Nicholas II 1894-1917

What was the Potemkin Mutiny?

1. 14th June the crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied over harsh conditions and being given rotten meat to eat 2. They seized control of the ship and sailed to Odessa 3. The arrival of the ship was warmly received by huge crowds. Troops were ordered to disperse the crowds and opened fire, killing as many as 2,000 citizens 4. Failing to find support, the sailors surrendered the ship in a Romanian port in exchange for safe refuge

What was Nicholas' background?

1. He was small, naturally reserved and recognised as a 'weakling' particularly by his father 2. Politics bored Nicholas and when his father died 3. He accepted his inheritance as God-given 4. Nicholas had been brought up to take his duties as ruler seriously. He was told to not to believe in concessions 5. Nicholas' commitment to Orthodoxy also ensured that the church maintained its powerful influence

Who was Father Gapon?

1. In 1903 Father Gapon was allowed by the police to set up the Assembly of Russian 2. Factory and Mill Workers because he was a loyal monarchist 3. It seems he genuinely wanted to help workers but his union was infiltrate by ex Social Democrats 4. As the situation in St Petersburg deteriorated, Gapon helped to write the petition and organise the march

The First Duma (Duma of National Hopes) May-July 1906

Details: boycotted by the Bolsheviks SRs and the extreme right wing Union of the Russian People, therefore overwhelmingly radical-liberal Actions: passed an address to the throne which requested things like political amnesty and ministerial responsibility to be passed to the Duma and universal suffrage, afte Nicholas called their demands inadmissible Outcome: 10 weeks later the Duma was dissolved and Goremykin was replaced as Prime Minister by Pyotr Stolypin

The Second Duma (Duma of National Anger) February- June 1907

Details: Stolypin's tried to influence the elections But the Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and SRs decided to participate Actions: Stolypin struggled to find any support for the agrarian reform programme, passed under the tsars emergency powers Outcome: Duma refused to ratify these so Stolypin spread rumours of a tsarist assassination attempt and dissolved the Duma Used illegal emergency law to alter the franchise The weight of the peasants, workers and national minorities was drastically reduced

The Fourth Duma November 1912-17

Details: This was a relatively docile body Actions: simply ignored the Duma and its influence declined Outcome: It was too divided to fight back and in any case, the workers against seized the initiative with a revival of direct action and strike activity

What were the concessions in the October Manifesto?

Civil liberties- freedom of speech (end of censorship of the press) and conscience, freedom of association and the end of unwarranted arrests An elected duma (parliament)

What were the Fundamental Laws (April 1906)?

It reinstated autocratic power and the tsar claimed the right to: 1. Veto legislation 2. Rule by decree in an emergency or when the Duma was not in sessions 3. Appoint and dismiss government ministers 4. Dissolve the Duma as he wished 5. Command Russia's land and seas forcers 6. Declare war , conclude peace and negotiate treaties with foreign states and control all foreign relations 7. Control military and household expenditure 8. Overturn verdicts and sentences given in a court of law 9. Control the Orthodox Church

What were some cultural changes of this period?

Women: patriarchal structure remained mostly untouched but more opportunities were developing. In December 1908, the First All-Russian Congress of Women was attended by 1035 delegates in St Petersburg and it campaigned for a female franchise Literacy of population: The growth of education brought change - government expenditure on primary education grew from 5 million roubles in 1896 to over 82 million by 1914. However still 40% illiteracy in 1940 Secondary and higher education: 1860 and1914 the number of university students In Russia grew from 5000 to 69,000(45% of them were women) Influence of writers: More serious writers and artists used their art forms to address problems in Russian society during this period Influence of artists: The relaxation of censorship controls from 1905 produced the 'silver age' of Russian culture, dominated in particular by poets Continuity in culture: By 1914, Russian culture had certainly broadened and diversified to encompass a much wider group than the intelligentsia elites, and to some extent It mirrored the many other changes running through Russian society. Nevertheless, some aspects of Russian culture and behaviour didn't show much change

The February Revolution

Uprisings which became violent street demonstrations (at it's peak 300,000) begun in February 1917 in Petrograd. The army were sent in to restore order but they began to mutiny (around 80,000 in Petrograd) that led to the abdication of the tsar after he was bloked from returning and the establishment of a provisional government.

What were railways like under Nicholas?

1. 1905, Russia had 59, 616 km in railways, 66% state-owned 2. The building of the railway lines was itself a stimulus to the development of the iron and coal industries and permitted the development of new industries along the length of the expanding rail network 3. By 1913 Russia had the second largest railway network with 62,2000 km although this fell well short of the USA's 411,000 km 4. The most acclaimed development was the impressive construction of the trans-Siberian railway line, which crossed Russia from west to east

Extent of Trade Union opposition

1. After the excitement raised by the 1905 revolution, and the legalisation of the trade unions, a reduction in working class discontent might have been expected, however the state still feared them 2. As a result 497 trade unions were closed down and 604 were denied registration between 1906 and 1910. those that survived were mainly unions of the better-paid male skilled workers, particularly in the metal trades 3. From 1907, an economic depression and rise in unemployment combined with the political clampdown reduced any opportunity for union action 4. This trade union activity was mainly confined to St Petersburg and the surrounding area where ¾ of strikes took place; ½ in the metal trades 5. As well as being geographically limited, only 12% of enterprises experienced a strike, even a general strike in St Petersburg in the 1st half of July 1914

Who was the Tsarina?

1. Alexandra was born of a German Royal House 2. She disliked court and they disliked her 3. She had 4 daughters and 1 son - Alexia - haemophiliac 4. She wa strong-willed and believed in tsarist autocracy 5. She had a great influence on the tsar

What was agriculture like under Nicholas?

1. Although the rural economy provided a livelihood for 80-90% of the Russian population, it was largely ignored or sacrificed in the interests of industrialisation until 1906 2. Traditional agricultural practices continued, for the most part, and were perpetuated by Mirs The solcha (wooden plough) was still widely used and medieval rotation systems, which wastefully left fallow land each year, were practised 3. peasants had managed to improve themselves since the emancipation edict by buying up land and farming more efficiently, and Stolypin sought to produce more of these kulaks , whom he described as the 'sturdy and strong'.

What were some social developments in working and living conditions in towns?

1. Between 1867 and 1917, the empire's urban population quadrupled from 7 to 28 million and this was mainly the result of the influx of peasants looking for work in the cities 2. By 1914, 3 out of every 4 people living in St Petersburg were peasants by birth, compared with just 1 in 3, 50 years earlier 3. The facilities needed to provide for the growing urban class were grossly inadequate. Workers often found themselves living in barrack-like buildings, owned by the factory workers and dangerously overcrowd and lacking in adequate sanitation 4. In St Petersburg at the turn of the century, for example, about 40% of houses had no running water or sewage system 5. The average industrial wage increased from just 245 to 264 roubles per month in the years down to 1914 while inflation was running at 20%

What was the new industrial society?

1. By 1914 there were growing numbers of 'new position's: managers, statisticians, pharmacists and civil engineers as well as over 5000 vets 2. The number of doctors increased from 17,000 to 28,000 (1897-1914) 3. The total number of graduate teachers doubled (1906-1914) and reached over 20,000 4. Professional associations, scientific societies and voluntary organisations dominated by professionals rather than nobility proliferated and the Association of Industry and Trade was established in 1906 as a political lobbying group

What were some social developments in working and living conditions in the countryside?

1. Conditions for peasant farmers did not improve substantially as strip farming persisted on 90% of the land and there was still widespread poverty 2. However, only 3.5 million, from a peasant population of nearly 97 million, were able to take advantage of this and the scheme (going to Siberia) was clearly inadequate to alleviate the pressure of a growing population on resources 3. Teachers were also in short supply- few received much more than the most basic elementary education- 1914= 60% illiteracy 4. The continuation of nobles' landowning and backwards farming methods were mainly concentrated in the Russian heartland 5. Living standards varied in different parts of the country, with more prosperous commercial farming in the peripheral regions in parts of the Baltic, western Ukraine, the Kuban and northern Caucasus to the south and in western Siberia

What was the response of the Nationalities?

1. Demanded autonomy, democracy and end of russification 2. Poles and Finns wanted outright independence 3. The tsar dispatched 10,000 troops to Georgia to try to keep it under control 4. In Poland, there was a virtual state of civil war and the tsarist regime had to keep a force of 300,000 soldiers there 5. Russian troops shot 93 poles who took part in demonstrations sparked by Bloody Sunday

What was Zubatov's trade union ideas?

1. He was head of Moscow Okhrana 2. He believed that repressive measures alone could not combat working-class military; workers had to be convinced that their lives could be improved within the existing system 3. Thought that is could be achieved by giving them trade unions and self=help organisations, supervised and partially funded by the police 4. Starting in 1901, Zubatov set up 3 unions in Moscow, which submitted demands to their employers who were pressured by police representative into making concessions. The Zubatov movement spread rapidly across the south and west of the empire 5. 1903= a strike organised by police unions in Odessa escalated into a general strike and Zubatov lost his position

What was Peasant Action like?

1. In June and July they began seizing land, grain and animals, burning landlord's houses, cutting timber illegally and refusing to pay rents and taxes 2. Their general demands were land, the end of redemption payments and a reduction in rents 3. At the end of July, the All-Russian Peasant Union met near Moscow. In a few places peasants set up what were in effect peasant republics 4. The army was used to put down peasant uprisings but it was mainly composed of peasants, and mutinies began to spread as whole units refused to carry out orders

What was the General Strike?

1. In St Petersburg, Moscow and other cities, industrial and utility workers, shop assistants, actors, even staff from government offices (up to 2 million workers) supported the strike 2. Barricades went up, manned by a motley mix of workers, students and professionals, initiating clashes with police and Cossacks- the general strike carried on into October 3. Particularly significant was the formation of the St Petersburg Soviet on the 13th October 4. The urban workers had emerged as an organised force confronting the autocracy

What were political developments by 1914?

1. In the following years it seemed as though the autocracy had largely recovered from the events of 1905 2. By 1914, the agrarian situation was improving, and with the dumas weakened to the point of meaningless, the future looked brighter for the traditional governing classes 3. The revolutionary groups which had led the opposition were much weakened, partly because of police activity and partly because of their internal quarrels 4. Nevertheless none of the issues that had sparked the 1905 troubles had been fully resolved and from 1912, labour troubles resurfaced once again 5. Rise in Rasputin's influence

What was the significance of 1905?

1. It had shown it could survive as long as the army remained loyal 2. The revolutionary parties had played a relatively small part and seemed to present no real threat 3. Bloody Sunday and the brutal suppression of protest had broken the bond between tsar and people. The people feared the tsar but they no longer respected him. The workers were now much more inclined to social revolution 4. People had experienced political freedom and these groups would not be happy to see the autocracy go back to carrying on in the same old way

Extent of opposition from other opposition groups

1. Liberals were appeased by 1905 concessions 2. No single opposition groups in the nationalities 3. The revolutionary SR and SD parties were weakened by the exile of their leaders after 1905 4. The split damaged the Social Democratic Worker's Party

Why was the Tsar able to survive the 1905 revolution?

1. Loyalty of the armed forces 2. Swift end to Russo-Japanese War 3. Repressive methods used by the government 4. Poor communications between opposition groups 5. Split between the liberals and socialists 6. Increase in crime 7. Mistakes of revolutionary parties 8. The role of Witte

What Russia was like when Nicholas inherited the throne? (Workers)

1. Many workers were concentrated in huge factories and this made it easier for them to organise strikes (more militant) 2. A more educated workforce meant that they were able to read more political literature and then articulate revolutionary views 3. The growth of the middle class created pressure for political change 4. Strikes such as 1896/7 30,000 spinner strike brought a 11.5 hour working day 5. The peak for strikes was reached in 1899 and involved nearly 100,000 workers

What were the middle classes like at this time?

1. New business and professional men were able to carve out comfortable lives for themselves and their offspring 2. This group grew as a force of management and professional positions became more in demand in the increasingly complex industrialising society 3. Within the industrialising regions and in the development of Russia's infrastructure, there were plenty of opportunities for the enterprising 4. The growth of educational and the demand for more administrators also fuelled a growing middle class 5. The growing middle classes found their natural home on the councils of the zemstva and in the town and state Dumas, where they exerted an influence beyond their size

What was opposition like in towns?

1. Political activism was comparatively rare before 1905- partly because strike activity was illegal and the Secret Police efficient- but also because of the relatively small numbers of workers and their own desperation to get and retain jobs 2. The strike activity of that year was also followed by a lull, despite the legalisation of trade unions, but from 1912 it escalated again and in 1914 there were 3574 stoppages 3. When workers at the Lena Goldfields in Siberia went on strike for better wages and conditions in 1912, for example, troops were sent in and 270 workers were killed and 250 injured

What were the workers and peasantry like at this time?

1. Population growth and economic development most affected the workers and peasantry 2. Although most peasant protest before 1914 was the result of traditional grievances-a failed harvest or unfair land allocation- the slow process of awakening the peasantry from their inertia to political activism was already underway by 1914, although it was to take the exceptional conditions of war to complete the task 3. In urban areas, former peasants, alienated from their families and their 'roots' gradually lost something of their former identity 4. Here they became an easy target for the political agitators and it would not be an exaggeration to say that one of the gravest mistakes of the tsarist government was to fail to respond effectively to the effects of social change in the cities

What were some of Stolypin's land reforms?

1. Stolypin wanted the peasants to become the permanent owners of their land. 2. His programme of agricultural reform began in 1903, when the Mir's responsibility to pay taxes on behalf of all the peasants in the village was removed 3. The hereditary ownership of land by peasants increased from 20% in 1905 to nearly 50% by 1915 4. Grain production rose annually from 56 million tons in 1900 to 90 million by 1914 By 1909. Russia was the world's leading cereal exporter 5. 3.5 million peasants moved away from the overpopulated rural districts of the south and west to Siberia, and helped Siberia to develop into a major agricultural region

How Russia was revolutionary in 1914?

1. The Russian economy was doing well in the lead up to war but after 1905 when repression was used on trade unions to reduce the labour movement, there was a revival in militancy (from 1912 - Lena Goldfields) 2. This opened the floodgates to workers' protests- they became more militant and the frequency and scale of strikes increased from 466 (1911) to 3,534 (1914) 3. Support for the Bolsheviks had increased in larger factories and they had gained control of some of the biggest unions in St Petersburg and Moscow (Metalworkers Union) 4 The Bolshevik paper Pravda had a achieved a national circulation of 40,000 copies per issue, over twice that of its Menshevik rival

What was the impact of the First World War at the front?

1. The Russians had the largest army and gained some early successes against the Austro-Hungarians- it was a different story against the Germans August 1914= The Battle of Tannenberg and September= the Masurian Lakes, the Russians took heavy losses and were driven back 2. This was followed by a long retreat and by autumn 1915 they had been forced out of Poland, Lithuania and Latvia 3. Between may and December 1915= 1 million Russians were killed and a similar number were taken prisoner 4. Poor leadership - selected for loyalty not skill 5. The performance of the war ministry was dire as they struggled to distribute resources and there was a lack of supplies and equipment- especially rifles, ammunition and boots 6. Morale was dismal - tens of thousands deserted

What was heavy industry like under Nicholas?

1. The main areas of industrial development were around St Petersburg, Moscow, the Urals to the east, the Donbas (Donets Basin) and Krivoi Rog iron fields of south-eastern Ukrainethe Baku coalfields on the Caspian Sea and Poland 2. By 1914 Russia was the world's 4th largest producer of coal, pig iron and steel 3. Russian oil production trebled from 153 million puds to almost 570 million between 1885 and 1913 4. By 1914, Russia was the worlds 5th largest industrial power (after the UK, USA, France and Germany)

What was the nobility like at this time?

1. The position of nobility as a whole had suffered as a result of the emancipation but some had thrived on the favourable arrangements for land distribution or involvement in industrial enterprises and financial speculation 2. Others, perhaps serving in government office or with strong military connections, retained much of their former influence and lifestyle 3. Around 1/3 of all nobles' land was transferred to townsmen or peasants between 1861-1905 4. The nobility were regularly appointed to provincial governorship and vice governorships and each province and district of the Empire also had its own noble assembly, which met once a year

How was Russia not revolutionary by 1914?

1. The villages were relatively quiet before 1914 and there had been no major upheavals and disturbances Several years of good harvest certainly helped 2. 1914 the army remained loyal 3. The liberal opposition was weak and divided and not in a position to cause the regime much trouble. The Octobrists and the Kadets distrusted each other 4. Government repression after 1905 had decimated revolutionary parties The SRs had been infiltrated by Okhrana and there were divisions among leadership 5. The Bolsheviks had been infiltrated. 4 out of 5 of the party's St Petersburg committee in 1909 were Okhrana agents

What was the impact of the First World War on the homefront?

1. The war put a huge strain on the Russian economy and exposed its structural weaknesses - railways overwhelmed - Moscow became a bottleneck - supplies couldn't get where they needed to 2. Altogether the casualties totalled 8 million and it took a toll on families 3. Inflation hit people really hard- the price of food and fuel quadrupled Between 1914-16 wages doubled (still couldn't keep up with rising prices of goods though) 4. Petrograd suffered because it was remote from food producing areas]by 1916 it was received barely 1/3 if the food it required 5. Strikes became more militant

What Russia was like when Nicholas inherited the throne? (Government)

1. The zemstva, with a huge amount of support, pressed their case for more autonomy. 2. More liberal and progressive zemstvo men like Prince Lvov demanded the calling of a national assembly- they presented their new ideas to the Young Tsar. Nicholas ignored them saying that they were 'senseless dreams' 3. Nicholas continued with the policies of his father and the emergency powers of 1881 were kept more or less intact- Russification was pursued more vigorously

What Russia was like in the early 20th century?

1. There had been another famine in the central Volga region in 1898-9 2. An international recession after 1900 caused a deep depression and it affected all areas of the economy and workers as they were hit by falling wages an unemployment, resulting in widespread industrial action. 3. Peasant revolts ripped through the countryside in 1902 and 1903 4. Regime could only respond though repression which turned even more to ideas of revolution

What was the Formation of the Union of Unions?

1. There was initially no structure or organisation to the strikes 2. The workers started to form factory committees to represent themselves, but strikes were spontaneous rather than planned 3. a number of professional organisations and trade organisations came together to form the Union of Unions to press the cause of liberal political reform, and notably request a national representative assembly elected by universal suffrage

What Russia was like when Nicholas inherited the throne? (Students)

1. Universities had huge demonstrations in 1891 when police beat students, arrested leaders and drafted some into the army 2. The middle classes were horrified by the police brutality and many students were radicalised- thousands joined the Social Revolutionaries 3. Peasants - huge anger about taxes and high rents 4.

What happened on Bloody Sunday?

1. When 4 workers were sacked at the giant Putilov engineering works on 7 January, a strike was called which drew in over 100,000 workers. At the stage, it was an economic strike concerned with wages and working hours 2. Father Gapon, organised a petition and a march to the Winter Palace to seek the help of the tsar 3. Up to 150,000 men, women and children set off in the morning of Sunday 9th January. Despite being peaceful they were fired upon 4. The casualty figures are unclear but some sources put them at around 130 killed and 300 seriously injured 5.. Strikes and disorder quickly spread to other cities and towns. By the end of January, over 400,000 people were out on strike. On 4th February the tsar's own uncle grand duke Sergei was assassinated

How was industry transformed?

1. annual growth of more than 8% per annum from 1894 to 1913 2. Railway trackage virtually doubled, coal output in southern Russia jumped from 183 million puds in 1890 to 671 million in 1900. foreign investment soared and France supplied ½ of all foreign capital, Britain 23% 3. Witte introduced a new rouble, backed by the value of gold, in January 1897, in order to strengthen the currency and encourage foreign confidence and investment 4. The capital was used to fund public works, develop Russia's infrastructure- railway, telegraph lines and electrical plans- a well as develop mines, oilfields and forests for timber 5. in the years 1903-1913 the government received more than 25% of its income from its industrial investments

What were the weaknesses of Agriculture?

1. changes in land tenure arrangements took a long time to process and the measures were not entirely successful 2. By 1913, only 1.3 million out of 5 million applications for the consolidation and hereditary tenure of individual farms had been dealt with 3. By 1914, only around 10% of land had been transferred from communal to private ownership 4. By 1914 90% of peasant holdings were still in traditional strips, with conservative peasants (particularly central Russia) reluctant to give up traditional practice and security of the Mir provided for them 5. 50% of the land remained in the hands of the nobility Probably fewer than 1% achieved kulak status

How many government officials were killed or wounded during 1905?

3600 government officials were killed or wounded

The Third Duma (Duma of Lords and Lackeys) November 1907- June 1912

Details: submissive Duma which agreed 2200 of approx 2500 government proposals Actions: There were disputes over naval staff, Stolypin's proposals to extend primary education, and his local government reform Outcome: In 1911, the Duma had to be suspended twice, while the government forced through legislation under emergency provisions Although the Duma ran its course, by 1912 it was clear that the Duma system was not working

What were reactions to the October Manifesto?

Liberals: hailed the October manifesto as the first step towards constitutional government and for them the main aim of the campaign had been achieved Others: clashes between the left and right wing paramilitary groups clashed on the streets Soviet by the end of November there were 80 Soviets in a number of cities and the countryside The Union of Russian People: several monarchist organisations were formed to call for a complete restoration of autocracy The union of Russian people had 1000 branches by the end of 1906

Mensheviks

Main beliefs: Be broadly based and take in all those who wished to join Be more democratic, allowing its members to have a say in policy making Encourage trade unions to help the working class improve their conditions Mensheviks took the Marxist line that there would be a long period of bourgeois democratic government during which the workers would develop a class and revolutionary consciousness until they were ready to take over in a socialist revolution Support: The support came mainly from the working class The Mensheviks tended to attract different types of workers and members of the intelligentsia Also a brooders range of people (non Russians like Jew and Georgians)

Bolsheviks

Main beliefs: Made up of a small number of highly disciplined professional revolutionaries Operate under centralised leadership Have a system of small cells (made up of 3 people) so that it would be more difficult for the police to infiltrate It was the job of the party to bring socialist consciousness to the workers and lead them through the revolution. Support: The support came mainly from the working class. The Bolsheviks tended to attract younger more militant workers who liked the discipline, firm leadership and simple slogans

What was The Khodynka Field Massacure?

May 1896 during celebrations that accompanied his coronation, 1400 people were killed and 600 were Injured

The Socialist Democrats

Origin: George Plekhanov formed it in exile in 1898 Reasons for party split: 1. Some wanted to encourage trade unions to improve the conditions of the workers Others wanted the focus to be on revolutionary tactics and the preparation of the working class for revolution 2. At the second party congress on 1903, the SDs split into two factions- the Bolsheviks (Majoritarians) and the Mensheviks (Minoritarians) This was largely caused by the abrasive personality of Lenin who was determined to see his idea of revolutionary part triumph

The Socialist Revolutionaries

Origin: grew out of the populist movement, it was never well co-ordinated or centrally controlled and did not hold its first congress until 1906 Main beliefs: their central hope for revolution with the peasants, land would be taken from landlords and divided among the peasants, leading exponent of their views was Victor Chernov Methods: terrorism and assassination - as many as 2000 Support: peasants and by 1905 industrial workers (50%), they were the party the peasants recognised as representing them

Liberal opposition

Origin: traced back to liberal intelligentsia (liberal nobility and middle class). third element in the Zemstva, became more organised beginning of 20th century - 2 parties - Kadets and Octobrists Main beliefs: rights and freedoms of the individual, rule of law, free elections, parliamentary democracies Methods: reform not violent action Support: middle classes and progressive businessmen

How was order restored post 1905?

Repression: On 3 December the leaders of the St Petersburg soviet and hundreds of its deputies were arrested This caused an armed uprising in Moscow led by the social democrats and barricades were erected The uprising was crushed followed by a brutal crackdown with mass arrests, beatings and summary executions Re-asserting rule in the countryside: Some of the peasant anger was assuaged when the government promised to cut redemption payments in half in January 1906 (completely by January 1907) It also announced the setting up of the Peasants' Bank to help them buy land- but peasant disturbances continued through mnost of 1906 Peasants were hanged in their hundreds and the noose used in the hangings became known as 'Stolypin's necktie' Use of armed forces: Between Mid-October 1905 and April 1906 as many as 15,000 people were executed and 45,000 people were deported In the summer of 1906, field court martials were introduced to deliver fast trials and fast executions