a reward are sufficient to:
trigger dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens.
Toll-like receptors:
trigger the innate immune system by binding to molecules on the surface of the pathogens or when injured cells send out alarms. Are similar to toll, a receptor previously discovered in fruit flies.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH):
triggers the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.
Milk electric shock to feet =
unconditioned stimulus
Monoamine theory drug treatment ->
underlying pathophysiology -> symptoms?
Facial expression are
universal
Pinel, Mana, & Kim 1989:
used before-and-after design to study contingent tolerance to the anticonvulsant effect of alcohol with two groups of rats. Rats that received alcohol on each trial before convulsive stimulation became almost completely tolerant to alcohol's anticonvulsant effect, whereas those that received the same injection and stimulations in the reverse order developed no tolerance whatsoever to alcohol's anticonvulsant effect.
TBH therapeutic effects:
used to suppress nausea & vomiting in cancer patients and to stimulate the appetite of patients with AIDS. Has also been shown to block seizures, to dilate bronchioles of asthmatics; to decrease the severity of glaucoma, and to reduce anxiety, some kinds of pain, and the symptoms of multiple sclerosis.
The memory of the adaptive immune system is the mechanism that gives:
vaccinations their prophylactic (preventive) effect.
The effects of drug withdrawal are:
virtually always opposite to the initial effects of the drug
Larynx
voice box
Mock-crime procedure:
volunteers participate in a mock crime and are then subjected to a polygraph test by an examiner who is unaware of their "guilt" or "innocence".
Habitual Drug Taking
wanting v. liking • hedonic value v. positive incentive • incentive‐ sensitization
Binge use =
what it takes to reach the legal alcohol consumption limit; can change based on body size, etc.
Dopamine system helps learn
what the stimulants means & what they do (reward)
anxiety disorders
when anxiety becomes so severe that it disrupts functioning; are all associated with feelings of anxiety & a variety of physiological stress reactions.
Absorption of drug through mucous membranes
when drugs are administered through the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth, and rectum. Ex: cocaine is snorted
Leukocytes:
white blood cells
Something is heritable, but what is it? for Sz?
• Behavioral genetics (family, twin, adoption) studies all indicate a strong genetic component in schizophrenia. • Genetic risk for schizophrenia is distributed across 1000's of genes, each making a small contribution synapse structure, synapse function, & Neurotransmitter Synthesis & Inactivation
Before and after experiments
• Drug‐before‐test leads to tolerance • Drug‐after‐test leads to no tolerance subjects get same # of stimulants and same # of alcohol
2 important points from emotion slides
• Extinction is new learning - Extinction memory stored in parallel with the original fear memory - Thus, extinction may not be permanent • Mood, anxiety, stress‐related disorders (e.g., PTSD) involve inadequate PFC mechanisms of top‐down control over the amygdala.
Conclusions about emotion
• Fear is necessary; promotes survival • Amygdala is a critical component of the fear‐ learning circuitry • PFC is critical for fear extinction, top‐down control over the amygdala • Anxiety & Depression may result from altered function of circuits and synapses involved in fear.
Receptor affinity
• Low affinity D2 antagonist • High affinity 5‐HT2A antagonist • 5‐HT1A partial agonist (Seroquel, Abilify)
rewarding & reinforcing properties
• Place conditioning (conditioned place preference) • Drug self‐administration
what our bodies do to a substance
• Route of administration • Onset and duration of drug effects
Categories of Anxiety Disorders
• Specific Phobia: fear of a specific thing (heights, spiders) • Social Anxiety Disorder: fear of specific experience(s) (public speaking) • Panic disorder (fear of panic attacks) • Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (anxiety generalized to many circumstances; lots of things i environment cause worry)
What does it mean to beware of Acute tolerance
• The subjective experience of alcohol is reduced when BAC is going down • Feel "OK to drive" even when BAC is above 0.08% Feeling sober again even though you most definitely aren't
Pavlovian associative learning
• US (noise, shock) evokes UR (fear response) • Neutral stimulus (CS) paired with US • After pairing, CS evokes fear response (CR) When paired, CS gets predictive qualities and knows bad thing is coming
schizophrenia symtoms
• Unlike other mental illnesses, there are no essential symptoms • positive: behavioral excesses • negative: behavioral deficits • relatively rare (1‐2%) • age of onset: early (M) to mid (F) 20's; social withdrawal may appear in the early teens.
Neuroleptics behavioral effects
• antipsychotic • motor side effects (parkinsonism) • endocrine side effects
Affective disorders
• are disabling disturbances in mood. • major depressive disorder (MDD) • bipolar disorder (BD)
Initial Drug Taking
• drug availability • social pressures • novelty‐seeking • access to non‐ drug reinforcers factors = price and availability of drug, peer pressure, prior life experiences
Behavior
• freezing, startle • facial expressions
Most "Atypical" antipsychotics are FDA approved for use as
• monotherapy for bipolar disorder • add-on therapy for major depression
More nurturing versus less nurturing results
• more nurturing = more hippocampal GR, resilient to stress • less nurturing = less hippocampal GR, vulnerable to stress
Addiction is ....
• not a diagnosis • a constellation of behaviors following repeated, chronic use of substances • characterized by compulsive drug‐seeking & drug‐using behaviors, craving, chronic tendency to relapse • the result of neuroadaptations in the reward pathway
Intensity and duration
• of disturbance constitutes the disorder • distort perceptions of reality and interfere with normal life function
DA‐ergic side effect profile less severe
• parkinsonian side‐effects • endocrine side‐effects (excess prolactin)
Drug Craving & Repeated Relapse
• stress • drug priming • drug cues (CS) can be caused by stress or many other factors
Fear learning is extinguished when
• the CS (tone) is presented repeatedly without the US (shock) • Fear responses decrease • Excitatory drive on the amygdala is reduced • No US‐driven activity • PFC activates inhibitory GABAergic interneurons in the amygdala
Rewarding
• the positive experience associated with the drug • the "high"
