Norton Guide - Essential Literary Terms

*Classical Tragedy*

A type of drama that presents a serious subject matter about human suffering and corresponding terrible events in a dignified manner; a literary genre, invented by the Greeks around the 5th century BCE, that told a story of a hero and his subsequent demise (ex. Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare)

*Allegories*

A work of art in which the characters, images, and/or events act as symbols (ex. George Orwell's "Animal Farm")

*Roles in Plot*

1. Major or central characters are vital to the development and resolution of the conflict. In other words, the plot and resolution of conflict revolves around these characters. 2. Minor characters serve to complement the major characters and help move the plot events forward. 3. Dynamic - A dynamic character is a person who changes over time, usually as a result of resolving a central conflict or facing a major crisis. Most dynamic characters tend to be central rather than peripheral characters, because resolving the conflict is the major role of central characters. 4. Static - A static character is someone who does not change over time; his or her personality does not transform or evolve. 5. Round - A rounded character is anyone who has a complex personality; he or she is often portrayed as a conflicted and contradictory person. 6. Flat - A flat character is the opposite of a round character. This literary personality is notable for one kind of personality trait or characteristic. 7. Stock - Stock characters are those types of characters who have become conventional or stereotypical through repeated use in particular types of stories. Stock characters are instantly recognizable to readers or audience members (e.g. the femme fatale, the cynical but moral private eye, the mad scientist, the geeky boy with glasses, and the faithful sidekick). Stock characters are normally one-dimensional flat characters, but sometimes stock personalities are deeply conflicted, rounded characters (e.g. the "Hamlet" type). 8. Protagonist - The protagonist is the central person in a story, and is often referred to as the story's main character. He or she (or they) is faced with a conflict that must be resolved. The protagonist may not always be admirable (e.g. an anti-hero); nevertheless s/he must command involvement on the part of the reader, or better yet, empathy. 9. Antagonist - The antagonist is the character(s) (or situation) that represents the opposition against which the protagonist must contend. In other words, the antagonist is an obstacle that the protagonist must overcome. 10. Anti-Hero - A major character, usually the protagonist, who lacks conventional nobility of mind, and who struggles for values not deemed universally admirable. Duddy, in Mordecai Richler's The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, is a classic anti-hero. He's vulgar, manipulative and self-centered. Nevertheless, Duddy is the center of the story, and we are drawn to the challenges he must overcome and the goals he seeks to achieve. 11. Foil - A foil is any character (usually the antagonist or an important supporting character) whose personal qualities contrast with another character (usually the protagonist). By providing this contrast, we get to know more about the other character. 12. Symbolic - A symbolic character is any major or minor character whose very existence represents some major idea or aspect of society. For example, in Lord of the Flies, Piggy is a symbol of both the rationality and physical weakness of modern civilization; Jack, on the other hand, symbolizes the violent tendencies (the Id) that William Golding believes is within human nature.

*Stanzas*

A division of four or more lines having a fixed length, meter, or rhyming scheme (similar to paragraphs in prose as it includes connected thoughts and is set off by a space) The number of lines varies in different kinds of stanzas, but it is uncommon for a stanza to have more than twelve lines. The pattern of a stanza is determined by the number of feet in each line, and by its metrical or rhyming scheme. Types: 1. Couplet: two rhyming lines having the same meter (ex. "Do not all charms fly At the mere touch of cold philosophy? There was an awful rainbow once in heaven: We know her woof, her texture; she is given" - To Science by Edgar Allan Poe A rhyming pair of lines in iambic pentameter is known as a "heroic couplet." Initiated by Chaucer, heroic couplets are commonly used in epics and narrative poetry.) 2. Tercet: three lines following a same rhyming scheme a a a, or have a rhyming pattern a b a (ex. "He clasps the crag with crooked hands: Close to the sun it lonely lands, Ringed with the azure world, it stands. The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls; He watches from his mountain walls, And like a thunderbolt he falls." - The Eagle by Alfred Lord Tennyson This poem follows an a a a tercet.) 3. Quatrain: a form of stanza that has common rhyming schemes a a a a, a a b b, a b a b (ex. "Come, fill the Cup, and in the fire of Spring Your Winter garment of Repentance fling: The Bird of Time has but a little way To flutter-and the Bird is on the Wing." - The Eagle by Alfred Lord Tennyson) 4. Quintain: a stanza of five lines, which may be rhymed or unrhymed, and has a typical stress pattern (ex. "Listen... With faint dry sound, Like steps of passing ghosts, The leaves, frost-crisp'd, break from the trees And fall." - November Night by Adelaide Crapsey) 5. Sestet: a kind of stanza that consists of six lines and marks a change of emotional state of a poet in a sonnet as they tend to be more subjective in the second part of the sonnet; the second division of Italian or sonnets of Petrarch, following an octave or the first division comprising eight lines (ex. "So answerest thou; but why not rather say: 'Hath man no second life? - Pitch this one high! Sits there no judge in Heaven, our sin to see? - More strictly, then, the inward judge obey! Was Christ a man like us? Ah! Let us try If we then, too, can be such men as he!'" - The Better Part by Mathew Arnold The poet answers the rude inquirer passionately as soon as the sestet commences.) (ex. "The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, The furrow followed free; We were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea." - The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by S. T. Coleridge The poet has used quatrain (four-line stanza) in the given example. It is one of the most popular forms known as "ballad stanza," which uses a rhyme scheme of abxb, in which the third line does not rhyme. This is called "common meter.")

*Heptameter*

A meter made up of seven feet and usually 14 syllables total (ex. Edgar Allan Poe's "Annabel Lee")

*Dactylic Feet*

A metrical foot with one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (ex. actions speak louder than words)

*Figurative Language*

Language that uses figures of speech to be more effective, persuasive, and impactful (ex. simile, metaphor, etc.)

*Narrative Fiction*

Accounts of a sequence of connected events told through step-by-step, or scene-by-scene, narration; report of connected events presented in a sequence of written and spoken words; the succession of events (do not have to be real, they can be taking place in a possible world, but the elements of the narrative have to constitute a coherent whole) narrated in verbal medium (ex. TKAMB by Harper Lee)

*Online Resources Cited, MLA style in*

Last name, first name, role. Title of site. Publisher, date, URL. Accessed Day Month Year.

*Juvelian Satire*

Any bitter and ironic criticism of contemporary persons and institutions that is filled with personal invective, angry moral indignation, and pessimism; formal satire in which the speaker attacks vice and error with contempt and indignation (ex. George Orwell's Animal Farm is a Juvenalian satire that isn't particularly funny. It ridicules communist governments for their total lack of equality.)

*Doggerel Tragedy*

poetry that is irregular in rhythm and in rhyme, often deliberately for burlesque or comic effect

*Abstract Language*

Language describing ideas and qualities rather than observable or specific things, people or places (unlike concrete language) (ex. To excel in college, you'll have to work hard)

*Rhetorical Strategies*

Persuasive strategies used in arguments to support claims and respond to opposing arguments; techniques that help a writer organize evidence, connect facts into a sequence, and provide clusters of information necessary for conveying a purpose or an argument (ex. ethos, pathos, logos, etc.)

*Metafiction*

Occurs in fictional stories when the story examines the elements of fiction itself; fictional writing which self-consciously and systematically draws attention to its status as an artifact in order to pose questions about the relationship between fiction and reality; fiction in which the author knowingly draws attention to the fact that it is being made up (the author self-consciously alludes to the artificiality or literariness of a work by parodying or departing from novelistic conventions and traditional narrative techniques) (ex. Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales")

*Falling Meters*

Refers to trochees and dactyls (i.e., a stressed syllable followed by one or two unstressed syllables) because they move from stressed to unstressed syllables

*Horatian Satire*

Satire named after the Roman satirist Horce in which the voice is indulgent, tolerant, amused, and witty, where the speaker holds up to gentle ridicule the absurdities and follies of human beings, aiming at producing in the reader not the anger of a Juvenal, but a wry smile (ex. Gulliver in "Gulliver's Travels" by Jonathan Swift takes four different voyages and encounters four strange lands. In each, Swift is attempting to satirize some aspect of English society. For example, when Gulliver is in Lilliput, he learns that people are appointed to office based on their ability to walk a tightrope. He is satirizing the way that the English nobility of his day chose based on bloodlines and connection to the court.)

*Email, in lists of works cited*

Sender's Last Name, First Name. "Subject Line." Received by First and Last Names, Day Month Year.

*Shifts in Style*

Shifts structure by introducing a marked change in style, usually accompanied by a corresponding alternation in tone (ex. The tone of "Julius Caesar" by Shakespeare is serious and elevated, suggesting the audience should view the events of the play as having lasting, wide-ranging significance. The play contains little humor or moments of levity, and the characters take themselves very seriously, to the point of being willing to die for their ideals. Brutus's calm, rational explanations for his actions maintain the tone of stately dignity even at moments of intense crisis, as when he faces death. In Act IV Scene i he says, "But it sufficeth that the day will end, / And then the end is known." This line sums up much of the tone of the play - the characters all understand that they will die eventually, but that their actions in life will reverberate after they're gone. Although the play ends bloodily, with many characters dead at their own hands, the characters never become hysterical or overly emotional, maintaining the sense that their choices are political rather than personal. Departures from the overall high-stakes tone come across in scenes with Calpurnia and Portia. The discussions between Brutus and Portia, or Calpurnia and Caesar, have little to do with the sweeping course of history: "Y'have urgently, Brutus,/ Stole from my bed. And yesternight at supper/ You suddenly arose, and walked,/ Musing and sighing, with your arms a-cross"(II.i). Here, Portia's concerned and intimate tone reveals Brutus's conflicted inner life. His emotional anxiety is something Portia has noticed, and wants to fully understand. Similarly, Calpurnia begs Caesar to stay home with an equally candid air: "Caesar, I never stood on ceremonies,/Yet now they fright me"(II.ii) Through these tonal shifts, the play highlights the mistakes of its heroes, who feel compelled to sacrifice their interior, private lives for what they believe to be higher ideals.)

*Diction*

Style of speaking or writing, determined by the choice of words by a speaker or a writer (ex. "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair." - A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens The diction gives the reader a better sense of the era in which the novel occurs.)

*Subordination*

The process of linking two clauses in a sentence so that one clause is dependent on (or subordinate to) another; the process in which a subordinate clause (for example, an adverb clause or an adjective clause) is attached to the main clause (ex. "We lived with our grandmother and uncle in the rear of the Store (it was always spoken of with a capital s), WHICH SHE HAD OWNED SOME TWENTY-FIVE YEARS." - Maya Angelou's "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings")

*Complete Subject*

The simple subject, or the main word or words in a subject, along with any of the modifiers that might describe the subject (ex. Thai peppers can be extremely hot - What can be extremely hot? Thai peppers can be extremely hot. Thai peppers is the complete subject)

*Subtext*

The unspoken or less obvious meaning or message in a literary composition, drama, speech, or conversation that comes to be known by the reader or audience over time as it is not immediately or purposefully revealed by the story itself Types: 1. Privilege Subtext: subtext in which the audience has certain privileges over the characters in a narrative, where the audience is aware of something the characters are not aware of (ex. Imagine a character who has three missed calls from her mother. We as readers cringe as we know she is about to find out her sister has been in a car crash which we have seen but she is not yet aware of.) 2. Revelation Subtext: subtext that reveals a certain truth over time throughout a story, leading up to a revelation (ex. Imagine a boy who has been trying to figure out what he wants to do when he grows up. He considers firefighting, being a policeman, or even being an actor. Throughout his childhood, though, he enjoys drawing, painting, and sculpting for fun. The revelation subtext here is that his hobby has been his calling all along: he will become an artist.) 3. Subtext through Promise: subtext in which an audience expects certain promises to be kept by the author (expecting a plot that makes sense and is weaved together, characters who have revelations and change meaningfully, and symbols and motifs which make sense and suit the story), in which if an author fails to please the audience in this way, the story is considered poorly written or disappointing due to the subtext 4. Subtext through Questions: subtext created when readers and audiences have questions about a story, such as how a plot is developing or what a character will do (such questions arise in a well-written story as a form of unwritten subtext) (ex. "I've got a man in England who buys me clothes. He sends over a selection of things at the beginning of each season, spring and fall." He took out a pile of shirts and began throwing them one by one before us, shirts of sheer linen and thick silk and fine flannel which lost their folds as they fell and covered the table in many-colored disarray. While we admired he brought more and the soft, rich heap mounted higher—shirts with stripes and scrolls and plaids in coral and apple green and lavender and faint orange with monograms of Indian blue. Suddenly with a strained sound Daisy bent her head into the shirts and began to cry stormily. "They're such beautiful shirts," she sobbed, her voice muffled in the thick folds. "It makes me sad because I've never seen such—such beautiful shirts before." - F. Scott Fitzgerald's "The Great Gatsby" Daisy, while an emotional character, could not possibly be crying over the beauty of these shirts. Rather, she is crying over the subtext: she was not with Gatsby due to his lack of wealth, and now, he is wealthy and they still are not together.)

*Internal Alliteration*

Words and phrases of which a (primary- or secondary-stressed) syllable alliterates with another (stressed) syllable of the same word or phrase; the reiterated sound that occurs within words in alliteration (ex. past compare (PAST com-PARE) a mine of information (MINE of IN-for-MA·ti·on) cut your coat according to your cloth (CUT your COAT a-CCOR·d·ing to your CLOTH))

*Narrators*

Someone who tells a story and determines the point of view that the audience will experience (ex. It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way-in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. - A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens As you can see, the narrator is describing the "times" of a certain period in history; the setting in which the story will unfold. He also makes it known that he is a witness to the period and the story by using the words "we," which tells us that the narrator has personal experience when it comes to what he is telling us about.)

*Informal Language*

Speech or writing marked by a casual, familiar, and generally colloquial use of language; language more commonly used in situations that are more relaxed and involve people we know well (ex. "bunch of people" instead of "number of people")

*Research Papers, MLA style in*

1. Type your paper on a computer and print it out on standard, white 8.5 x 11-inch paper. 2. Double-space the text of your paper, and use a legible font (e.g. Times New Roman). Whatever font you choose, MLA recommends that the regular and italics type styles contrast enough that they are recognizable one from another. The font size should be 12 pt. 3. Leave only one space after periods or other punctuation marks (unless otherwise instructed by your instructor). 4. Set the margins of your document to 1 inch on all sides. 5. Indent the first line of paragraphs one half-inch from the left margin. MLA recommends that you use the Tab key as opposed to pushing the Space Bar five times. 6. Create a header that numbers all pages consecutively in the upper right-hand corner, one-half inch from the top and flush with the right margin. (Note: Your instructor may ask that you omit the number on your first page. Always follow your instructor's guidelines.) 7. Use italics throughout your essay for the titles of longer works and, only when absolutely necessary, providing emphasis. 8. If you have any endnotes, include them on a separate page before your Works Cited page. Entitle the section Notes (centered, unformatted).

*Indirect Object*

A a noun or pronoun that indicates to whom or for whom the action of a verb in a sentence is performed (ex. Give me my robe, put on my crown; I have Immortal longings in me. - Antony and Cleopatra by Shakespeare)

*Allusions*

A brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance (ex. "A mote it is to trouble the mind's eye. In the most high and palmy state of Rome, A little ere the mightiest Julius fell, The graves stood tenantless and the sheeted dead Did squeak and gibber in the Roman streets" - Horatio in Hamlet)

*Observations, Parenthetical*

A brief interruption during which the character or the narrator reflects on a minor point that seizes his attention; a comment, set off by parentheses, which informs the reader without disturbing the flow of the narrative (ex. But what might you think, When I had seen this hot love on the wing - As I perceiv'd it (I must tell you that) Before my daughter told me-what might you, Or my dear Majesty your queen here, think...? - Hamlet by Shakespeare)

*Perfect Rhyme*

A case in which two words rhyme in such a way that their final stressed vowel, and all subsequent sounds, are identical Types: 1. Single: This is a rhyme in which the stress is on the final syllable of the words ("mind" and "behind"). 2. Double: This perfect rhyme has the stress on the penultimate, or second-to-last, syllable ("toasting" and "roasting"). 3. Dactylic: This rhyme, relatively uncommon in English, has the stress on the antepenultimate, or third-from-last, syllable ("terrible" and "wearable"). (ex. Shall I compare thee to a summer's DAY? Thou art more lovely and more temperate: Rough winds do shake the darling buds of MAY, And summer's lease hath all too short a date: - Sonnet 18 by William Shakespeare William Shakespeare includes many rhyme examples in his plays. All of his sonnets followed the very strict sonnet form of containing three rhyming quatrains and one final rhyming couplet. The above excerpt comes from arguably his most famous sonnet, "Sonnet 18." The opening line is familiar to many English speakers. It is just one of hundreds of examples of rhyme in his works. One interesting note is that due to the way that the sound of English has changed over the past four to five hundred years, some of Shakespeare's rhymes no longer are perfect rhymes, such as the rhyme between "temperate" and "date." However, it is easy to hear countless examples of rhymes in his works, such as the words "day" and "May" in this excerpt.)

*Catalectic Foot (catalexis)*

A catalectic line is a metrically incomplete line of verse, lacking a syllable at the end or ending with an incomplete foot. One form of catalexis is headlessness, where the unstressed syllable is dropped from the beginning of the line. (ex. "Lay your sleeping head, my love, Human on my faithless arm" - Lay Your Sleeping Head, My Love by W.H. Auden)

*Round/Three-Dimensional Characters*

A character that is more like a real person (and hence, believable/complex) as they have flaws, depth in emotions, many layers of personality, their own stories, and a unique past while being occasionally irrational, quirky, unpredictable, social, and their own individual (not archetypal); a major character with whom the audience can sympathize, associate with, or relate to, as he seems a character they might have seen in their real lives, encountering contradictory situations, and undergoing transformation during this phase (ex. In "Hamlet" by Shakespeare, Hamlet is a complex, enigmatic, and mysterious character that is knowledgeable, philosophical, intelligent, and thoughtful by nature. Hamlet makes hasty decisions, yet he delays his revenge. His contemplative nature also becomes his tragic flaw, and his lack of timely action becomes the cause of his tragedy. Hamlet's personality is contradictory, while he also encounters many contradictory situations.)

*Flat/Two-Dimensional Characters*

A character that lacks depth, is partially developed, often is stereotypically inclined, and does not change too much from the start of the narrative to its end The role of flat characters is to support the main character. They do not go through a substantial growth or transformation in the course of the narrative. They have recognizable characteristics that make them appear stereotypical. They are often referred to as one- or two-dimensional characters, usually having one perspective or point of view about life, things, or events. (ex. Gertrude in "Hamlet" by Shakespeare: Outwardly, Queen Gertrude seems to be a caring mother of Hamlet, but inwardly she is a weak-willed lady, who walks blindly through her life, is not aware that Claudius has trapped her by murdering her husband, or that he has seized her husband's throne. Gertrude has no idea why Hamlet is upset about her marriage. She behaves like a tool of fate in the whole tragedy, even when she stops Hamlet from going back to Wittenberg for studies. Gertrude is a weak character, whom Claudius and Polonius have used for their own interests. She arranges a meeting with Hamlet, so that Claudius could spy on him, and also lets Polonius remain behind the curtains to hear the conversation between them. Thus, throughout the narrative, she proves her flat character and does not transform. She remains passive, never acts on her own until she becomes a victim herself.)

*Foil Characters*

A character that shows qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of another character to highlight the traits of the other character (ex. Milton's Paradise Lost, Book I, is based on the comparison of two contrasting characters: God and Satan. Satan, in the entire work, appears as a foil to God. The negative traits of Satan and the positive traits of God are frequently compared, which consequently brings to the surface not only the contrast between the two characters, but also "justify the ways of God..." We reach a conclusion that it is only just for Satan to be expelled from the paradise because of his refusal to give in to the will of God.)

*Indirect Satire*

A fictional approach to criticism where characters who represent certain points of view are made to seem ridiculous by their thoughts and behavior (ex. George Orwell's "Animal Farm")

*Naive Narrator*

A character within a story whose voice is used to create a sense of ironic observation through their own inexperience and innocence, which cause a distorted perspective that the author uses to communicate satire or another important point (ex. Nelly Dean of "Wuthering Heights" and Holden Caulfield from "The Catcher In The Rye" are said to demonstrate the flaws in the worlds and systems they operate in.)

*Extended Metaphors*

A comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph, or lines in a poem (ex. "One day [Mr. Bixby] turned on me suddenly with this settler — 'What is the shape of Walnut Bend?'" "He might as well have asked me my grandmother's opinion of protoplasm. I reflected respectfully, and then said I didn't know it had any particular shape. My gun powdery chief went off with a bang, of course, and then went on loading and firing until he was out of adjectives." "I had learned long ago that he only carried just so many rounds of ammunition, and was sure to subside into a very placable and even remorseful old smooth-bore as soon as they were all gone." - Life on the Mississippi by Mark Twain Here, it can be seen that the writer makes use of metaphors like "gun powdery," "firing," and "ammunition" to describe the "anger" of Mr. Bixby.)

*Metaphysical Conceit*

A complex, and often lofty literary device that makes a far-stretched comparison between a spiritual aspect of a person and a physical thing in the world; an extended metaphor, which can sometimes last through the entire poem (ex. John Donne speaks at length to his beloved about a flea, first pointing out that the flea has sucked both their blood, and then arguing that, therefore, there is no excuse for her to be coy about physical intimacy—since their very blood has already been mingled inside the flea. Although the subject of the poem is ostensibly a flea, Donne is using the flea as a highly unlikely metaphor to proposition his beloved. - Donne's "The Flea")

*Story*

A connected series of events told through words (written or spoken), imagery (still and moving), body language, performance, music, or any other form of communication (ex. "East of Eden" by John Steinbeck)

*Irony*

A contrast or incongruity between expectations for a situation and what is reality Verbal Irony: a speaker speaks something contradictory to what he intends to say; an intentional product of the speaker, and is contradictory to his/her emotions and actions; occurs when a character uses a statement with underlying meanings that contrast with its literal meaning Situational Irony: occurs when incongruity appears between expectations of something to happen, and what actually happens instead; when something entirely different happens from what audience may be expecting, or when the final outcome is opposite to what the audience is expecting Dramatic Irony: a useful plot device for creating situations in which the audience knows more about the situations, the causes of conflicts, and their resolutions before the leading characters or actors, so readers observe that the speech of actors takes on unusual meanings (ex. "Upon the murderer I invoke this curse - whether he is one man and all unknown, Or one of many - may he wear out his life in misery to miserable doom!" - Oedipus Rex by Sophocles The above lines are an illustration of verbal and dramatic irony. It was predicted that a man guilty of killing his father and marrying his own mother brought A curse on the city and its people. In the above-mentioned lines, Oedipus curses the man who is the cause of the curse. He is ignorant of the fact that he himself is that man, and thus he is cursing himself. The audience, on the other hand, knows the situation.)

*Open Couplets*

A couplet that cannot render a proper meaning alone (does not have the ability to stand apart from the rest of the poem or be independent) (ex. "Whan that aprill with his shoures soote The droghte of march hath perced to the roote, And bathed every veyne in swich licour Of which vertu engendred is the flour; Whan zephirus eek with his sweete breeth Inspired hath in every holt and heeth Tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne Hath in the ram his halve cours yronne..." - The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer This excerpt is an example of open heroic couplets that have iambic pentameter pattern. All the lines rhyme, they do not give independent meanings in a single line, and the sense is carried to subsequent lines.)

*Schemes*

A deviation from conventional word order that help writers organize and orchestrate their relationships with readers by signaling the level of formality (high, middle, low) as well as local shifts across these levels; controlling the emotional intensity of prose--cranking it up here, ratcheting it down there; showcasing the writer's wit and command over his or her medium; and enlisting readers into collaborative relationships, inviting them to desire the completion of a pattern once they get its gist (ex. "[Henry] Peacham [in The Garden of Eloquence, 1577] divides his treatment of figurative language into tropes and schemes, the difference being that 'in the Trope there is a chaunge of signifycation, but not in the Scheme' (sig. E1v). Tropes are further divided into tropes of words and sentences, and schemes are also divided into grammatical and rhetorical schemes. Grammatical schemes deviate from customs of speaking and writing and are subdivided into orthographical and syntactical schemes. Rhetorical schemes add distinction and 'doe take away the wearinesse of our common and dayly speach, and doe fashion a pleasant, sharpe, evident and gallant kinde of speaking, giving unto matters great strength, perspecuitie and grace' (sig. H4v). Rhetorical schemes apply to words, sentences and amplification.")

*Low Comedy*

A dramatic or literary form of popular entertainment without any primary purpose other than to create laughter through boasting, boisterous jokes, drunkenness, scolding, fighting, buffoonery and other riotous activity Low comedy is also characterized by "horseplay", slapstick or farce. (ex. throwing a custard pie into another's face)

*Figures of Thought*

A figurative expression that, for its effect, depends less on the choice or arrangement of words than on the meaning(s) conveyed; an unexpected change in syntax or an arrangement of the ideas, as opposed to the words, within a sentence, which calls attention to itself (ex. antithesis, irony, synecdoche)

*Understatement*

A figure of speech employed by writers or speakers to intentionally make a situation seem less important than it really is, usually having an ironic effect, as an equally intense response is expected in severe situations but the statement in response is the opposite of what was expected; the opposite of a hyperbole/overstatement (ex. "I have to have this operation. It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain." - Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger Having a tumor in the brain is a serious issue, which has been understated in this excerpt.)

*Personification*

A figure of speech in which a thing - an idea or an animal - is given human attributes, in which the non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like human beings (ex. "Because I could not stop for Death - He kindly stopped for me - The Carriage held but just Ourselves - And Immortality. We slowly drove - He knew no haste And I had put away My labor and my leisure too, For His Civility -" - Because I could not stop for Death by Emily Dickinson The whole poem is full of examples of personification. In fact, death has been personified by the poet, saying "He kindly stopped for me." Again in the second stanza, "He knew no haste," and so on.)

*Chiasmus*

A figure of speech in which the grammar of one phrase is inverted in the following phrase, such that two key concepts from the original phrase reappear in the second phrase in inverted order (ex. She has all my love; my heart belongs to her)

*Oxymoron*

A figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings, such as "cruel kindness," or "living death". However, the contrasting words/phrases are not always glued together. The contrasting ideas may be spaced out in a sentence, such as, "In order to lead, you must walk behind." (ex. I will bestow him, and will answer well The death I gave him. So, again, good night. I must be cruel, only to be kind: Thus bad begins and worse remains behind. One word more, good lady. - Hamlet by Shakespeare In the above lines taken from "Hamlet," Shakespeare draws two contradictory ideas: "be cruel ... to be kind". The contradiction is understood in the context of the play. Hamlet wants to kill Claudius, the murderer of his father, who has married his mother. Hamlet does not want his mother to be the beloved of his father's murderer. Therefore, he is of the view that this murder will purge her.)

*Litotes*

A figure of speech that employs an understatement by using double negatives or, in other words, a positive statement expressed by negating its opposite expressions; an intentional use of understatement that renders an ironic effect (ex. "Some say the world will end in fire, Some say in ice. From what I've tasted of desire I hold with those who favor fire. But if I had to perish twice, I think I know enough of hate To say that for destruction ice Is also great And would suffice." - Fire and Ice by Robert Frost If you read this short piece by Robert Frost very carefully, you'll see that calling the destruction caused by ice "great" is balanced by an opposing statement "would suffice," is an understatement.)

*Hyperbole*

A figure of speech that involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis and has a humorous effect created by an overstatement; an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real situation (ex. "I had to wait in the station for ten days - an eternity." - "The Heart of Darkness" by Joseph Conrad The act of waiting ten days seemed to last forever and never end.)

*Similes*

A figure of speech that makes a direct comparison, showing similarities between two different things with the help of the words "like" or "as" to introduce vividness (ex. Othello: She was false as water. Emilia: Thou are rash as fire, To say that she was false: O she was heavenly true. - Othello by William Shakespeare Othello compares Desdemona's infidelity to water, but Emilia calls him as rash as fire and testifies to her fidelity. In both cases, these are very good similes to reflect the character of a person.)

*Metaphors*

A figure of speech that makes an implicit, implied, or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated but share some common characteristics,; a figure of speech in which a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics (ex. "Invoke thy aid to my adventrous Song, That with no middle flight intends to soar Above th' Aonian Mount" - Paradise Lost, Book 1 by John Milton Milton has compared his poetry to a dove.)

*Metonymy*

A figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated With metonymy, the word we use to describe another thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is not a part of it. (ex. "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears." - Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare Mark Anthony uses "ears" to say that he wants the people present to listen to him attentively. It is a metonymy because the word "ears" replaces the concept of paying attention.)

*Third-Person Narrator*

A form of storytelling in which a narrator relates all the action of their work using a third-person pronoun such as "he" or "she" Types: 1. Omniscient: the narrator knows all of the thoughts and feelings of all of the characters in the story 2. Limited: the narrator only relates his or her own thoughts, feelings, and knowledge of various situations and other characters (ex. "When Jane and Elizabeth were alone, the former, who had been cautious in her praise of Mr. Bingley before, expressed to her sister how very much she admired him. 'He is just what a young man ought to be,' said she, 'sensible, good-humored, lively; and I never saw such happy manners! So much ease, with such perfect good breeding!'" - Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice")

*Tetrameter*

A line made up of four feet (ex. "Fear no / more the / heat o' / the sun, Nor the furious winter's rages; Thou thy worldly task hast done, Home art gone, and ta'en thy wages: Golden lads and girls all must, As chimney-sweepers, come to dust." - William Shakespeare's "Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun")

*Lyric Poetry (lyrics)*

A formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken in the first person; a short, highly musical verse that conveys powerful feelings; a private expression of emotion by a single speaker (ex. The world is too much with us; late and soon, Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers;— Little we see in Nature that is ours; We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon!" - "The World Is Too Much With Us" by William Wordsworth The English Romantic poet William Wordsworth (1770-1850) famously said that poetry is "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility." In "The World Is Too Much with Us," his passion is evident in blunt exclamatory statements such as "a sordid boon!" Wordsworth condemns materialism and alienation from nature.)

*Ballad Meter*

A four-line stanza rhymed abcd with four feet in lines one and three and three feet in lines two and four; the meter common in English ballads consisting chiefly of iambic lines of 7 accents each arranged in rhymed pairs and usually printed as the 4-line ballad stanza (ex. "The angels, not half so happy in Heaven, Went envying her and me— Yes!—that was the reason (as all men know, In this kingdom by the sea) That the wind came out of the cloud by night, Chilling and killing my Annabel Lee." -Annabel Lee by Edgar Allen Poe)

*Short Stories*

A fully developed story which is shorter than a novel and longer than a fable that focuses on the incidents bigger or smaller, evokes strong feelings from its readers, and often has a few characters in the plot; a short narrative with few features, including exposition, complication, crisis, climax, and resolution of the crisis (ex. Edgar Allen Poe's "The Tell-Tale Heart" is another wonderful example of a short horror story. In the story, the anonymous narrator tells about the murder of an old man that he has committed in cold-blood because he had 'vulture eyes'. The story is told in the first-person narrative and explores the state of mind of a person. The narrator has hallucinations after the murder when he feels guilty. He convinces the readers that he is not insane. By the end of the story, he continues to hallucinate and asks what to do to make the old man's heart stop. This is an excellent example of a short story having a few characters and a complicated theme.)

*Sonnet Sequence*

A group of sonnets thematically unified to create a long work, although generally, unlike the stanza, each sonnet so connected can also be read as a meaningful separate unit (ex. Shakespearean Sonnets (1609): 154 sonnets to a variety of unnamed people, both male and female

*Independent Clause*

A group of words that can stand alone as a sentence since it has both a subject and a verb and forms a complete thought (ex. The instructor spent the class period reviewing the difference between independent and dependent clauses.)

*Phrase*

A group of words that functions as a meaningful part or unit within a clause or sentence and consists of a headword that determines the grammatical nature of the unit and an optional modifier Types: Noun Phrase: A noun phrase contains a noun as a headword and related words such as determiners (like the, her, a) and modifiers, which modify that noun. It serves as a noun within a sentence. Prepositional Phrase: A prepositional phrase contains a preposition, an object of preposition (pronoun or noun) and related modifiers. It mostly starts with a preposition and ends with an object of a preposition. It serves as an adjective, or adverb within a sentence. Adjective Phrase: An adjective phrase works as an adjective within a sentence. It contains an adjective, some relevant determiners and modifiers, and a word that modifies a noun or pronoun. The function of this phrase is to work as a verb, noun, preposition, adverb, or an adjective. The role of the phrase in writing depends upon its construction. Adverb Phrase: It works as an adverb within a sentence. It contains and adverb and other grammatical units such as a verb, noun, preposition, and some modifiers. Verb Phrase: It consists of the main verb and auxiliaries or helping verbs within a sentence. According to Transformational generative grammar, verb phrases may contain the main verb, auxiliaries, modifiers, and compliments. It could refer to the whole predicate of a sentence. Infinitive Phrase: An infinitive phrase contains an infinitive, which is a combination of (to+ simple verb form), with or without other words, and modifiers associated with that infinitive. It always works as a noun, adjective or adverb within a sentence. Gerund Phrase: Gerund phrases contain a gerund, combination of (verb+ing) other words, and modifiers associated with that gerund. In a sentence, it functions as a noun. Participle Phrase: Participle phrases contain a present participle, which is (verb+ing), and a past participle, modifiers, or other associated words. They are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. A participle phrases act as an adjective within a sentence. Absolute Phrase: Absolute phrase consists of a noun, pronoun, participle, and associated modifiers. They are also known as nominative phrases. They modify or provide information about an entire sentence. Absolute phrases look like clauses, yet they lack a true finite verb. They are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. (ex. "Humans can be FAIRLY RIDICULOUS animals." - Animal, Vegetable, Miracle: A Year of Food Life by Barbara Kingsolver In this example, the underlined words show an adjective phrase modifying noun "humans." It is functioning as an adjective in this sentence.)

*Subordinate/Dependent Clauses*

A group of words that has both a subject and a verb but (unlike an independent clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence; a group of words containing one subject and one verb that cannot stand alone in a sentence because it is an incomplete thought and must have that independent clause by its side to function properly (ex. "Bailey and I did arithmetic at a mature level BECAUSE OF OUR WORK IN THE STORE, and we read well BECAUSE IN STAMPS THERE WASN'T ANYTHING ELSE TO DO." - Maya Angelou's "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings")

*Dependent Clause*

A group of words with a subject and a verb that does not express a complete thought so it is not a sentence and can't stand alone (ex. when you go hiking)

*Sound and Sound Patterns*

A kind of repetition that most people associate with poetry, the repetition of sounds; resources used by poets to convey and reinforce the meaning or experience of poetry through the skillful use of sound; a concentrated blend of sound and imagery to create an emotional response (ex. accent, alliteration, assonance, consonance, cacophony, dissonance, euphony, internal rhyme, meter, modulation, near rhyme, onomatopoeia, phonetic symbolism, resonance, rhyme, rhythm)

*Dactylic Tetrameter*

A line consisting of four dactylic feet, each of which has a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables, the opposite of an anapest, sometimes called antidactylus to reflect this fact (ex. Picture yourself in a boat on a river with Tangerine trees and marmalade skies - Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds by the Beatles)

*Masculine Ending*

A line ending in a stressed syllable (ex. Stand still, and I will read to thee A lecture, love, in Love's philosophy. These three hours that we have spent Walking here, two shadows went Along with us, which we ourselves produced. But now the sun is just above our head, We do those shadows tread, And to brave clearness all things are reduced. - Lecture Upon the Shadow by John Donne)

*End-stopped lines*

A line in verse which ends with grammatical boundary or break—such as a dash or closing parenthesis—or with punctuation such as a colon, a semicolon, or a period to show the completion of a phrase/sentence (ex. Then say not man's imperfect, Heav'n in fault; Say rather, man's as perfect as he ought: His knowledge measur'd to his state and place, His time a moment, and a point his space. If to be perfect in a certain sphere, What matter, soon or late, or here or there? The blest today is as completely so, As who began a thousand years ago. - "An Essay on Man: Epistle I" by Alexander Pope)

*Trochaic Trimeter*

A line made up of three trochees (where a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable), resulting in six syllables (ex. "Hail to thee, blithe Spirit! Bird thou never wert, That from Heaven, or near it, Pourest thy full heart In profuse strains of unpremeditated art." - To a Skylark by Percy Bysshe Shelley The poem employs trochaic trimeter in the first two lines.)

*Dimeter*

A line of verse composed of two feet (ex. "Some go local Some go express Some can't wait To answer Yes" - Yes by Muriel Rukeyser)

*Monometer*

A line of verse containing a single metrical foot (ex. Thus I Passe by, And die: As One, Unknown, And gon: I'm made A shade, And laid I'th grave, There have My Cave. Where tell I dwell, Farewell. - Robert Herrick's "Upon His Departure Hence")

*Iambic Pentameter*

A line with five iambs (ten syllables total) (ex. ROMEO: But soft! What light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, Who is already sick and pale with grief, That thou, her maid, art far more fair than she. - Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare One of the most popular meters ever used, examples of iambic pentameter abound in Shakespeare's work, such as in Romeo's famous quote above. Most of Shakespeare's poetry is written in iambic pentameter, and much of his drama is as well. If you consider most of the famous soliloquy examples in Shakespeare, and even dialogues, you will find a steady pattern of iambic pentameter. It has been theorized that there is something innately "natural" about iambic pentameter in the English language and that it represents the total amount that a human can say easily in one breath.)

*Iambic Tetrameter*

A line with four iambs (eight syllables total) (ex. She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies; And all that's best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes; Thus mellowed to that tender light Which heaven to gaudy day denies. - "She Walks in Beauty" by Lord Byron Lord Byron's "She Walks in Beauty" is an excellent example of iambic tetrameter, i.e., lines of four iambs each. While this is still a fairly short line, Lord Byron is able to beautifully express his love in impressively rhythmic and rhyming lines.)

*Iambic Hexameter ("Alexandrine")*

A line with six iambs (twelve syllables) (ex. Then, at the last and only couplet fraught With some unmeaning thing they call a thought, A needless Alexandrine ends the song, That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along. - "An Essay on Criticism" by Alexander Pope Alexander Pope makes a joke about the Alexandrine form by demonstrating it in the final line of the above excerpt. He writes, "That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along," which does indeed feel long as compared to all of the lines of iambic pentameter that come before it. Pope brilliantly finds a way to represent the slowness of iambic hexameter through imagery.)

*Iambic Trimeter*

A line with three iambs (six syllables total) (ex. If you were coming in the fall I'd brush the summer by With half a smile and half a spurn, As housewives do a fly. - "If You Were Coming in the Fall" by Emily Dickinson Iambic trimeter is generally considered the shortest regular line of meter, with only six syllables in the line. Most poets choose longer lines simply to be able to say more. In this short stanza from Emily Dickinson's "If You Were Coming in the Fall," we can see her alternate between lines with four iambs (eight syllables) and lines with three iambs (six syllables). This type of alternation is also known as common meter or ballad verse.)

*List of Works Cited, MLA style in*

A list of sources used in an essay or research paper written in MLA (Modern Language Association) style, providing full bibliographic information for every source cited in the text

*Sarcasm*

A literary and rhetorical device that is meant to mock, often with satirical or ironic remarks, with a purpose to amuse and hurt someone, or some section of society, simultaneously Types (depends on voice tone): 1. Self-Deprecating Sarcasm - This category of sarcasm expresses an overstated sense of inferiority and worthlessness. 2. Brooding Sarcasm - In this criticism, the speaker utters something polite. However, the tone of his speech has a marked bitterness to it. 3. Deadpan Sarcasm - It is expressed without emotion or laughter, making it difficult for the listener to judge whether the speaker is joking or mocking. 4. Polite Sarcasm - A speaker is said to have delivered a polite sarcasm when his listeners only get to realize that his kind remark was a sarcastic one after they had given it some thought. 5. Obnoxious Sarcasm - This kind of sarcasm makes people feel like punching the speaker in the face. It is not very funny, and it gets under your skin. 6. Manic Sarcasm - This type of sarcasm is delivered in an unnatural happy mood, which makes the speaker look like he has gone crazy. 7. Raging Sarcasm - This kind of sarcasm relies mainly on exaggeration and violent threats. (ex. "Thrift, thrift, Horatio! The funeral bak'd meats did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables." - Hamlet, Act 1 Scene 2 by William Shakespeare The most disturbing issue to Hamlet in this play is his mother's marriage to his uncle. While talking to Horatio in a sarcastic manner, Hamlet sums up the ridiculous affairs using this statement.)

*Synecdoche*

A literary device in which a part of something represents the whole, or it may use a whole to represent a part; the whole of a thing by the name of any one of its parts (unlike metonymy, in which the word used to describe a thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is not necessarily a part of it) Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups, or vice versa. It may also call a thing by the name of the material it is made of, or it may refer to a thing in a container or packaging by the name of that container or packing. (ex. "The western wave was all a-flame. The day was well was nigh done! Almost upon the western wave Rested the broad bright Sun" - The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge The "western wave" is a synecdoche, as it refers to the sea by the name of one of its parts, a wave.)

*Anagnorisis*

A moment in a plot or story, specifically a tragedy, wherein the main character either recognizes or identifies his/her true nature, recognizes the other character's true identity, discovers the true nature of his situation, or that of the others - leading to the resolution of the story (ex. One such moment in "Macbeth" occurs in the final scene when Macbeth, on the battlefield, encounters vengeful Macduff, who declares that he is not "of woman born," but instead "untimely ripped" from the womb of his mother - which is now called a C-Section. This is the moment when Macbeth learns that the prophecy of witches is about to come true, and that Macduff would kill him. Though Macbeth realizes that he is destined, he continues to fight with Macduff, who eventually kills him.)

*Pathetic Fallacy*

A literary device that attributes human qualities and emotions to inanimate objects of nature; a kind of personification that gives human emotions to inanimate objects of nature (unlike personification, which gives human attributes to abstract ideas, animate objects of nature, or inanimate non-natural objects) (ex. "The night has been unruly. Where we lay, Our chimneys were blown down and, as they say, Lamentings heard i' th' air, strange screams of death, And prophesying with accents terrible Of dire combustion and confused events New hatched to the woeful time. The obscure bird Clamored the livelong night. Some say the Earth Was feverous and did shake." - Macbeth by Shakespeare The pathetic fallacy examples in the above lines describe the ominous atmosphere on the night of Duncan's murder. The unruly night, the screams of death in the air, and the feverous earth depict the evil act of murder that happened a night before.)

*Pentameter*

A literary device that can be defined as a line in verse or poetry that has five strong metrical feet or beats; a line that consists of ten syllables, where the first syllable is stressed, the second is unstressed, the third is stressed, and so on until it reaches the 10th line syllable Types: 1. Iamb pentameter 2. Trochaic pentameter 3. Anapestic pentameter 4. Dactylic pentameter (ex. "Shall I comPARE thee TO a SUMmer's DAY?" - Sonnet 18 by William Shakespeare)

*Free Verse*

A literary device that can be defined as poetry that is free from limitations of regular meter or rhythm, and does not rhyme with fixed forms; poems that are without rhythm and rhyme schemes, do not follow regular rhyme scheme rules, yet still provide artistic expression so that the poet can give his own shape to a poem however he or she desires while still using alliteration, rhyme, cadences, and rhythms to get the effects that they consider are suitable for the piece Free verse poems have no regular meter or rhythm; they do not follow a proper rhyme scheme and do not have any set rules. This type of poem is based on normal pauses and natural rhythmical phrases, as compared to the artificial constraints of normal poetry. (ex. "A noiseless patient spider, I mark'd where on a little promontory it stood isolated, Mark'd how to explore the vacant vast surrounding, It launch'd forth filament, filament, filament, out of itself, Ever unreeling them, ever tirelessly speeding them. And you O my soul where you stand, Surrounded, detached, in measureless oceans of space... Till the bridge you will need be form'd, till the ductile anchor hold, Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul." - A Noiseless Patient Spider by Walt Whitman Walt Whitman is known as the father of free verse English poetry. In this poem, only a simple metaphor is used to mesmerize readers without employing regular rhyme scheme or rhythm. We can see normal pauses in the poem unlike the typical limitations of metrical feet.)

*Rhythm*

A literary device that demonstrates the long and short patterns through stressed and unstressed syllables, particularly in verse form Types: 1. Iamb (x /): consists of two syllables, the first of which is not stressed, while the second syllable is stressed (ex. "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?" - Sonnet 18 by William Shakespeare) 2. Trochee (/ x): has two syllables, the first of which is strongly stressed, while the second syllable is unstressed (ex. "Tell me not, in mournful numbers" - Psalm of Life by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) 3. Spondee (/ /): has two syllables, which are consecutively stressed (ex. "White founts falling in the Courts of the sun" - Lepanto, by G. K. Chesterton) 4. Dactyl (/ x x): made up of three syllables, the first of which is stressed and the remaining two syllables not stressed, such as in the word "marvelous" (ex. "This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks," - Evangeline by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) 5. Anapest (x x /): total opposites of dactyls and have have three syllables, where the first two syllables are not stressed while the last syllable is stressed (ex. " 'Twas the night before Christmas, and all through the house," - 'Twas the Night Before Christmas by Clement Clarke Moore) (ex. "DOU-ble, / DOU-ble / TOIL and / TROU-ble; FI-re / BURN, and / CAL-dron / BUB-ble." - Macbeth by William Shakespeare These two lines are taken from Shakespeare's Macbeth. The chorus of the witches' spell shows a perfect example of trochees. Stressed pattern is shown in capitals.)

*Repetition*

A literary device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer and more memorable; a word, a phrase, or a full sentence, or a poetical line repeated to emphasize its significance in the entire text Types: 1. Anadiplosis: Repetition of the last word in a line or clause. 2. Anaphora: Repetition of words at the start of clauses or verses. 3. Antistasis: Repetition of words or phrases in opposite sense. 4. Diacope: Repetition of words broken by some other words. 5. Epanalepsis: Repetition of the same words at the beginning and the end of a sentence. 6. Epimone: Repetition of a phrase (usually a question) to stress a point. 7. Epiphora: Repetition of the same word at the end of each clause. 8. Gradatio: A construction in poetry wherein the last word of one clause becomes the first of the next, and so on. 9. Negative-Positive Restatement: Repetition of an idea first in negative terms, and then in positive terms. 10. Polyptoton: Repetition of words of the same root, with different endings. 11. Symploce: A combination of anaphora and epiphora, in which repetition is both at the end and at the beginning (ex. "O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells; Rise up — for you the flag is flung — for you the bugle trills..." - O Captain! My Captain! by Walt Whitman The poet uses refrain throughout this poem to emphasize the mournful theme. See the repetition of the words "captain," "rise up," and "for you" in just these two lines. This theme continues throughout.)

*Antihero*

A literary device used by writers for a prominent character in a play or book that has characteristics opposite to that of a conventional hero (ex. Great Gatsby - Jay Gatsby wants to see himself as a hero, and early on in his life he renames himself Gatsby rather than his given name, Gatz. Gatsby did not connect himself to his unsuccessful parents. He is a character who dreams of rising above his station due to greed. Even though he does many unsavory things in F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel, the audience continues to have sympathy for Gatsby because through it all he tries so hard to have everyone like him.)

*Tragicomedy*

A literary device used in fictional works that contains both tragedy and comedy; dramatic work incorporating both tragic and comic elements Mostly, the characters in tragicomedy are exaggerated, and sometimes there might be a happy ending after a series of unfortunate events. It is incorporated with jokes throughout the story, just to lighten the tone. (ex. The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare is considered one of the most popular traditional tragicomedy examples. Though it has a comedic structure, there are tragic characters, such as Shylock (who is a central character), and tragic events, such as Antonio's "loss" of life (because he is not really dead). Although the play ends on a happy note with the union of the lovers in the story, and Antonio is saved from a tragic incident, readers are left with a taste of Shylock's sufferings. Hence, the feeling and mood of the play at the end is neither happy nor gloomy. Though, this play definitely has a comic structure, it also has a strong tragic story. Therefore, it can be classified as a tragicomedy.)

*Exposition*

A literary device used to introduce background information about events, settings, characters, or other elements of a work to the audience or readers (ex. The opening scene in Act I of "Othello" by William Shakespeare shows a fierce argument between Roderigo and Iago, which helps build the interest of the audience. The audience realizes that Iago is persistently trying to convince Roderigo to be his accomplice in destroying Othello. The exposition in this scene explicates Iago's treacherous, spiteful, and scheming nature; reveals the main conflict of the play (Iago's concealed bitterness towards his boss Othello who, in Iago's opinion, is overlooking him for promotion); and ascertains two basic themes of the play: racism, and that appearance is not always the same as reality. At the end of Act 1, the play gives the audience the realization that Othello is a very respectable man; had run away with Desdemona, Brabantio's daughter; and is a great general who is sought by Venice to defend it in the war against the Turks. Evidently, exposition always gives us an insight into the characters' personalities, and adds flavor to the tragedy and drama we see towards the end of the play.)

*Plays*

A literary form of writing for theater, which narrates a story with elements of conflicts, tensions, and actions through dialogues of characters and is divided into acts and scenes in which the writers present their feelings, emotions, and ideas through their characters and make them speak Elements of a Play: 1. Plot: It refers to the order of the events that occur in the play. 2. Characters: The characters form a crucial part of the story and are interwoven with the plot of the play. 3. Dialogue: It refers to the conversation or interactions between the characters in the play. 4. Setting: It refers to the time and place where a story is set. It is one of the important parts of the play. 5. Conflict: It refers to the challenge main characters need to solve to achieve their goals. 6. Resolution: It is the unfolding or the solution to a complex issue in a story. Types: 1. Tragedy: These types of plays end on a tragic note and most likely a character's death. 2. Comedy: These types of plays are meant to amuse the audience, and they end on a happy note. 3. Domestic Play: These types of plays are based on the normal life of family and friends. 4. Tragicomedy: It is a fictional work comprises of both tragedy as well as comedy. 5. Melodrama: This type of has often exaggerated characters and episodes with songs and music for an emotive appeal to the audiences. (ex. Sophocles, a famous Greek tragedian, wrote Oedipus Rex which is one of the famous Greek tragedies till date. The tragic play recounts the story of Oedipus, who becomes the king of Thebes, and unknowingly fulfills the prophecy by murdering his father, Laius, and marry his mother, Jocasta. The play opens when the King of Thebes, Oedipus addressing his people who are confused by an infliction, which is swiping them off. Therefore, they gather at the king's court to ask him to rescue them from this plague. According to the oracle, this plague is caused because the people of Thebes have not arrested and punished the murderer of their late king. Believing in the oracle, Oedipus promises to find and punish the culprit. He tries to investigate and soon finds out the bitter truth from the Oracle Tiresias. Overcome with guilt and grief over his ill fate, Oedipus blinds himself. Thus, this tragic play highlights the role of fate and chance which brings a disastrous end for their victims.)

*Comedy*

A literary genre and a type of dramatic work that is amusing and satirical in its tone, mostly having a cheerful ending. The goal of most comedy examples is to induce laughter in the audience. (ex. William Shakespeare's play, A Midsummer Night's Dream, is a good example of a romantic comedy, presenting young lovers falling comically in and out of love for a brief period. Their real world problems get resolved magically, enemies reconcile, and true lovers unite in the end.)

*Farce*

A literary genre and type of comedy that makes use of highly exaggerated and funny situations (i.e. physical humor, deliberate absurdity, bawdy jokes, and drunkenness) aimed at entertaining the audience (only aims at making the audience laugh) (ex. In Shakespeare's play, The Taming of the Shrew, the farcical elements are manifested in terms of characters, plot, and particularly the writing style. The play contains stereotype characters that are typically farcical in nature, such as Katherine is an excellent instance of the farcical character. Although Katherina (Kate) is a stereotype and a boisterous shrew, Shakespeare portrays her as an individual needing sympathy, because Bianca is the favorite child of her father, Baptista.)

*Epistolary Novels*

A literary genre pertaining to letters, in which writers use letters, journals, and diary entries in their works, or they tell their stories or deliver messages through a series of letters (ex. In "Dracula" by Bram Stoker, Stoker has employed epistolary format in his successful and widely recognized novel nineteenth century, Dracula. The author has compiled the entire novel in the form of letters, newspaper clippings, diary entries, doctor's notes, telegrams, and ship's logs. The narrators of this novel are protagonists, who supplement it with newspaper clippings to relate different events. Although this novel draws on letters form, it reduces the end of the narrative.)

*Inversion ("Anastrophe")*

A literary technique in which the normal order of words is reversed, in order to achieve a particular effect of emphasis or meter Inversion is achieved by doing the following: Placing an adjective after the noun it qualifies (ex. the soldier strong) Placing a verb before its subject (ex. shouts the policeman) Placing a noun before its preposition (ex. worlds between) (ex. MACBETH: "If't be so, For Banquo's issue have I fil'd my mind, For them the gracious Duncan have I murther'd, Put rancors in the vessel of my peace Only for them, and mine eternal jewel Given to the common enemy of man, To make them kings -the seed of Banquo kings! Rather than so, come, Fate, into the list, And champion me to the utterance!" - Macbeth by Shakespeare The inversions in the above lines serve to highlight the conflict in Macbeth's mind after he had killed Duncan. The conflict was leading him to insanity gradually.)

*Analogy*

A literary technique in which two unrelated objects are compared for their shared qualities; strong rhetorical devices used to make rational arguments and support ideas by showing connections and comparisons between dissimilar things (ex. "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! Her beauty hangs upon the cheek of night, Like a rich jewel in an Ethiop's ear." - Romeo and Juliet)

*Dialogue*

A literary technique in which writers employ two or more characters to be engaged in conversation with one another; a conversational passage, or a spoken or written exchange of conversation in a group, or between two persons directed towards a particular subject (ex. "But who did he tell it to? You and me?" "And Porfiry." "What does it matter?" "And, by the way, do you have any influence over them, his mother and sister? Tell them to be more careful with him today ..." "They'll get on all right!" Razumikhin answered reluctantly. "Why is he so set against this Luzhin? A man with money and she doesn't dislike him ... "But what business is it of yours?" Razumikhin cried with annoyance." - Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky In this excerpt, notice the use of conflict, emotions, information, conflict, reversal, and opposition flowing by. The ideas and information are expressed with perfect timing, but here an important point is that the characters are not responding with a definite answer. This is a beautiful piece of dialogue.)

*Omniscient Narrator*

A literary technique of writing a narrative in third person, in which the narrator knows the feelings and thoughts of every character in the story Through omniscient narrative, the author brings an entire world of his characters to life, and moves from character to character, allowing different voices to interpret the events, and maintaining omniscient form — that is keeping a distance. Omniscient narrative tells the story of every character by demonstrating that only the narrator possesses information. Types: 1. Omniscient Point of View - When a narrator has knowledge about all the characters in a narrative, it is an omniscient, or all-knowing, point of view. 2. Limited Omniscient Point of View - In limited omniscient point of view, a narrator has limited knowledge of just one character, leaving other major or minor characters. (ex. "Margaret, the eldest of the four, was sixteen, and very pretty, being plump and fair, with large eyes, plenty of soft brown hair, a sweet mouth, and white hands, of which she was rather vain. Fifteen-year-old Jo was very tall, thin, and brown, and reminded one of a colt ... Elizabeth, or Beth, as everyone called her, was a rosy, smooth-haired, bright-eyed girl of thirteen, with a shy manner, a timid voice, and a peaceful expression, which was seldom disturbed ... " - Little Women by Louisa May Alcott Alcott uses an omniscient narrator, as we hear a disembodied voice knowing everyone's feelings and thoughts, exploring all characters from inside and out. Here, the narrator gives a description of the March sisters.)

*Plot*

A literary term used to describe the events that make up a story, or the main part of a story, which relate to each other in a pattern or a sequence; the foundation of a novel or story, around which the characters and settings are built and is meant to organize information and events in a logical manner Elements of Plot: 1. Exposition or Introduction: This is the beginning of the story, where characters and setting are established. The conflict or main problem is introduced as well. 2. Rising Action: Rising action which occurs when a series of events build up to the conflict. The main characters are established by the time the rising action of a plot occurs, and at the same time, events begin to get complicated. It is during this part of a story that excitement, tension, or crisis is encountered. 3. Climax: In the climax, or the main point of the plot, there is a turning point of the story. This is meant to be the moment of highest interest and emotion, leaving the reader wondering what is going to happen next. 4. Falling Action: Falling action, or the winding up of the story, occurs when events and complications begin to resolve. The result of the actions of the main characters are put forward. 5. Resolution: Resolution, or the conclusion, is the end of a story, which may occur with either a happy or a tragic ending. (ex. A very good plot example in romantic fiction appears in the book Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. The plot of the story begins when Lizzie's sister, Jane, falls in love with Darcy's friend named Mr. Bingley. Lizzie develops and interest in Mr. Wickham, who accuses Darcy of destroying him financially. When Lizzie goes to meet her friend, she runs into Mr. Darcy, who proposes, and Lizzie rejects. She then writes him a letter telling him why she dislikes him. He writes back, clearing up all misunderstandings and accusations. Jane runs away with Mr. Wickham, and Lizzie realizes that Mr. Darcy is not as bad a man as she had thought him to be.)

*Direct Satire*

A literary work in which vices, abuses, absurdities, etc. are held up to ridicule and contempt; use of ridicule, sarcasm, irony, etc. to expose vices, abuses, etc. (ex. There are numerous examples of satire in Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. He uses satire as a tool to share his ideas and opinions on slavery, human nature, and many other issues that afflicted American society at that time through these quotes: 1. "What's the use you learning to do right, when it's troublesome to do right and isn't no trouble to do wrong, and the wages is just the same?" (Ch. 16) 2. "There warn't anybody at the church, except maybe a hog or two, for there warn't any lock on the door, and hogs likes a puncheon floor in summer-time because it's cool. If you notice, most folks don't go to church only when they've got to; but a hog is different." (Ch. 18) 3. "The pitifulest thing out is a mob; that's what an army is - a mob; they don't fight with courage that's born in them, but with courage that's borrowed from their mass, and from their officers. But a mob without any man at the head of it is beneath pitifulness." (Ch. 22))

*Prose Fiction*

A literary work that is wholly or partly imagined or theoretical such as novels; a form of language that has no formal metrical structure and applies a natural flow of speech as well as a ordinary grammatical structure, rather than rhythmic structure (ex. "Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show." - David Copperfield by Charles Dickens)

*Epic Poetry (Epics)*

A long narrative poem that usually uses a grandiose style to depict the heroic deeds of a person of an unusual courage and unparalleled bravery The hero is usually the representative of the values of a certain culture, race, nation or a religious group on whose victor of failure the destiny of the whole nation or group depends. Therefore, certain supernatural forces, deus ex machina, help the hero, who comes out victor at the end. An epic usually starts with an invocation to muse, but then picks up the threads of the story from the middle and moves on to the end. (ex. Written on the same traditions but on a different subject, Paradise Lost, is an English epic by yet another blind poet of English origin, John Milton. It also is known colloquially as the Protestant Epic. In this epic, Milton argues Satan's fall from the heaven as well as Adam and Eve's fall from the Garden of Eden. Despite his blindness, Milton did not stop from explaining "the ways of God to men." He has depicted Satan as a highly complex character, who is at war with God. Despite his different subject, Milton has used several epic devices introduced by Homer such as invocation to the muse, extended similes and grand style.)

*Periodic Sentences*

A sentence which has been deliberately structured to place the main point at the end (will have its main clause or predicate as the last part), where the crux of the sentence's meaning does not become clear to the reader until they reach the last part to emphasize or to create suspense (ex. "Halfway between West Egg and New York City sprawls a desolate plain, a gray valley where New York's ashes are dumped" - Scott Fitzgerald's "The Great Gatsby")

*Novels*

A long narrative work of fiction with some realism that is often in prose form and is published as a single book, having some features like a representation of characters, dialogues, setting, plot, climax, conflict, and resolution (ex. "Great Expectations" by Charles Dickens is one of the best comings of the age novels, which takes the reader on a journey to see the life of a poor young boy, Pip. In the novel, Pip's transformation from a poor orphan into a gentleman living in London goes through various challenges. His mistakes teach him valuable lessons as he realizes what his benefactors and Joe did for him. Parallelly, he falls in love with prideful Estelle and does his best to win her affection. By the end of the novel, Estelle is a widow and humbled, and Pip asks her to marry him, which she accepts. Without a doubt, "The Great Expectations" is one of the best English novels which tells the main characters personal growth and development.)

*Theme*

A main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work, which may be stated directly or indirectly; a universal idea, lesson, or message explored throughout a work of literature; ideas that not only apply to the specific characters and events of a book or play, but also express broader truths about human experience that readers can apply to their own lives Types: 1. Major Theme: an idea that a writer repeats in his literary work, making it the most significant idea in the work 2. Minor Theme: an idea that appears in a work briefly, giving way to another minor theme Themes are sometimes divided into thematic concepts and thematic statements. A work's thematic concept is the broader topic it touches upon (love, forgiveness, pain, etc.) while its thematic statement is what the work says about that topic. For example, the thematic concept of a romance novel might be love, and, depending on what happens in the story, its thematic statement might be that "Love is blind," or that "You can't buy love." (ex. John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath (about a family of tenant farmers who are displaced from their land in Oklahoma) is a book whose themes might be said to include the inhumanity of capitalism, as well as the vitality and necessity of family and friendship.)

*Stream of Consciousness ("Interior Monologue")*

A method of narration that describes happenings in the flow of thoughts in the minds of the characters, where the individual thought processes of a character, associated to his or her actions, are portrayed in the form of a monologue that addresses the character itself The stream of consciousness style of writing is marked by the sudden rise of thoughts and lack of punctuation. (ex. "He is young Leopold, as in a retrospective arrangement, a mirror within a mirror (hey, presto!), he beholdeth himself. That young figure of then is seen, precious manly, walking on a nipping morning from the old house in Clambrassil to the high school, his book satchel on him bandolier wise, and in it a goodly hunk of wheaten loaf, a mother's thought." - Ulysses by James Joyce James Joyce successfully employs the narrative mode in his novel Ulysses, which describes a day in the life of a middle-aged Jew, Mr. Leopold Broom, living in Dublin, Ireland. These lines reveal the thoughts of Bloom, as he thinks of the younger Bloom. The self-reflection is achieved by the flow of thoughts that takes him back to his past.)

*Iambic Feet*

A metrical foot consisting of an iamb, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable such as "today," "before," "beyond." (ex. So LONG / as MEN / can BREATHE / or EYES / can SEE, So LONG / lives THIS,/ and THIS / gives LIFE / to THEE. - Sonnet 18 by Shakespeare)

*Anapestic Foot*

A metrical foot consisting of two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed one (ex. "Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse; The stockings were hung by the chimney with care... While visions of sugar plums danced in their heads... had just settled our brains for a long winter's nap... As dry leaves that before the wild hurricane fly, when they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky... with the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too")

*Spondaic Foot (Spondee)*

A metrical foot/beat in a poetic line that consists of two accented syllables (stressed/stressed) or DUM-DUM stress pattern, opposite to a pyrrhic meter (which contains two short or unstressed syllables in a quantitative meter) (ex. "If I do prove her haggard, Though that her jesses were my dear heart-strings ..." - Othello by William Shakespeare This is a very good example of spondaic meter, where we can see double spondee in the first line "If I," and "do prove," and in the second line "heart-strings.")

*Hexameter*

A metrical line of six feet, most often dactylic, and found in Classical Latin or Greek poetry, including Homer's "Iliad" In English, an iambic hexameter line is also known as an alexandrine. (ex. dactylic hexameter - Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's long poem "Evangeline":Now had the season returned, when the nights grow colder and longer, And the retreating sun the sign of the Scorpion enters. Birds of passage sailed through the leaden air, from the ice-bound, Desolate northern bays to the shores of tropical islands.)

*Drama*

A mode of fictional representation (a combination in verse/prose) presenting a story through dialogue and performance/pantomime and contains conflict of characters, particularly the ones who perform in front of audience on the stage; an imitation of some action Includes: - Comedies - Tragedies - Farces - Melodramas - Musical Dramas (ex. In his romantic comedy A Midsummer Night's Dream, Shakespeare explores one of his favorite themes—"love conquers all"—with a humorous twist. Due to a series of comical and unpredictable situations, young couples keep falling in and out of love. As they struggle with the foibles of love, their equally amusing real-world problems are magically resolved by a mischievous sprite named Puck. In the very Shakespearian happy ending, old enemies become fast friends and the true lovers are united to live happily ever after. A Midsummer Night's Dream is cited as an example of how playwrights utilize the ageless conflict between love and social convention as a source of humor.)

*Realism*

A movement in art, starting in the mid nineteenth century in France and later spreading to the entire world, that aimed to root out "fantastic" and "romantic" in literature and art to insert what is real; a literary technique to describe story elements, such as setting, characters, themes, etc., without using elaborate imagery, or figurative language, such as similes and metaphors (explain things without decorative language or sugar-coating the events) Realism was all about portraying real life. Realist writers wrote about regular folks—bored housewives, petty government officials, poor spinsters, poor teenagers—living ordinary lives, showing readers how even ordinary lives already meaningful, and—hello—always full of drama. In his play, "The Crucible," Arthur Miller presents realism, which is based on making his character appearing lifelike figures. Miller has created a chain of events to demonstrate iconic realism by using characterization, language, and dialogue. He has chosen a story of human interaction to describe his own concern for the cultural future of the United States, and humanity at large. It is true that the witch trials in Salem actually happened, and people such as Rebecca and John Proctor were killed. The murders of these innocent people have a powerful impact on readers, not because of the author's style, but because of the horrifying subject matter. Miller's use of language is also very powerful, especially where the judges and the accusers twisted ideas and words to create contrasts and paradoxes from which the accused could not escape. This was the reality of life at that time.)

*Romance*

A narrative genre in literature that involves a mysterious, adventurous, or spiritual story line where the focus is on a quest that involves bravery and strong values to conquer various challenges, not always a love interest (or, in modern drama, stories that have a relationship issue as the main focus) Types: 1. Gothic: In Gothic romance, the settings are usually in distant regions and the stories feature dark and compelling characters. They became popular in the late 19th century and usually had a sense of transcendence, supernatural, and irrationality. (ex. Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte, Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, and The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne) 2. Historical: Historical romance takes place in times long past and appears romantic due to the adventure and wildness of the time. This also provides value and meaning to the lifestyle of the characters. (ex. The Last of the Mohicans by James Fenimore Cooper and Rob Roy by Sir Walter Scott) 3. Contemporary/Modern: Contemporary romance focuses on a love relationship and has a happy ending. There are two ways these romance novels are written: as a series or category romance (the author writes a succession of books that fit a theme or follow a storyline) or as a single-title romance. Sub-genres: 1. Comedy-romance 2. Tragic-romance 3. Satire-romance 4. Serious romance (ex. A classic story that contains all the standard elements and has been made into several movies is Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, published in 1847. In this gothic romance, there are unexplained and irrational happenings in an isolated region with mysterious characters, which help create a dark mood. Tragedy and sadness also act as part of the plot.)

*Unreliable Narrators*

A narrator whose credibility has been seriously compromised as he/she holds a distorted view of the events, which leads to an inaccurate telling of the story; a character whose telling of the story is not completely accurate or credible due to problems with the character's mental state or maturity, giving readers or viewers a chance to offer their own interpretations Some indicators that a narrator is unreliable include contradicting stories, incomplete explanations of events, illogical information, and even questions of the narrator's sanity. Sometimes the narrator's unreliability is made immediately evident. For instance, a story may open with the narrator making a plainly false or delusional claim or admitting to being severely mentally ill, or the story itself may have a frame in which the narrator appears as a character, with clues to the character's unreliability. A more dramatic use of the device delays the revelation until near the story's end. In some cases, the reader discovers that in the foregoing narrative, the narrator had concealed or greatly misrepresented vital pieces of information. Such a twist ending forces readers to reconsider their point of view and experience of the story. In some cases the narrator's unreliability is never fully revealed but only hinted at, leaving readers to wonder how much the narrator should be trusted and how the story should be interpreted. (ex. In J.D. Salinger's Catcher in the Rye, the narrator, Holden Caulfield, admits to being the most terrific liar you ever saw in your life. In addition to his tendency to fib to characters that populate the novel, Caulfield's immaturity and overly negative worldview prohibits him from giving an accurate version of events. His unreliability is also made clear in the fact that he is receiving treatment in a mental facility.)

*Appositive*

A noun or word is followed by another noun or phrase that renames or identifies it, this is called appositive (always used w/ a comma) (ex. We were waiting outside the condemned cells, a row of sheds fronted with double bars, like small animal cages) (ex. "But the moment passed and was followed by an urge, a need, a passionate yearning to share the warmth with the one person left for him to love. - The Giver by Lois Lowry)

*Direct Object*

A noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that shows who or what receives the action of a verb, performed by a subject specified at the start of the sentence (ex. "PRIEST: O ruler of my country, Oedipus, You see OUR company around the altar; you see our ages; some of US, like these, who cannot yet fly far, and some of us heavy with age ... King, you yourself have seen our city reeling like a wreck ... I pity YOU, CHILDREN. You have come full of longing ... Thanks for your gracious words. Your servants here signal that CREON is this moment coming." - Oedipus Rex by Sophocles)

*Historical Novels*

A novel that has as its setting a period of history and that attempts to convey the spirit, manners, and social conditions of a past age with realistic detail and fidelity (which is in some cases only apparent fidelity) to historical fact Historical novels may contain a mixture of fictional and historical characters, may focus on a single historic event, and often attempt to portray a broader view of a past society in which great events are reflected by their impact on the private lives of fictional individuals. (ex. Leo Tolstoy's "War and Peace")

*Nouns*

A part of speech, which is used to identify a thing, person, idea, or place (abstract or concrete) Types: 1. Common Noun - A common noun names general people, ideas, things, and places, such as president, teacher, and brother. 2. Proper Noun - A proper noun names specific people, ideas, things, and places, such as Donald Trump, Mr. Smith, and Joe. 3. Collective Noun - Collective nouns denote groups, such as team, pack, and choir. These nouns can be singular or plural, depending upon the sense of the sentence. For instance, in the sentence, "Your team is supposed to arrive at 6 o'clock," the word team is a collective noun. 4. Compound Noun - Compound nouns are a combination of more than one word. such as pickpocket, court-martial, and water bottle. Some of these nouns combine and form a single word, while others are hyphenated. 5. Concrete Noun - Concrete nouns are, in fact, things that are tangible - things that can be seen or touched - such as a hammer, clouds, or a tree. 6. Uncountable Noun - These nouns are things that are not countable, such as music, food, and water. 7. Gender-Specific Noun - Gender-specific nouns are specific to gender, whether male or female, such as a vixen, an actress, an actor, a queen, and a king. 8. Verbal Noun - Verbal nouns originate from verbs, but they do not have any verb-like qualities. For instance, in the phrase, "a good drawing," the verbal noun "drawing" appears with the adjective "good," which differentiates this noun from the gerund form (adverbs modify gerunds not adjectives). 9. Gerund - Gerund is a noun that ends with -ing, and represents an action. It has verb-like qualities, such as in the phrase, "happily building a house," the gerund "building" is modified by the adverb "happily." (ex. "At such a time I found out for certain that this bleak place overgrown with nettles was the churchyard... and that Alexander, Bartholomew, Abraham, Tobias, and Roger, infant children of the aforesaid, were also dead and buried." - Great Expectations by Charles Dickens Charles Dickens has mentioned a number of proper nouns in a row: "Alexander," "Bartholomew," "Abraham," "Tobias," and "Roger.")

*Fictional Narrator*

A person who tells a story and determines the story's point of view (ex. In his story "The Tell-Tale Heart," Edgar Allan Poe makes his narrator a raving lunatic.)

*Playwrights/Dramatists*

A person who writes plays (ex. William Shakespeare)

*Hamartia*

A personal error in a protagonist's personality, which brings about his tragic downfall in a tragedy This defect in a hero's personality is also known as a "tragic flaw." (ex. "To be, or not to be — that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep..." - Hamlet by William Shakespeare Prince Hamlet's tragic flaw, in Shakespeare's play Hamlet, determines his tragic downfall. Hamlet's hamartia is his indecisiveness. He cannot make up his mind about the dilemmas he confronts. Hamlet wants to kill his father's murderer, Claudius, but instead ruins his life by delaying action, as he looks for proof to justify the act. In the process, he spoils his relationship with his mother, and sends Ophelia into such a state of depression that she commits suicide. This indecision got almost everyone killed at the end of the play. He killed Claudius by assuming fake madness because of his indecisiveness in action so that he will not be asked for any justification.)

*Figures of Speech*

A phrase or word having different meanings than its literal meanings and conveys meaning by identifying or comparing one thing to another, which has connotation or meaning familiar to the audience (and thus creates vivid rhetorical effect) (ex. personification, understatement, hyperbole, simile, metaphor, etc.)

*Puns*

A play on words that produces a humorous effect by using a word that suggests two or more meanings, or by exploiting similar sounding words that have different meanings (ex. Claudius: "... But now, my cousin Hamlet, and my son..." Hamlet: [aside] "A little more than kin, and less than kind." - Hamlet by Shakespeare)

*Closet Drama*

A play that is not intended to be performed onstage, but read by a solitary reader or sometimes out loud in a small group (ex. Lord Byron's Manfred)

*Dramatic Monologue*

A poem in the form of a speech or narrative by an imagined person, in which the speaker inadvertently reveals aspects of their character while describing a particular situation or series of events; a poetic form or a poem that presents the speech or conversation of a person in a dramatic manner; a person, who is speaking to himself or someone else speaks to reveal specific intentions of his actions (ex. I have done it again. One year in every ten I manage it— A sort of walking miracle, my skin Bright as a Nazi lampshade, My right foot A paperweight, My face a featureless, fine Jew linen. - Lady Lazarus by Sylvia Plath The dramatic monologue highlights her psychological state of mind about her act of committing suicide and subsequent failure. She has likened this act to the Holocaust to create her own powerful monologue.)

*Narrative Poetry*

A poem which tells a story through verse and has a full storyline with all the elements of a traditional story, including characters, plot, conflict and resolution, setting and action Although a narrative poem does not need a rhyming pattern, it is a metered poem with clear objectives to reach a specific audience. These poems have been borrowed from oral poetic narratives from different cultures. Narrative poems include old epics, lays and ballads. (ex. "This Chanticleer stood high upon his toes, Stretching his neck, and both his eyes did close, And so did crow right loudly, for the nonce; And Russel Fox, he started up at once, And by the gorget grabbed our Chanticleer, Flung him on back, and toward the wood did steer, For there was no man who as yet pursued." - The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer This is another example of the narrative poem. It has a total of 24 stories whose introduction is given in its prologue. Written during the 13th or 14th century, the Canterbury Tales has a rhyming pattern, yet it is counted as the longest surviving narrative poem of English Literature. It has narrated the tales of almost all the professionals of that time including the religious figures such as a nun, monk, melee and prioress. The tales are straightforward and show the elements of a narrative poem at work.)

*Narration ("Storytelling")*

A report of related events presented to listeners or readers, in words arranged in a logical sequence; the process of recounting a sequence of events, real or imagined (ex. Don Quixote, by Miguel de Cervantes, is a parody of romance narratives, which dealt with the adventures of a valiant knight. Unlike serious romances, in Don Quixote, the narrative takes a comical turn. We laugh at how Quixote was bestowed a knighthood in his battle with the giants [windmills]. We enjoy how the knight helps the Christian king against the army of a Moorish monarch [herd of sheep]. These and the rest of the incidents of the novel are written in the style of Spanish romances of the 16th century, in order to mock the idealism of knights in the contemporary romances.)

*Sonnets*

A poem with 14 lines, each with 10 syllables, that is written in iambic pentameter (five sets of unstressed syllables followed by stressed syllables for a ten-syllable line) and has a specific rhyme scheme and a volta, or a specific turn Types: 1. Italian Sonnet 2. Shakespearean Sonnet 3. Spenserian Sonnet 4. Miltonic Sonnet 5. Terza Rima Sonnet 6. Curtal Sonnet (ex. "From fairest creatures we desire increase, That thereby beauty's rose might never die. But as the riper should by time decease, His tender heir might bear his memory: But thou, contracted to thine own bright eyes, Feed'st thy light's flame with self-substantial fuel, Making a famine where abundance lies, Thyself thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel. Thou that art now the world's fresh ornament And only herald to the gaudy spring, Within thine own bud buriest thy content And, tender churl, mak'st waste in niggarding. Pity the world, or else this glutton be, To eat the world's due, by the grave and thee..." - Sonnet 1 by William Shakespeare A Shakespearean sonnet is generally written in iambic pentameter, in which there are 10 syllables in each line. The rhyme scheme of the Shakespearean sonnet is abab-cdcd-efef-gg, which is difficult to follow. Hence, only Shakespeare is known to have done it.)

*Eye Rhyme ("Visual/Sight Rhyme")*

A poetic device in which two words are spelled similarly but pronounced differently; a visual phenomenon on the page that is appealing to the sense of sight and not to the sense of hearing (ex. "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate. Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date." - Sonnet 18 by Shakespeare The writer is comparing his beloved with lovely summer days. To him, summer is the season of disappointments. This extract highlights the use of eye rhyme in the second line as the last word of the starting line links directly to the ending word of line four. By using Eye Rhyme, the writer has created a rhythm using "date" and "temperate" which give soothing effects to the poem.)

*Internal Rhyme*

A poetic device that can be defined as metrical lines in which its middle words and its end words rhyme with one another Same Line - ex. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary Separate Line - ex. While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door End of, and Middle of Line - ex. ...Eagerly I wished the morrow; - vainly I had sought to borrow From my books surcease of sorrow - sorrow for the lost Lenore... (ex. ALL: "DOUBLE, DOUBLE toil and TROUBLE, Fire burn and cauldron BUBBLE..." - Macbeth by Shakespeare)

*Trimeter*

A poetic device that is defined as a meter or a line that consists of three iambic feet Trimeter is one of the five types of iamb meter. Poetic Forms with Trimeter: 1. Ballad Meter: Ballad stanzas are quatrains that alternate between iambic tetrameter (i.e., a line with four iambs, resulting in eight syllables) and iambic trimeter. The rhyme scheme of the ballad meter is generally ABCB. 2. Limerick: A limerick is made up of five lines; in most limericks there are three lines (the first, second, and fifth) which are written in trimeter, which is to say they have three beats. Most of these lines are made up of anapests and iambs. The other two lines (i.e., the third and fourth) usually have two metrical feet, which is known as dimeter. (ex. "The ONly NEWS I KNOW Is BULleTINS all DAY From IMmorTAliTY. The ONly SHOWS I SEE, ToMORrow AND ToDAY, PerCHANCE ETERniTY." - The Only News I Know by Emily Dickinson This excerpt is a good example of iambic trimeter, in which the lines have three iambs or three metrical feet. Normally, the extract contains six syllables in each line, with the pattern of iambic trimeter. Here, the trimeter pattern is capitalized.)

*Refrain*

A poetic device that repeats, at regular intervals, in different stanzas and may involve only minor changes in its wording, contributing to the rhyme of a poem while emphasizing an idea through repetition (ex. "O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells; Rise up — for you the flag is flung — for you the bugle trills..." - O Captain! My Captain! by Walt Whitman The poet uses refrain throughout this poem to emphasize elegiac theme. See the repetition of the words "captain," "rise up," and "for you" in just these two lines. This theme continues throughout.)

*Second-Person Point of View*

A point of view (how a story is told) where the narrator tells the story to another character using the word 'you' to make the audience more active in the story or process or to distance the character from their own actions In fiction, second person is used as a narrative voice, a term used for the method in which a narrator describes the story. In nonfiction, we see second person in business and technical writing, process writing, self-help books, and even more interactive game playing writing. (ex. "If you have built castles in the air, your work need not be lost; that is where they should be. Now put the foundations under them." - Walden by Henry David Thoreau)

*First-Person Narrator*

A point of view (who is telling a story) where the story is narrated by one character at a time, recognized by the use of "I" or "we" In first person, we only see the point of view of one character. While this character may share details about others in the story, we are only told what the speaker knows. An author may switch from character to character, but still use first person narrative. This way, we may learn about what other characters think and feel, but we are still limited in our knowledge because we must rely on what the character shares. (ex. The Catcher in the Rye is written in the first person, with Holden acting as both protagonist and narrator, signaling we are getting his limited, biased view of events. Except for the beginning of Chapter 1 and the entirety of Chapter 26, Holden narrates his story in the past tense, recounting the events that led to the present moment, where he is recovering at a medical facility in Los Angeles. Salinger uses dialogue to bring the reader outside Holden's head and give an alternate perspective on the action. For example, when Holden visits Mr. Spencer, his teacher reads out loud an essay Holden wrote. The reader can make up her own mind about what kind of student Holden is, rather than taking his word for it. Similarly, the dialogue of other characters suggests alternate interpretations of events, such as when Sally tells him to "stop screaming," even though he claims he "wasn't even screaming," or when Phoebe points out that he has misunderstood the Robert Burns poem "Comin' Thro the Rye.")

*Objective Narrator*

A point of view in which the writer tells what happens without stating more than can be inferred from the story's action and dialogue as the narrator never discloses anything about what the characters think or feel, remaining a detached observer (ex. Ernest Hemingway's "Hills Like White Elephants")

*Rhyme*

A popular literary device in which the repetition of the same or similar sounds occurs in two or more words, usually at the end of lines in poems or songs In a rhyme in English, the vowel sounds in the stressed syllables are matching, while the preceding consonant sound does not match. The consonants after the stressed syllables must match as well. Types: 1. Perfect: Single, Double, Dactylic 2. Imperfect 3. Identical: homonyms 4. Eye (ex. Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate: Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date: - Sonnet 18 by William Shakespeare William Shakespeare includes many rhyme examples in his plays. All of his sonnets followed the very strict sonnet form of containing three rhyming quatrains and one final rhyming couplet. The above excerpt comes from arguably his most famous sonnet, "Sonnet 18." The opening line is familiar to many English speakers. It is just one of hundreds of examples of rhyme in his works. One interesting note is that due to the way that the sound of English has changed over the past four to five hundred years, some of Shakespeare's rhymes no longer are perfect rhymes, such as the rhyme between "temperate" and "date." However, it is easy to hear countless examples of rhymes in his works, such as the words "day" and "May" in this excerpt.)

*Soliloquy*

A popular literary device often used in drama to reveal the innermost thoughts of a character and convey the progress of action of the play by expressing a character's thoughts about a certain character or past, present, or upcoming event, while talking to himself without acknowledging the presence of any other person A soliloquy is often used as a means of character revelation or character manifestation to the reader or the audience of the play. In a soliloquy, the character or speaker speaks to himself. By doing so, the character keeps these thoughts secret from the other characters of the play. (ex. "To be, or not to be? That is the question— Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune..." - Hamlet by William Shakespeare Hamlet is in a state of mind that only Shakespeare can describe through his magnificent pen. Uncertain, reluctant Prince Hamlet was literally unable to do anything but merely wait to "catch the conscience of the king" to complete his supposed plan.)

*Pathos*

A quality of an experience in life, or a work of art, that stirs up emotions of pity, sympathy, and sorrow that can be expressed through words, pictures, or even with gestures of the body; a method of convincing people with an argument drawn out through an emotional response and hence, is an important tool of persuasion in arguments (ex. He had meant the best in the world, and been treated like a dog—like a very dog. She would be sorry someday—maybe when it was too late. Ah, if he could only die TEMPORARILY! - The Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain Here, Tom arouses feelings of pity in readers' minds by telling how the girl, whom he loved, had treated him like an animal, despite his honest feelings for her. He wishes he had died and then she would feel sorry for him.)

*Reliability*

A quality of some fictional narratives whose word the reader can trust (ex. Fitzgerald's Nick Carraway)

*Rhetorical Questions*

A question that is asked just for effect, or to lay emphasis on some point being discussed, when no real answer is expected; a question that is self-evident, used for style as an impressive persuasive device that may have an obvious answer, but the questioner asks it to lay emphasis to the point; a question that is asked when the questioner himself knows the answer already, or an answer is not actually demanded (ex. JULIET: " 'Tis but thy name that is my enemy. Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. What's Montague? It is nor hand, nor foot, Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part Belonging to a man. O, be some other name! What's in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet." - Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare Here, Juliet makes a statement that a man's name does not define him as a person. She draws attention to this issue by asking two important rhetorical questions, as noted in bold.)

*Repartee*

A quick, witty reply or an exchange of witty remarks (ex. In the opening scene of William Shakespeare's "Much Ado About Nothing," Shakespeare uses repartee to indicate the dynamic relationship between Benedick and Beatrice. They each use incredibly quick retorts and clever wordplay, demonstrating not only their personal wit but also their similarity to each other. For example, when Benedick calls Beatrice a "rare parrot teacher," she is quick to respond with "a bird of my tongue is better than a beast of yours" (1.1.110-111). Although both characters try to out-insult each other, this fast-paced dialogue actually indicates that they think the same way and know each other well enough to fall into a familiar routine. Shakespeare places this interaction in the beginning of the play to introduce the personas of Benedick and Beatrice, as well as to set the stage for the later romantic developments in their relationship. This is reinforced towards the end of the dialogue, when Beatrice subtly mentions that she knows Benedick "of old" (1.1.114), referring to the possibility of a past relationship between the two.)

*Trochaic Tetrameter*

A rapid meter of poetry consisting of four feet of trochees (made up of one stressed syllable followed by one unstressed syllable) (ex. Liver of blaspheming Jew, Gall of goat, and slips of yew Silver'd in the moon's eclipse, Nose of Turk and Tartar's lips, Finger of birth-strangled babe - Macbeth by Shakespeare)

*Footnotes, MLA style for*

A reference, explanation, or comment identified in the text by a numeral or a symbol and placed below the main text on a printed page

*Endnotes, MLA style for*

A reference, explanation, or comment placed at the end of an article, research paper, chapter, or book to (1) acknowledge the source of a quotation, paraphrase, or summary and (2) provide explanatory comments that would interrupt the flow of the main text

*Direct Discourse*

A report of the exact words used by a speaker or writer; speech that is made directly from the speaker to the receiver; usually placed inside quotation marks and accompanied by a reporting verb, signal phrase, or quotative frame (ex. "Jim, can you get me a soda?")

*Indirect Discourse*

A report on what someone else said or wrote without using that person's exact words; paraphrasing what someone said or wrote without quotation marks (ex. The teacher asked me where my textbook was.)

*Antithesis*

A rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect (ex. "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way." - A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens)

*Epigrams*

A rhetorical device that is a memorable, brief, interesting, insightful, and surprising satirical statement (ex. I can resist everything but temptation - Oscar Wilde This brief epigram by Oscar Wilde is remarkably witty: temptation, is by definition, something we attempt to resist. By saying he can resist everything but temptation, the speaker is also saying he can resist nothing.)

*Half-Rhyme, Slant-Rhyme, Off-Rhyme*

A rhyme in which the stressed syllables of ending consonants match, however the preceding vowel sounds do not match (ex. "If love is like a BRIDGE or maybe like a GRUDGE, and time is like a river that kills us with a shiver, then what have all these mornings meant but aging into love? What now is straight must have been bent; what now is whole must have been rent. My hand is now your glove." - To My Wife by George Wolff The poet here throws a subtle curve ball in the first two lines of this stanza, in which the closing consonant sounds of "bridge" and "grudge" are similar. These two do not rhyme completely, however, making them perfect examples of half rhyme.)

*Triple Rhyme*

A rhyme involving three syllables, the first stressed and the others unstressed (ex. There was an old man of Thermopylæ, Who never did anything properly; - There was an Old Man of Thermopylæ by Edward Lear)

*Closed Couplets*

A rhyming couplet with end-stopped lines that is logically or grammatically complete (ex. Instruct the planets in what orbs to run, / Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun)

*Caesuras*

A rhythmical pause in a poetic line or a sentence A feminine caesural pause occurs after a non-stressed and short syllable in a poetic line. This is softer and less abrupt than the masculine version. Masculine pause occurs after a long or accented syllable in a line. It creates a staccato effect in the poem. (ex. "To be or not to be, / that is the question" -Hamlet by Shakespeare)

*Pauses in Verse ("Caesura")*

A rhythmical pause in a poetic line or a sentence, indicated by a parallel symbol ( || ) Types: 1. Feminine Caesura: A feminine caesural pause occurs after a non-stressed and short syllable in a poetic line. This is softer and less abrupt than the masculine version and has two subdivisions (epic caesura and lyric caesura). (ex. "I hear lake water lapping || with low sounds by the shore..." - The Lake Isle of Innisfree by William Butler Yeats) 2. Masculine Caesura: Masculine pause occurs after a long or accented syllable in a line. It creates a staccato effect in the poem. (ex. "of reeds and stalk-crickets, || fiddling the dank air, lacing his boots with vines, || steering glazed beetles" - The Bounty by Derek Walcott) (ex. I'm nobody! || Who are you? Are you nobody, too? Then there's a pair of us || - don't tell! They'd banish || - you know! - I'm Nobody! Who Are You? by Emily Dickinson Dickinson has used masculine caesural pauses in the middle of verses. These breaks create a staccato effect, an uneven rhythm in the flow of sound, conveying the depth of an idea.)

*Subplots ("Minor Story")*

A secondary plot, or a strand of the main plot that runs parallel to it and supports it and is usually found in plays, novels, short stories, television shows, and movies The purpose of a subplot is to add complexity and depth to the story, and thereby increases tension - a state of high interest and suspense about events in a story. Not only does it show various aspects of the characters, connecting the readers with them, but it is also a story within a story. (ex. In his popular novel The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald has shown his main character, Jay Gatsby, becoming an overnight success, despite having no family inheritance. It becomes clear that Gatsby has earned good fortune through bootlegging — the illegal preparation and selling of liquor. He, on the other hand, wastes his wealth on useless and extravagant parties. He does this to seek enjoyment with friends, including a beautiful married woman, Daisy Buchanan, whose company he enjoys very much. However, when Daisy's husband Tom learns Gatsby is engaged in illegal activities, he shows his suspicion in an intense argument by accusing Gatsby of illegally selling alcohol through their drug stores. This subplot about prohibition adds intensity to the main plot. - The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald)

*Loose Sentences ("Cumulative Sentences")*

A sentence structure in which the main clause is followed by one or more coordinate or subordinate phrases and clauses; a type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) is elaborated by the successive addition of modifying clauses or phrases (ex. "I have been assured by a very knowing American friend of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nourished is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked or boiled; and I make no doubt it will equally serve in a fricassee or a ragout." - Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal")

*Compound Sentences*

A sentence that has at least two independent clauses that have related ideas. The independent clauses can be joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or by a semicolon. In either case, each half of the sentence must be able to stand on its own as a complete sentence. That means each half needs a subject and a verb. (ex. She did not cheat on the test, for it was the wrong thing to do)

*Simple Sentences ("Clausal Sentence")*

A sentence that has only one main or independent clause and no dependent or subordinate clauses but may have a modifier, compound verbs, and/or compound subjects, intending to convey a complete idea or meanings of an idea Types: 1. Compound Verbs and Compound Subjects: have a single subject and two or more verbs, or a single verb and two or more subjects (ex. Compound Verb: The cat and the dog yowled and howled, respectively. Compound Noun: Julia and Mary hired a taxi to airport.) 2. Single Subject and a Single Verb: has only one subject and one verb (ex. You have to dream to make your dream come true.) (ex. "Mr. Bennet was among the earliest of those who waited on Mr. Bingley." - Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen Here, Austen has used a simple and declarative sentence, without any commas or clauses, to describe the character traits of Mr. Bennet.)

*Syntax*

A set of rules in a language that dictates how words from different parts of speech are put together in order to convey a complete thought; the way the words in a piece of writing are arranged into sentences Diction refers to the choice of words in a particular situation, while syntax determines how the chosen words are used to form a sentence. More often than not, adopting a complex diction means a complex syntactic structure of sentences, and vice versa. In combination, syntax and diction help writers develop tone, mood, and atmosphere in a text, along with evoking readers' interest. The general word order of an English sentence is Subject+Verb+Object. In poetry, however, the word order may be shifted to achieve certain artistic effects, such as producing rhythm or melody in the lines, achieving emphasis, and heightening connection between two words. The unique syntax used in poetry makes it different from prose. Syntax affects the nature of a prose text as well. It enhances its meanings, and contributes toward its tone. Quickness, decisiveness, and speed are added to a text by using short phrases, clauses, and sentences. Whereas, in a text where the subject matter is serious, requiring contemplation, long, convoluted sentences are used to slow down the pace of a prose text. (ex. "Thee, Shepherd, thee the woods and desert caves, With wild thyme and the gadding vine o'ergrown, And all their echoes mourn" - Lycidas by John Milton The modified word order in the above lines is Object+Subject+Subject Complement+Verb.)

*Asides*

A short comment or speech that a character delivers directly to the audience, or to himself, while other actors on the stage appear not to hear. Only the audience knows that the character has said something to them. (ex. "Time thou anticipat'st my dread exploits. The flighty purpose never is o'ertook Unless the deed go with it. From this moment The very firstlings of my heart shall be The firstlings of my hand." -Macbeth by Shakespeare)

*Verse*

A single line, a stanza, or other parts of poetry; a line of metrical writing, a stanza, or a piece written in meter Types: 1. Free Verse: no set meter, where there is no rhyming scheme present and the poem doesn't follow a set pattern, occasionally used to camouflage the fluctuation of thoughts (ex. "After the Sea-Ship—after the whistling winds; After the white-gray sails, taut to their spars and ropes, Below, a myriad, myriad waves, hastening, lifting up their necks, Tending in ceaseless flow toward the track of the ship: Waves of the ocean, bubbling and gurgling, blithely prying, Waves, undulating waves—liquid, uneven, emulous waves, Toward that whirling current, laughing and buoyant, with curves, Where the great Vessel, sailing and tacking, displaced the surface..." - After the Sea-Ship by Walt Whitman As can be seen from the stanza quoted above, there is an absence of rhyming effect and structure in each verse.) 2. Blank Verse: no rhyming effect present but has an iambic pentameter and is usually employed for presenting passionate events or creating an impact on the reader (ex. Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow, Creeps in this petty pace from day to day, To the last syllable of recorded time; And all our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death ... - Macbeth by William Shakespeare William Shakespeare wrote verses in iambic pentameter pattern, without rhyme. Macbeth is a good example of blank verse. Many speeches in this play are written in the form of blank verse.)

*Metrical Feet*

A single unit of measurement that is repeated within a line of poetry and is made up of STRESSED And UNstressed syllables; a grouping of strong and weak syllables All the Metrical Feet that are used in English poetry and verse have exactly one STRESSED syllable and one or two UNstressed syllables. Metrical Feet are the structured building blocks that make up Meter. Types: IAMB: A Metrical Foot consisting of one UNstressed syllable followed by one STRESSED syllable. An Iamb does not have to be a word. But it must be exactly two syllables, so it can be one word, or two. (ex. re WARD) ANAPEST: A Metrical Foot consisting of two UNstressed syllables followed by one STRESSED syllables. Like an Iamb, an Anapest does not have to be a complete word. And since it is three syllables, it can be as many as three words. (ex. in the LIGHT) TROCHEE: A Metrical Foot consisting of one STRESSED syllable followed by one UNstressed syllable. A Trochee is an Iamb backwards. You will see in 105A that Trochaic and Iambic Meters can be very similar. (ex. STOR ies) DACTYL: A Metrical Foot consisting of one STRESSED syllable followed by two UNstressed syllables. A Dactyl is a Anapest backwards. You will see in 105A that Dactylic and Anapestic Meters can be very similar. (ex. SUD den ly)

*Feet, metrical*

A single unit of measurement that is repeated within a line of poetry; a group of 2 or 3 stressed/unstressed syllables forming the basic unit of poetic rhythm; structured building blocks that make up Meter Iamb: A Metrical Foot consisting of one UNstressed syllable followed by one STRESSED syllable; does not have to be a word but it must be exactly two syllables, so it can be one word, or two (ex. re-WARD) Anapest: A Metrical Foot consisting of two UNstressed syllables followed by one STRESSED syllables; does not have to be a complete word but can be as many as three words (ex. in the LIGHT) Trochee: A Metrical Foot consisting of one STRESSED syllable followed by one UNstressed syllable; an Iamb backwards (ex. STOR-ies) Dactyl: A Metrical Foot consisting of one STRESSED syllable followed by two UNstressed syllables; an Anapest backwards (ex. SUD-den-ley)

*English (Shakespearean) Sonnets*

A sonnet (small lyrics that contains 14 lines, and is written in iambic pentameter) in which there are 10 syllables in each line and follows the rhyme scheme of abab-cdcd-efef-gg (ex. "From fairest creatures we desire increase, That thereby beauty's rose might never die. But as the riper should by time decease, His tender heir might bear his memory: But thou, contracted to thine own bright eyes, Feed'st thy light's flame with self-substantial fuel, Making a famine where abundance lies, Thyself thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel. Thou that art now the world's fresh ornament And only herald to the gaudy spring, Within thine own bud buriest thy content And, tender churl, mak'st waste in niggarding. Pity the world, or else this glutton be, To eat the world's due, by the grave and thee..." - Shakespeare's "Sonnet 1")

*Italian Sonnets (Petrarchan Sonnets)*

A sonnet consisting of 14 lines total, beginning with two quatrains (stanzas of four lines) that make up a unit called an octave (with a standard rhyme scheme of ABBA ABBA), ending with two tercets (stanzas of three lines) that make up a single six-line stanza called a sestet (with a standard rhyme scheme of CDEDCE or CDCDCD) It is common for the octave to contain what's called a "proposition," which establishes a problem (such as unrequited love) or a question (such as, "does she love me?"). The sestet is concerned with resolving the problem or question, and it almost always contains a "turn," which signals a shift in the poem's focus from problem to resolution. The turn is sometimes also called a "volta" (the Italian word for turn), and it usually comes at the very beginning of the sestet, in the sonnet's ninth line. (ex. Ye who in rhymes dispersed the echoes hear Of those sad sighs with which my heart I fed When early youth my mazy wanderings led, Fondly different from what I now appear, Fluttering 'twixt frantic hope and frantic fear, from those by whom my various style is read, I hope, if e'er their hearts for love have bled , Not only pardon, but perhaps a tear. But now I clearly see that of mankind Long time I was the tale: whence bitter thought And self-reproach with frequent blushes teem; While of my frenzy, shame the fruit I find, And sad repentance, and the proof, dear-bought, That the world's joy is but a flitting dream. - Sonnet by Pertrarch In the "proposition" of the octave, the poem establishes its dilemma and subject: the vanity of the poet's passion for his beloved. This sonnet has an obvious "turn" in the ninth line (the phrase "but now I clearly see"). This sonnet gives a strong example of how a turn works; it doesn't need to be dramatic, but it subtly marks a shift in the tone or mood of the poem. The "resolution" in the sestet is that the world's joy is "but a flitting dream." The sonnet employs the Petrarchan rhyme scheme of ABBA ABBA CDEDCE.)

*Bildungsroman*

A special kind of novel that focuses on the psychological and moral growth of its main character, from his or her youth to adulthood; a story of the growing up of a sensitive person, who looks for answers to his questions through different experiences; depicts and criticizes those vices of society which cause the protagonist to suffer (ex. TKAMB by Harper Lee, Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger, The Giver by Lois Lowry)

*Common Meter*

A specific type of meter that is often used in lyric poetry and has two key traits: it alternates between lines of eight syllables and lines of six syllables, and it always follows an iambic stress pattern in which each unstressed syllable is followed by one stressed syllable (ex. Amazing grace, how sweet the sound / That saved a wretch like me)

*Equivoque*

A specific type of pun that involves a single phrase or word with differing meanings in a context which makes both meanings equally relevant (ex. "Golden lads and girls all must, / As chimney-sweepers, come to dust." - Shakespeare's Cymbeline)

*Aphorisms*

A statement of truth or opinion applied to philosophical, moral, and literary principles that is expressed in a concise and witty manner; a statement that contains a truth revealed in a terse manner (ex. "You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view - until you climb into his skin and walk around in it." -TKAMB by Harper Lee)

*Paradox*

A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly, but which may include a latent truth and is used to illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas so that the reader can think over an idea in innovative way (ex. "I must be cruel to be kind." - Hamlet by Shakespeare This announcement does not seem to make sense. How can an individual treat others kindly even when he is cruel? However, Hamlet is talking about his mother, and how he intends to kill Claudius to avenge his father's death. This act of Hamlet will be a tragedy for his mother, who is married to Claudius. Hamlet does not want his mother to be the beloved of his father's murderer any longer, and so he thinks that the murder will be good for his mother.)

*Stock Characters*

A stereotypical fictional character in a work of art such as a novel, play, film, or a movie whom audiences recognize from frequent recurrences in a particular literary tradition, distinguished by their archetypal flatness (based on cliches and social prejudices) and lack of development (ex. Shakespearean fools such as The Fool in "King Lear" The fool does not have a name and is called, simply, 'Fool.' He is Lear's constant companion and accompanies him on his journey into madness and eventually death when he, just before Lear's death, is hanged by those who have imprisoned Lear. In this play the fool functions as the inner consciousness of the foolish king, who is foolish while his fool is wise. The Fool is Lear's alter ego and constantly comments on Lear's relentless folly. Every time Lear does something foolish, like giving up all his power to his daughters, the fool rubs it in. When Lear finally achieves a measure of understanding about how lacking in wisdom he has been there is no need for the Fool, who dies.)

*Frame Story*

A story set within a story, narrative, or movie, told by the main or the supporting character, in which a character starts telling a story to other characters, or he sits down to write a story, telling the details to the audience (ex. There are several examples of this technique used by Marry Shelley in her novel, Frankenstein. She has given multiple framed stories in this novel. For example, Robert Walton describes a story - told by Frankenstein, - in his letters that he writes to his sister. Frankenstein's story contains the tale of a creature, and the creature's story briefly contains the story of the family with which he has been living. In Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus tells about his wandering experience in the court of King Alcinous, or his visit to the island of a sorcerer.)

*MLA (Modern Language Association) style*

A system for documenting sources in scholarly writing adopted for classroom instruction; used throughout the world by scholars, journal publishers, and academic and commercial presses; and is concerned with the mechanics of writing, such as punctuation, quotation, and, especially, documentation of sources

*Novella*

A type of prose fiction, which is shorter than full length novels and longer than short stories; a well-structured yet short narrative that is often satiric or realistic in tone and usually focuses on one incident, or issue with one or two main characters and takes place at a single location (ex. Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad is a strictly controlled novella, with a classic status, describing a story of late nineteenth century about imperialistic and colonialist process. This novella focuses on the search of the central character, Kurtz, who goes too far for exploitation of the natives for the sake of an ivory trade. Conrad's readers plunge deeper into the horror of darkness to see what happened after the invasion of the Europeans.)

*Meter*

A stressed and unstressed syllabic pattern in a verse, or within the lines of a poem; a poetic device that serves as a linguistic sound pattern for the verses, as it gives poetry a rhythmical and melodious sound Five types: 1. Iambic meter (unstressed/stressed) 2. Trochaic meter (stressed/unstressed) 3. Spondaic meter (stressed/stressed) 4. Anapestic meter (unstressed/unstressed/stressed) 5. Dactylic meter (stressed/unstressed/unstressed). Two subdivisions: Qualitative meter contains stressed syllables with regular intervals, such as iambic pentameter containing even numbered syllables. Quantitative meter, however, is based on syllabic weight, and not stressed pattern,s such as dactylic hexameters of classical Greek and classical Latin. However, classical Arabic and Sanskrit also have used this meter. Poets like Virgil used quantitative meter in Aeneid, and Homer used it in Iliad. (ex. "If music be the food of love, play on; Give me excess of it, that, surfeiting, The appetite may sicken, and so die. That strain again! it had a dying fall: O, it came o'er my ear like the sweet sound, That breathes upon a bank of violets ..." - Twelfth Night by Shakespeare This is an example of iambic pentameter, which contains an unstressed syllable first, and a stressed syllable second. Shakespeare has played around with iambic pentameter a lot to create different effects. Here you can see each line consists of accented and unaccented syllables underlined.)

*Periphrasis*

A stylistic device that can be defined as the use of excessive and longer words to convey a meaning which could have been conveyed with a shorter expression, or in a few words; a roundabout explanation of something (ex. "When that fell arrest Without all bail shall carry me away." - Sonnet 74 by William Shakespeare In this extract, Shakespeare is explaining death and its consequences. He has used an indirect way of illustrating death as "when that fell." Here it means, when death comes, no one would be able to save him.)

*Narrative Pace*

A stylistic device, which shows how fast a story unfolds, determining how quickly or how slowly the writer takes a reader through a story Important pacing elements: 1. Action - An action scene dramatizes the significant events of the story and shows what happens in a story. 2. Cliffhanger - When the end of a chapter or scene is left hanging, naturally the pace picks up, because readers would turn the pages to see what happens next. 3. Dialogue - A rapid fire dialogue with lesser or irrelevant information is captivating, swift and invigorates scenes. 4. Word Choice - The language itself is a means of pacing, like using concrete words, active voice, and sensory information. (ex. There are various subplots in Jane Austen's novel, Pride and Prejudice, which keep the story of the novel moving. These subplots include the romance between Bingley and Jane, the marriage of Collins and Charlotte, the seduction leading to marriage between Lydia and Wickham, and a major conflict between Wickham and Darcy. Jane Austen also has used letters as a literary device to change the pace of her story through emotional communication.)

*Lines*

A subdivision of a poem, specifically a group of words arranged into a row that ends for a reason other than the right-hand margin

*Simple Subject*

A subject that has just one noun as the focus of the sentence (only one noun does the action, or connects, to the verb of the sentence) and does not include any of the modifiers that might describe the subject (ex. The Grimm Brothers' tales are classics of children's literature. What are classics of children's literature? The Grimm Brothers' TALES are classics of children's literature. TALES is the simple subject.)

*Peripeteia*

A sudden change in a story which results in a negative reversal of circumstances to surprise the audience and follow as a result of a character's previous actions or mistakes; the turning point, the place in which the tragic protagonist's fortune changes from good to bad (ex. Oedipus was raised by different parents, for his parents feared the prophecy that he would kill his father and marry his mother. As an adult, Oedipus is told by an oracle that the plague on his people will end when the murderer of Laius is caught an exiled. Oedipus visits a prophet Tiresias who tells him he is the murderer. Believing he is innocent, Oedipus is angered. His wife, trying to calm him down, tells him of Laius's murder. Oedipus, upon hearing the story, suspects he may have been the murderer. A messenger arrives to tell Oedipus his father Polybus has died. Oedipus rejoices that he has not murdered his father, but still fears he may marry his mother. The messenger, hoping to ease his fears, tells him Polybus and his wife were not his real parents. Rather than easing his fears, the messenger reveals the dark truth to Oedipus: he has fulfilled the prophecy. - Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex" In this example, the peripeteia occurs when Oedipus learns of his parents' true identity from the messenger. He realizes he has murdered his father and married his mother, according to the prophecy. Abruptly, his good fortune is ruined and he stabs his eyes out in dismay.)

*Unstressed Syllable*

A syllable that has NO emphasis within a word (or within a line of poetry); part of the word where you don't emphasize or accent (ex. Shall I comPARE thee TO a SUMmer's DAY? Thou ART more LOVEly AND more TEMPerATE: Rough WINDS do SHAKE the DARling BUDS of MAY, And SUMmer's LEASE hath ALL too SHORT a DATE: ... So LONG as MEN can BREATHE, or EYES can SEE, So LONG lives THIS, and THIS gives LIFE to THEE. - "Sonnet 18" by William Shakespeare William Shakespeare wrote many sonnets, and generally used iambic pentameter in his lines. Arguably his most famous sonnet, "Sonnet 18," indeed follows this rhythm. Iambic pentameter has ten syllables per line, starting with an unstressed syllable and alternating every other syllable with stress. This means that the lines end on a stressed syllable. This rhythm thus also makes the rhyme scheme more obvious, as Shakespeare's sonnets followed an ABAB CDCD EFEF GG rhyme pattern. For example, in this excerpt Shakespeare rhymes "day" with "May" and "temperate" with "date," and in the couplet he rhymes "see" and "thee." The rhythm helps exaggerate the rhyme.)

*Satire*

A technique employed by writers to expose and criticize foolishness and corruption of an individual or a society, by using humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule in order to improve humanity by criticizing its follies and foibles; the use of fictional characters, which stand for real people, to expose and condemn their corruption; a comical piece of writing which makes fun of an individual or a society, to expose its stupidity and shortcomings so that they may improve their characters by overcoming their weaknesses (ex. There are numerous examples of satire in Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. He uses satire as a tool to share his ideas and opinions on slavery, human nature, and many other issues that afflicted American society at that time through these quotes: 1. "What's the use you learning to do right, when it's troublesome to do right and isn't no trouble to do wrong, and the wages is just the same?" (Ch. 16) 2. "There warn't anybody at the church, except maybe a hog or two, for there warn't any lock on the door, and hogs likes a puncheon floor in summer-time because it's cool. If you notice, most folks don't go to church only when they've got to; but a hog is different." (Ch. 18) 3. "The pitifulest thing out is a mob; that's what an army is - a mob; they don't fight with courage that's born in them, but with courage that's borrowed from their mass, and from their officers. But a mob without any man at the head of it is beneath pitifulness." (Ch. 22))

*Showing*

A technique used in various kinds of texts that avoids adjectives describing the author's analysis, but instead describes the scene in such a way that the reader can draw his or her own conclusions, allowing the reader to experience the story through action, words, thoughts, senses, and feelings rather than through the author's exposition, summarization, and description (ex. Charles Dickens' novel Hard Times opens with the pompous and narrow-minded teacher Thomas Gradgrind, a 'man of realities', lecturing his students. Gradgrind is described with short, compact and informative telling at first: 'A man of facts and calculations. A man who proceeds upon the principle that two and two are four ...' (p. 1) In his story opening, Dickens deftly moves to dialogue that shows Gradgrind's 'by-the-rules', bullish character. Gradgrind interrogates one of his pupils: 'Girl number twenty,' said Mr. Gradgrind, squarely pointing with his square forefinger, 'I don't know that girl. Who is that girl?' 'Sissy Jupe, sir,' explained number twenty, blushing, standing up, and curtseying. 'Sissy is not a name,' said Mr. Gradgrind. 'Don't call yourself Sissy. Call yourself Cecilia.' 'It's father as calls me Sissy, sir,' returned the young girl in a trembling voice, and with another curtsey. (p. 1-2) In how Gradgrind addresses Sissy, Dickens shows us the traits described in the first introduction. For Gradgrind, there is 'correct' way to act and this is reflected in his quibbling over Sissy Jupe's name. His 'squareness' is further emphasized in how he points 'squarely' with his 'square forefinger'. The way Gradgrind bullishly reduces Sissy to trembling shows his personality - a bullying, forceful nature that is important for further plot developments in the story. Dickens thus uses dialogue to show just how inflexible his character is, and uses physical description and gesture (the square pointing). He also shows how his students fear (rather than revere) their teacher, building a clear sense of the relationship between teacher and pupils.)

*Enjambments ("Run-On" Lines)*

A term used in poetry to refer to lines that end without punctuation and without completing a sentence or clause; when the poet continues a sentence beyond the end of the line into a subsequent line or lines (ex. They stretched their beloved lord in his boat, Laid out by the mast, amidships, The great ring-giver. Far-fetched treasures Were piled upon him, and precious gear. I never heard before of a ship so well furbished With battle tackle, bladed weapons And coats of mail. The massed treasure Was loaded on top of him: it would travel far On out into the ocean's sway. - Beowulf)

*Intrusive Third-Person Narrator*

A third person omniscient narrator who interrupts the story to provide a commentary to the reader on some aspect of the story or on a more general topic; a third person omniscient narrator who, in addition to reporting the events of a novel's story, offers further comments on characters and events, and who sometimes reflects more generally upon the significance of the story (ex. In Charlotte Brontë's "Jane Eyre," Jane Eyre is the first-person narrator, but Brontë often intrudes and speaks to the reader directly, even using the word "reader." For example, Brontë writes: "A new chapter in a novel is something like a new scene in a play; and when I draw up the curtain this time, reader, you must fancy you see a room in the George Inn at Millcote, with such large figured papering on the walls as inns have; such a carpet, such furniture, such ornaments on the mantle-piece...")

*Tercets (Triplets)*

A three-lined verse, or a group, or unit of three lines that are often rhymed together, or they rhyme with another triplet, and has a flow of words as rolling waves Types: 1. Haiku: a Japanese three-line poem, based usually on nature, that follows five-seven-five syllable counts (the first line contains five, the second seven, and the third line five syllables) 2. Triplet: has three rhymed lines in each stanza with the rhyme scheme AAA 3. Enclosed or Sicilian Tercet: uses a rhyme scheme of ABA, so the first and third lines rhyme together and enclose a rhyming middle line, while adding the challenge of using iambic pentameter (each line uses ten syllables with emphasis on each second syllable) 4. Villanelle: uses five tercets and one quatrain and follows the rhyme scheme as: A1 b A2 / a b A1 / a b A2 / a b A1 / a b A2 / a b A1 A2. 5. Terza Rima: one of the most challenging types of tercet, usually following iambic pentameter with the rhyme scheme of ABA BCB CDC, a complicated rhyme scheme that binds stanzas together in which the second line in each stanza rhymes with the next tercet (ex. "Oh, Galuppi, Baldassaro, this is very sad to find! I can hardly misconceive you; it would prove me deaf and blind; But although I give you credit, 'tis with such a heavy mind!" - A Toccata of Galuppi's by Robert Browning This is the first triplet that is using AAA rhyme scheme. In this triplet, the speaker listens to a nostalgic musical piece. The rhyming of words bind, blind, and mind creates music similar to the theme of the poem.)

*Domestic Tragedy*

A tragedy in which the tragic protagonists are ordinary middle-class or lower-class individuals, in contrast to classical and Neoclassical tragedy, in which the protagonists are of kingly or aristocratic rank and their downfall is an affair of state as well as a personal matter (ex. A Yorkshire Tragedy - a father destroys his family)

*Trochaic Feet (Trochee)*

A two-syllable metrical pattern (feet) in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable (opposite of an "iamb," which is the most common metrical foot and consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable) Trochees in accentual verse: Accentual verse is poetry in which the meter derives from the stress, or emphasis, placed on certain syllables. Metered verse in English is almost always accentual verse. Trochees in accentual verse consist of the the stressed-unstressed metrical pattern described so far. Trochees in quantitative verse: Quantitative verse is poetry in which the meter derives from the length of syllables, not from stress. Here "length" refers to the time it takes to pronounce each syllable. Trochees in quantitative verse consist of two syllables in which the first is pronounced for a longer duration than the second. Quantitative verse occurs most often in classical Greek and Latin poetry and is almost impossible to write in English. (ex. DOUBle, DOUBle TOIL and TROUBle; FIre BURN, and CALDron BUBble. SCALE of DRAGon; TOOTH of wolf; WITCHes' MUMMy; MAW and gulf... - Shakespeare's "Macbeth" Stressed syllables are capitalized while unstressed syllables are not. Though Shakespeare typically writes in iambic pentameter, he used trochaic meter to give an eerie and ominous feeling to the the spells he wrote for the witches in Macbeth. The backward stress pattern of trochees is effective not only for making the words of witches sound even more unearthly, but for giving them the kind of incantatory rhythm that is used in so many magic words, like HOcus POcus and Open SESame.)

*High Comedy*

A type of comedy characterized by witty dialogue, satire, biting humor, or criticism of life (ex. Some of the Comedies of William Shakespeare such as "The Merchant of Venice" addressed serious themes such as bigotry.)

*Conjunctions, coordinating*

A type of conjunction that connects two syntactically equal, and similarly constructed clauses, phrases, and words; it joins the elements which are similar in structure and importance (ex. I didn't know, nor did any of my family member seem to know, that the medicinal leaf my grandma burned was marijuana)

*Tragedy*

A type of drama that presents a serious subject matter about human suffering and corresponding terrible events in a dignified manner Greek Tragedies: Theme/Plot: Focused on a single theme and plot Character Origins: "Great" characters were mortals who were equal to gods in their significance Subject Matter: Serious, treated in a dignified manner Purpose/Objective: Religious teaching English Tragedies: Theme/Plot: Have several story lines developing at the same time into plots and sub-plots Character Origins: Heroes come from all walks of life Subject Matter: Mixed tragic with comic (Modern playwrights argue that such depiction is nearer to life as our life is a mixture of good and bad fortunes.) Purpose/Objective: Instructive of a religious or ethical issue, though their primary objective is to entertain. Shakespeare, the most popular of all playwrights, knew the Greek tragedy style well and he used several Greek themes but modified them to his own purpose. He intentionally violates the unity of action and mixes tragic actions with comical. Examples of tragedy written by Shakespeare include: Hamlet Othello King Lear Macbeth Antony and Cleopatra Troilus and Cressida

*Atmosphere*

A type of feeling that readers get from a narrative, based on details such as setting, background, objects, and foreshadowing; emotions or feelings an author conveys to his readers through description of objects and settings (ex. "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore - While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door - "Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door - Only this and nothing more." - The Raven by Edgar Allen Poe)

*Substitution/Anaclasis*

A type of inversion that involves the replacement of a prosodic element that is required or expected at a given place in a given meter by another which is more or less equivalent in temporal quantity (in Greek/Latin prosody); a type of inversion that involves the use within a metrical series of a foot (or silence) other than the prevailing foot of the series (in modern prosody); writing in regular meter and inserting a metrical foot that is not in that pattern (ex. "To be or not to be; that is the question." - "Hamlet" by Shakespeare In this example, Shakespeare was writing in iambic pentameter and used a trochee instead of an iamb in one of the lines, and hence, used inversion/substitution. There are five metrical feet in this line, four of which are iambs. Shakespeare breaks the iambic pattern with the emphasis on "that" rather than "is." This type of inversion is also known as substitution or anaclasis.)

*Poetry*

A type of literature based on the interplay of words and rhythm, often employing rhyme and meter (a set of rules governing the number and arrangement of syllables in each line), in which words are strung together to form sounds, images, and ideas that might be too complex or abstract to describe directly Types: 1. Haiku - A type of Japanese poem consisting of three unrhymed lines, with mostly five, seven, and five syllables in each line. 2. Free Verse - Consists of non-rhyming lines, without any metrical pattern, but which follow a natural rhythm. 3. Epic - A form of lengthy poem, often written in blank verse, in which poet shows a protagonist in action of historical significance, or a great mythic. 4. Ballad - A type of narrative poem in which a story often talks about folk or legendary tales. It may take the form of a moral lesson or a song. 5. Sonnet - It is a form of lyrical poem containing fourteen lines, with iambic pentameter and tone or mood changes after the eighth line. 6. Elegy - A melancholic poem in which the poet laments the death of a subject, though he gives consolation towards the end. 7. Epitaph - A small poem used as an inscription on a tombstone. 8. Hymn - This type of a poem praises spirituality or God's splendor. 9. Limerick - This is a type of humorous poem with five anapestic lines in which the first, second, and fifth lines have three feet, and the third and fourth lines have two feet, with a strict rhyme scheme of aabba. 10. Villanelle - A French styled poem with nineteen lines, composed of three-line stanza, with five tercets and a final quatrain. It uses refrain at the first and third lines of each stanza. (ex. "After the Sea-Ship—after the whistling winds; After the white-gray sails, taut to their spars and ropes, Below, a myriad, myriad waves, hastening, lifting up their necks, Tending in ceaseless flow toward the track of the ship: Waves of the ocean, bubbling and gurgling, blithely prying..." - After the Sea-Ship by Walt Whitman This poem neither has rhyming lines, nor does it adhere to a particular metrical plan. Hence, it is free of artificial expression. It has rhythm and a variety of rhetorical devices used for sounds, such as assonance and consonance.)

*Romantic Comedy*

A type of play which consists of love affair between the characters mainly protagonist, difficulties that arise due to the affairs, the struggle of the protagonist or other major characters to overcome these difficulties and the ending that is generally happy to everyone (ex. Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream")

*Imperfect Rhyme*

A type of rhyme formed by words with similar but not identical sounds In most instances, either the vowel segments are different while the consonants are identical, or vice versa. (ex. "Clothed in rainbows of living color Flashes of lightning, rolls of thunder" - Revelation Song by Jennie Lee Riddle)

*Triplets (Tercets)*

A unique stanza form in poetry that is a type of tercet, or three-lined stanza or poem, but is more specifically bound by rhyme scheme and sometimes meter than the tercet; a kind of tercet that follows specific rules ("bound verse"), following a set of pre-established patterns (ex. 'Whenas in silks my Julia goes, Then, then, methinks, how sweetly flows The liquefaction of her clothes. Next, when I cast mine eyes, and see That brave vibration, each way free, O, how that glittering taketh met' - 'Upon Julia's Clothes' by Robert Herrick The perfect rhymes of 'goes,' 'flows,' and 'clothes' in the first triplet only reinforce the smooth electricity of the exchange. This perfect rhyme scheme is the heart of the triplet because it traditionally follows the bound form of a, a, a. In the second triplet, 'see' and 'free' are also perfect rhymes. Herrick sets us up here for the third perfect rhyme, but when he breaks the triplet form with the stage-stopper, one syllable word of 'met,' we've climaxed to a dramatic conclusion.)

*Octave*

A verse form that contains eight lines, which usually appear in an iambic pentameter; any stanza in a poem that has eight lines and follows a rhymed or unrhymed meter (ex. When I consider how my light is spent Ere half my days in this dark world and wide, Lodg'd with me useless, though my soul more bent... "Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?" I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent... - Sonnet 16 by John Milton This is an example of octave, which is the first part of Italian sonnet that ends with a contrasting sestet. It commonly uses a metrical pattern of iambic pentameter, 5 iambs in each line, which is shown as underlined in the second last line.)

*Quatrains*

A verse with four lines, or even a full poem containing four lines, having an independent and separate theme, in which one line often consists of alternating rhyme, existing in a variety of forms Types: 1. Ballad Stanza - Its rhyme scheme is abab with iambic tetrameter. 2. Envelope Stanza - Its rhyme scheme is abba with iambic tetrameter. 3. Goethe Stanza - Its rhyme scheme is abab but no meter. 4. Italian Quatrain - Its rhyme scheme is abba with iambic pentameter. 5. Hymnal Quatrain - This multi stanza contains three alternating rhymes with iambic trimester and iambic tetrameter. Rhyme scheme is a4 b3 c4 b3. 6. Elegiac Stanza - This uses abab rhyme scheme with iambic pentameter. 7. Memoriam Stanza - This uses abba rhyme scheme with iambic tetrameter. (ex. "Hope is the thing with feathers That perches in the soul, And sings the tune without the words, And never stops at all..." - Hope is the Thing with Feathers by Emily Dickinson This entire poem is written in iambic trimeter pattern, and has three quatrains. However, it often adds a fourth stress at the end of the lines, such as in the fourth line of this stanza. This stanza loosely rhymes with rhythmical flow in abab pattern.)

*Adjectives*

A word or phrase naming an attribute, added to or grammatically related to a noun to modify or describe it (ex. blue, rapid, beautiful)

*Onomatopoeia*

A word which imitates the natural sounds of a thing and creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and interesting (ex. "Hark, hark! Bow-wow. The watch-dogs bark! Bow-wow. Hark, hark! I hear The strain of strutting chanticleer Cry, 'cock-a-diddle-dow!'" - The Tempest by Shakespeare)

*Apostrophe*

A writer or speaker speaks directly to someone who is not present or is dead, or speaks to an inanimate object (ex. "Is this a dagger which I see before me, The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee! I have thee not, and yet I see thee still." - Macbeth by Shakespeare)

*Terza Rima ("Third Rhyme")*

An Italian stanzaic form, used most notably by Dante Alighieri in Commedia (The Divine Comedy), consisting of tercets with interwoven rhymes (ABA BCB DED EFE, and so on), in which a concluding couplet rhymes with the penultimate line of the last tercet; stanzas of three lines (or tercets) usually in iambic pentameter following an interlocking rhyming scheme, or chain rhyme, where the middle of each stanza rhymes with the first and last line of the following stanza (ex. "O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn's being, Thou, from whose unseen presence the leaves dead Are driven, like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing, Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red, Pestilence-stricken multitudes: O thou, Who chariotest to their dark wintry bed The winged seeds, where they lie cold and low, Each like a corpse within its grave, until Thine azure sister of the Spring shall blow Her clarion o'er the dreaming earth, and fill (Driving sweet buds like flocks to feed in air) With living hues and odours plain and hill: Wild Spirit, which art moving everywhere; Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh hear!" - Ode to the West Wind (Part 1) by Percy Bysshe Shelley)

*Invocation*

An address to a deity or muse that often takes the form of a request for help in composing the poem at hand (inspiration) (ex. Tell me, Muse, of the man of many ways, who was driven far journeys, after he had sacked Troy's sacred citadel. Many were they whose cities he saw, whose minds he learned of, many the pains he suffered in his spirit on the wide sea, struggling for his own life and the homecoming of his companions. - Odyssey by Homer)

*Morality Plays*

An allegorical drama popular in Europe especially during the 15th and 16th centuries, in which the characters personify moral qualities (such as charity or vice) or abstractions (as death or youth) and in which moral lessons are taught; a type of allegory in which the protagonist is met by personifications of various moral attributes who try to prompt them to choose a good life over one of evil (ex. In Everyman, perhaps the archetypal morality play, the characters take on the common pattern, representing broader ideas. Some of the characters in Everyman are God, Death, Everyman, Good-Deeds, Angel, Knowledge, Beauty, Discretion, and Strength. The personified meanings of these characters are hardly hidden. The premise of Everyman is that God, believing that the people on earth are too focused on wealth and worldly possessions, sends Death to Everyman to remind him of God's power and the importance of upholding values. The emphasis put on morality, the seemingly vast difference between good and evil, and the strong presence of God makes Everyman one of the most concrete examples of a morality play. At the same time, most morality plays focus more on evil, while Everyman focuses more on good, highlighting sin in contrast.)

*Tone*

An attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience that is generally conveyed through the choice of words, or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject Every written piece comprises a central theme or subject matter. The manner in which a writer approaches this theme and subject is the tone. (ex. "All morons hate it when you call them a moron." "If a girl looks swell when she meets you, who gives a damn if she's late? Nobody." "******* money. It always ends up making you blue as hell." "Catholics are always trying to find out if you're Catholic." - Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger Holden Caulfield, in J. D. Salinger's Catcher in the Rye, unfolds his personality through the tone he adopts throughout the novel. Holden's tone is bitterly sarcastic as he criticizes the nature of things in real life. His character may reveal the attitude of the writer towards life, as it is common for writers to use their characters as their mouthpieces.)

*Catharsis in Tragedy*

An emotional discharge through which one can achieve a state of moral or spiritual renewal, or achieve a state of liberation from anxiety and stress; believed by Aristotle to be the ultimate end of a tragic artistic work (ex. In Oedipus Rex, a Greek tragedy, Oedipus unknowingly marries his mother. At the end of the play, when the tragic mistake has been revealed, Jacosta commits suicide and Oedipus gouges his eyes out. Both characters experience release. Jocasta, by seeking release in death; Oedipus by doing penance by gouging out his own eyes.)

*Dramatic Poetry*

An emotional piece of literature which includes a story which is recited or sung; a form of poetry where a story is narrated in the form of a lyrical ballad (ex. Paradise Lost by John Milton)

*Essay, Understatement in*

An essay is a short form of literary composition based on a single subject matter, and often gives the personal opinion of the author. Expository Essay - In an expository essay, the writer gives an explanation of an idea, theme, or issue to the audience by giving his personal opinions. This essay is presented through examples, definitions, comparisons, and contrast. Descriptive Essay - As it sounds, this type of essay gives a description about a particular topic, or describes the traits and characteristics of something or a person in detail. It allows artistic freedom, and creates images in the minds of readers through the use of the five senses. Narrative Essay - Narrative essay is non-fiction, but describes a story with sensory descriptions. The writer not only tells a story, but also makes a point by giving reasons. Persuasive Essay - In this type of essay, the writer tries to convince his readers to adopt his position or point of view on an issue, after he provides them solid reasoning in this connection. It requires a lot of research to claim and defend an idea. It is also called an argumentative essay. (ex. Descriptive Essay - "The Sacred Grove of Oshogbo" by Jeffrey Tayler) An understatement is a figure of speech employed by writers or speakers to intentionally make a situation seem less important than it really is. (ex. "I have to have this operation. It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain." - Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger)

*Parody*

An imitation of a particular writer, artist, or genre, exaggerating it deliberately to produce a comic effect The humorous effect in parody is achieved by imitating and overstressing noticeable features of a famous piece of literature, as in caricatures, where certain peculiarities of a person are highlighted to achieve a humorous effect. Parody mimics a subject directly (unlike satire) to produce a comical effect. (ex.Cervantes' Don Quixote is perhaps the ultimate example of genre parody. Cervantes' epic novel is a parody of the medieval romance genre of literature, in which a chivalrous knight goes on a heroic quest, often to win the heart of an impossibly beautiful maiden. The protagonist of Cervantes novel, Don Quixote de la Mancha, however, is a madman who battles with windmills he thinks are giants, confuse peasants for princesses, and gets himself into all sorts of absurd situations because he can't tell the difference between his fantasy world of knights and chivalry and the real world in which he lives. Don Quixote is a parody because it mocks the sentimental and overblown style of the romance, and exposes the genre's conventions. For instance, when Don Quixote mistakes an inn for a castle, the knight (along with the whole genre of medieval romance) is being cast as a subject of mockery: "And since whatever our adventurer thought, saw, or imagined seemed to him to be as it was in the books he'd read, as soon as he saw the inn he took it for a castle with its four towers and their spires of shining silver.")

*Verbs*

An important part of a sentence that describes an occurrence, a mental/physical action, or existence of a condition or a state (to exist, to be); a major part of a predicate in which a thought cannot convey a complete idea Types: 1. Action Verbs - These verbs express actions (walk, eat, give), or possession (own, have, etc.). Action verbs are of two types: Transitive Verbs - These always use direct objects, meaning the noun receives the action of a verb. Intransitive Verbs - These never use direct or indirect objects. 2. Linking Verbs - These verbs do not show action. Rather, they link a subject to a noun or an adjective that describes or renames the subject. This adjective or noun is called a "subject complement." 3. Helping Verbs - These verbs are known as "auxiliary verbs," and come before linking verbs, or action of the subject, and convey additional information about a possibility, such as "can" and "could," and about time, such as "has," "have," "was," "were," and "did," etc. 4. Modal Verbs - These verbs are types of helping or auxiliary verbs that express possibility, ability, obligation, or permission. These include may/might, shall/should, can/could, will/would, must/have. 5. Static and Dynamic Verbs - These verbs do not show action, but a state of being. For instance, "Katy feels ill today," or "She has a fever." However, dynamic verbs, contrary to static verbs, show an action, a process, or a sensation. For example, "He is chasing a bus." 6.. Regular and Irregular Verbs - Regular verbs express past tense or past participle by adding -d, -ed, or -t at the end of the verb. They are also known as "weak verbs." Irregular verbs, on the other hand, do not use common rules for verb forms. Usually, they do not have a predictable -ed ending. 7. Phrasal Verbs - These verbs do not exist as single words. They instead use combinations of two or more words intended to create a different meaning than the original meaning of the verb. For instance, "Sally handed in her homework on time." (ex. "Bailey WALKED behind the candy counter and LEANED on the cash register" - I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou)

*Dramatic Irony*

An important stylistic/plot device used for creating situations in which the audience knows more about the situations, the causes of conflicts, and their resolutions before the leading characters or actors (ex. "There's no art To find the mind's construction in the face: He was a gentleman on whom I built An absolute trust." - Macbeth by William Shakespeare In this case, Duncan says that he trusts Macbeth, not knowing about the prophecy of witches that Macbeth is going to be the king, and that he would kill him. The audience, on the other hand, knows about the prophecy. This demonstrates dramatic irony.)

*Cumulative Sentence*

An independent clause followed by a series of subordinate constructions (phrases or clauses) that gather details about a person, place, event, or idea; a "loose sentence," that starts with an independent clause or main clause, which is simple and straight, provides main idea, and then adds subordinate elements or modifiers after the subject and the predicate to put forth the main idea first, and provide details to elucidate the idea further thereafter (ex. "He dipped his hands in the bichloride solution and shook them--a quick shake, fingers down, like the fingers of a pianist above the keys" - Arrowsmith by Sinclair Lewis)

*Flashbacks*

An interruption of the chronological sequence (as of a film or literary work) of an event of earlier occurrence; interruptions that writers do to insert past events in order to provide context to the current events of a narrative, allowing their readers to gain insight into a character's motivations while providing a background to a current conflict (ex. Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman uses flashback to narrate Willy Loman's memories of the past. At one moment, Willy talks with his dead brother while playing cards with Charley. He relives a past conversation in the present. This demonstrates a character that is physically living in the present, but mentally living in the memories and events of the past.)

*Antinovels*

Any experimental work of fiction that avoids the familiar conventions of the novel, and instead establishes its own conventions (ex. Laurence Sterne's "Tristram Shandy," a seemingly autobiographical novel that barely makes it as far as the title character's birth thanks to numerous digressions and a rejection of linear chronology)

*Tropes*

Any type of figure of speech, theme, image, character, or plot element that is used many times; a figure of speech through which speakers or writers intend to express meanings of words differently than their literal meanings; a metaphorical or figurative use of words in which writers shift from the literal meanings of words to their non-literal meanings Some of its types include, irony, hyperbole, metaphor, allegory, litotes, pun, personification, simile, metonymy, and synecdoche. (ex. "The serpent that did sting thy father's life." - Hamlet by Shakespeare Metonymy is a type of trope in which an alternative name takes the place of the name of an original idea, while both are closely associated. As in William Shakespeare's Hamlet, we can find use of metonymy many times, such as the ghost of Hamlet's father referring to his assassin.)

*Voiceovers*

Audio recorded separately and added during editing; narration or dialogue, as in a movie, commercial, or documentary, spoken by an unseen narrator or an onscreen character not seen speaking (ex. In Herman Melville's Moby Dick (1956), Ishmael (Richard Basehart) narrates the story, and he sometimes comments on the action in voiceover, as does Joe Gillis (William Holden) in Sunset Boulevard (1950) and Eric Erickson (William Holden) in The Counterfeit Traitor (1962); adult Pip (John Mills) in Great Expectations (1946) and Michael York in its 1974 television remake.)

*Journal Articles Cited, MLA style in*

Author's Last Name, First Name. "Title of Article." Name of Journal, Volume, Issue, Date, Pages.

*Magazine Articles Cited, MLA style in*

Author's Last Name, First Name. "Title of Article." Name of Magazine, Date, Pages. (,URL. Accessed Day Month Year.)

*Newspaper Articles Cited, MLA style in*

Author's Last Name, First Name. "Title of Article." Name of Newspaper, Date, Pages (online: no pages, URL. Accessed Day Month Year)

*In-Text Documentation, MLA style on*

Author's last name and the page number(s) from which the quotation/paraphrase/summary is taken must appear in the text, and a complete reference should appear on your Works Cited page; alerts readers to the referencing of borrowed information

*Social Media Posts, in lists of works cited*

Author. "Full text of short untitled post" or "Title" or Descriptive label. Name of Site, Day Month Year, Time, URL.

*Senecan Tragedy*

Body of nine closet dramas (i.e., plays intended to be read rather than performed), written in blank verse by the Roman Stoic philosopher Seneca in the 1st century AD that were rediscovered by Italian humanists in the mid-16th century and became the models for the revival of tragedy on the Renaissance stage (influenced French neoclassical tragedy and Elizabethan tragedy) (ex. Gorboduc by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville)

*Characterization*

Characterization is the process through which an author reveals a character's personality. With direct characterization, the author will tell you in precise words what the character is like. Indirect characterization is a little bit more subtle. It's not something we learn straight away in one, short passage. There are five ways a writer might reveal someone's character indirectly: actions, effects, looks, speech, and thoughts. (ex. Cathy was chewing a piece of meat, chewing with her front teeth. Samuel had never seen anyone chew that way before. And when she had swallowed, her little tongue flicked around her lips. Samuel's mind repeated, "Something—something—can't find what it is. Something wrong," and the silence hung on the table. - East of Eden by John Steinbeck)

*Speech Headings ("Stage Directions")*

Descriptions of characters' vocal tones or gestures as they speak a line; an instruction in the text of a play, especially one indicating the movement, position, or tone of an actor, or the sound effects and lighting (Although the plays of Shakespeare and probably most other playwrights are really meant to be viewed rather than read, for modern students of the plays, stage directions give us a better understanding of what's happening on the stage. If modern readers did not have stage directions, how would we know that a character is supposed to speak angrily, wave their hands, be carrying an object, etc., unless an actor's words revealed these things? Sometimes a gesture can be deduced from an actor's words, as when King Lear gives Kent a crown ("This coronet part betwixt you"), but many times a reader would not know unless there were a stage direction, as in this remark and gesture by King Lear: O, vassal! miscreant! Laying his hand on his sword If it were not for the stage direction, the reader would not immediately know that Lear was angered to the point of doing violence.)

*Revenge Tragedy*

Drama in which the dominant motive is revenge for a real or imagined injury that was a favorite form of English tragedy in the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras and found its highest expression in William Shakespeare's Hamlet In a revenge tragedy the hero has suffered a great wrong, usually the murder of someone he loves, and the plot is driven by his desire for revenge. At the end of the play, the hero murders the person who has wronged him, and typically the hero also dies. (ex. "Hamlet" by Shakespeare turns revenge tragedy on its head by taking away the usual obstacles to the hero's vengeance. In a typical revenge tragedy like "The Spanish Tragedy," the hero faces two obstacles: to find out who the murderers are, and then to get himself into a position where he can kill them. In Hamlet, the hero learns the identity of his father's murderer at the end of Act I, and he's in a position to kill Claudius from the very beginning. No character thwarts him in his desire for revenge, and, living in the same palace as his nemesis, he has many chances to enact his plot. Hamlet's only real obstacle is in his head: he is uncertain what he should believe and how he should act. By making the obstacles to Hamlet's revenge internal, Shakespeare introduces philosophical questions to the revenge tragedy which had not appeared in the genre before. Can we believe the evidence of our eyes? Is revenge justified? Can we predict the consequences of our actions? What happens when we die? Shakespeare pokes fun at the traditional heroes of revenge tragedy. Unlike Hamlet, Laertes is ready to rush to his revenge, but Claudius is easily able to manipulate him and Laertes ends up begging forgiveness from the man he wanted to murder. By making traditional revenge tragedies look ridiculous, Shakespeare shows us that the troubling philosophical doubt of Hamlet is more realistic than the passion and fury of plays like The Spanish Tragedy.)

*Absurdist Drama*

Drama that emphasizes the absurdity of human existence by employing meaningless dialogue, confusing situations, and unrealistic or illogical plot development (ex. Albert Camus's essay "The Myth of Sisyphus")

*Restoration Drama*

Drama that occurred during the return of the monarchy to England after something more than a decade of Puritan rule; plays and performances in the period following the restoration of Charles II, when the theaters reopened, reflecting the laxity of Court morals through broad satire, farce, wit, and bawdy comedy (ex. The Country Wife, by William Wycherley, was first performed in 1675. It depicts Horner, a man pretending to be impotent in order to have affairs with married women unbeknownst to their husbands, and Margery Pinchwife, a young, innocent "country wife" who is inexperienced in the ways of London. The Country Wife is based on several plays by the French playwright Moliere, but Wycherly wrote in a contemporary prose style, whereas Moliere's plays were written in verse. From 1753 and 1924, The Country Wife was considered too explicit for stage performance but is now regarded as a classic work of the stage.)

*Modern Drama*

Drama that tended to focus not on kings and heroes, but instead on ordinary people dealing with everyday problems and often dealt with the sense of alienation and disconnectedness that average people felt in the Modernist Period (1845-1945) (ex. Modern drama is often said to start with Henrik Ibsen and, in particular, his 1879 play about the travails of an upper-class housewife. Set in Ibsen's native Norway, A Doll's House focuses on Nora, a typical housewife married to the successful banker Torvald. Despite having a seemingly perfect life on the surface, Nora feels unfulfilled and comes to realize she and Torvald do not really know each other. The play ends with Nora leaving Torvald, possibly forever. The play is considered the beginning of modern drama for many reasons, starting with the fact that it focuses on a character that previously would have been thought not important enough for drama: an average housewife. By dramatizing Nora's conflict between her inner desire and what she has been taught to want, Ibsen argues that average people, and their seemingly trivial problems, are as important as Oedipus or Hamlet. The play is also modern in the way it portrays Nora's feeling of alienation. She has everything society has told her she should want, but still feels unfulfilled. The play generated extreme controversy at the time it was written for seeming to question these societal norms.)

*Theater of the Absurd*

Dramatic works of certain European and American dramatists of the 1950s and early '60s who agreed with the Existentialist philosopher Albert Camus's assessment, in his essay "The Myth of Sisyphus" (1942), that the human situation is essentially absurd, devoid of purpose; a literary movement in drama popular throughout European countries from the 1940s - 1989 in which Absurdist playwrights adhered to the theories of French-Algerian philosopher Albert Camus's "The Myth of Sisyphus," which introduced a "Philosophy of the Absurd" arguing that man's quest for meaning and truth is a futile endeavor (compared man's struggle to understand the world and the meaning of life to Sisyphus, a famous figure in Greek Mythology condemned to an existence of rolling a heavy stone up a mountain only to watch it roll to the bottom) Theater of the Absurd is characterized by a pessimistic vision of humanity struggling vainly to find a purpose and to control its fate. Humankind in this view is left feeling hopeless, bewildered, and anxious. (ex. Samuel Beckett is without a doubt the father of the absurd. Not only did his prolific career as a playwright and novelist cement his reputation as the most prominent voice of the genre, but he also helped popularize the movement's oft-challenging vision. "Waiting for Godot" centers around two tramps, Vladimir and Estragon, as they wait for a mysterious figure name Godot (pronounced God-oh) and pass the time by desperately breaking the silence with shrewd, quick-witted dialogue.)

*English Medieval Drama*

During Medieval times most plays were religious and were used to teach people about the Bible, the lives of saints, or how to live your life the right way. There were three different types of plays preformed during medieval times; The Mystery Play, the Miracle Play and the Morality Play. Mystery plays were stories taken from the Bible. Each play had four or five different scenes or acts. The priests and monks were the actors. Each scene or act was preformed at a different place in town and the people moved from one stage to the next to watch the play. The play usually ended outside the church so that the people would go to church and hear a sermon after watching the play. The Miracle play was about the life or actions of a saint, usually about the actions that made that person a saint. One popular Miracle play was about Saint George and the dragon. Morality plays were designed to teach people a lesson in how to live their life according to the rules of the church. . (ex. Morality Play - Everyman)

*Elizabethan Drama*

Elizabeth I was a powerful, resolute monarch who returned England to Protestantism, quelled a great deal of internal turmoil, and unified the nation. She was also a avid supporter of the arts which sparked a surge of activity in the theater. During her reign, some playwrights were able to make a comfortable living by receiving royal patronage. Although women were not allowed onstage, they did attend performances and often made up a substantial part of the audience. Because of the perceived bad influence of the theaters, the Puritans were vocally opposed to them and succeeded in shutting them down in 1642. Some of the most important playwrights come from the Elizabethan era, including William Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and Christopher Marlowe. These playwrights wrote plays that were patterned on numerous previous sources, including Greek tragedy, Seneca's plays, Attic drama, English miracle plays, morality plays, and interludes. Elizabethan tragedy dealt with heroic themes, usually centering on a great personality who is destroyed by his own passion and ambition. The comedies often satirized the fops and gallants of society. (ex. Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet")

*Blocking of Asides*

Ensuring that the aside is audible to the audience while maintaining the illusion that it is inaudible to the other characters present

*Hubris*

Extreme pride and arrogance shown by a character, which ultimately brings about his downfall; a typical flaw in the personality of a character who enjoys a powerful position and overestimates his capabilities to such an extent that he loses contact with reality A character suffering from hubris tries to cross normal human limits, and violates moral codes. Examples of hubris are found in major characters of tragic plays. (ex. "Victor" the protagonist of Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein" exhibits hubris in his endeavor to become an unmatched scientist. He creates a "monster" named "Frankenstein" which ultimately becomes the cause of his disaster.)

*Latinate Diction*

Formal diction; words that hike up your reading level and slow down your audience

*Multivolume Works Cited, MLA style in*

Give the volume and the page number(s) in parentheses, separated by a colon and a space

*Sentence Fragments*

Groups of words that never have independent clauses, but instead are dependent clauses or phrases and don't form a complete thought (ex. "When we got in the car" in "When we got in the car. We rolled down the windows.")

*Vehicles of Metaphors and Similes*

In a metaphorical statement, the object of the tenor--i.e., the imagined thing to which the speaker compares the real-world object; the image that carries the weight of the comparison (ex. All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players. - Shakespeare's "As You Like It" In this example, the world is the primary subject, and it gains attributes from the stage (ie, from theater). Thus, in the binary pairs, the world is the "tenor," the "ground," and the "target," while the stage is the "vehicle," the "figure," and the "source.")

*Feminine Ending*

In prosody, a line of verse having an unstressed and usually extrametrical syllable at its end (ex. Back out of all this now too much for us, Back in a time made simple by the loss Of detail, burned, dissolved, and broken off Like graveyard marble sculpture in the weather, There is a house that is no more a house Upon a farm that is no more a farm And in a town that is no more a town. - Directive by Robert Frost The fourth line has a feminine ending while the rest are masculine.)

*Eighteenth-Century Drama*

In the 18th century, the highbrow and provocative Restoration comedy lost favor, to be replaced by sentimental comedy, domestic tragedy, and by an overwhelming interest in Italian opera. Popular entertainment became more dominant in this period than ever before. Fair-booth burlesque and musical entertainment, the ancestors of the English music hall, flourished at the expense of legitimate English drama. By the early 19th century, few English dramas were being written, except for closet drama, plays intended to be presented privately rather than on stage. (ex. Domestic Tragedy - George Lillo's "The London Merchant")

*Anapestic Trimeter*

In this meter, there are three metrical anapestic feet, each of three syllables, giving each line nine total syllables (ex. "So easy a caveman can do it."—GEICO)

*Complete Predicate*

Includes all of the words that tell the reader what the subject is or does: the main verb, helping verbs, modifiers, and all of the words that complete its meaning (ex. We will dry ourselves off after swimming - What will we do? We will dry ourselves off after swimming. Will dry ourselves off after swimming is the complete predicate.)

*Verbal Irony*

Irony that occurs when a speaker speaks something contradictory to what he intends to say; occurs when a character uses a statement with underlying meanings that contrast with its literal meaning; an intentional product of the speaker, and is contradictory to his/her emotions and actions Writers rely on the audience's intelligence for discerning the hidden meanings they intend to convey. Writers also use ironic similes to convey exactly the opposite of what they intend to say, such as "soft as concrete." (ex. "She is tolerable but not handsome enough to tempt me." - Pride & Prejudice by Jane Austen We can find many fine examples of verbal irony in Pride and Prejudice. In this example, we relish ironic flavor of Darcy's statement, as we later find out that the woman he found unsuitable to dance with, ends up taking a place in his heart.)

*Concrete Language*

Language describing objects or events that are available to the senses; words that have tangible, qualities or characteristics (ex. To excel in college, you'll need to do go to every class; do all your reading before you go; write several drafts of each paper; and review your notes for each class weekly)

*Formal Language*

Language designed for use in situations in which natural language is unsuitable; language that is dignified and are not said in everyday conversations (ex. "request" instead of "ask for")

*Website Resources Cited, MLA style in*

Last Name, First Name, role. Title of Site. Publisher, Date, URL. Accessed Day Month Year.

*Letters as Work Cited, MLA style in*

Letter Writer's Last Name, First Name. Letter to First and Last Names. Day Month Year. Title of Book, edited by First and Last Names, Publisher, Year of publication, Pages.

*Verisimilitude*

Likeness to the truth, such as the resemblance of a fictitious work to a real event, even if it is a far-fetched one, ensuring that even a fantasy must be rooted in reality--that events should be plausible to the extent that readers consider them credible enough to be able to relate them somehow to their experiences of real life The theory of verisimilitude leads to the idea of "suspension of disbelief," or "willing suspension of disbelief," a term coined in 1817 by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. He was of the opinion that, if a writer was able to fill his work with a "human interest and a semblance of truth," the readers would willingly suspend or delay their judgment in relation to the doubtfulness of a narrative. (ex. "I didn't want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn't like it; but now I took to it again because pap hadn't no objections ... But by-and-by pap got too handy with his hick'ry, and I could't stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too, and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome." - Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain Mark Twain in his popular Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Twain used Black American vernacular to show realistically how the Black Americans talked in real life. Twain successfully achieves verisimilitude - or a resemblance to reality - by introducing colloquialism in his narrative. The use of double negatives is quite evident in the above passage.)

*Fiction*

Literature in the form of prose, especially novels, that describes imaginary events and people and contains certain symbolic and thematic features known as "literary merits" (narrates a story--comments on something significant related to social, political, or human related issues--rather than merely telling a story (ex. "Pride and Prejudice" by Jane Austen is one of the most famous English novels. Unlike the previous example, this story is set in a real-life-like setting. All characters are humans, and no magical or strange events take place in this novel. All of the characters, and the entire story is a made-up narrative, each element the product of Jane Austen's imagination. She not only presents the issues of the contemporary life faced by middle class families, but also daily preoccupations of the common people. The novel presents a good fiction of actual life of nineteenth century.)

*In Medias Res*

Narrating a story from the middle after supposing that the audiences are aware of past events; the practice of beginning an epic or other narrative by plunging into a crucial situation that is part of a related chain of events, where the author then freely moves backward and forward at his leisure, connecting the dots of the story (all the explanations regarding the significance of setting, plot, characters and the minutiae of the story are gradually revealed in the form of a character's dialogues or thoughts, or flashbacks) (ex. "Tell me, O muse, of that ingenious hero who travelled far and wide after he had sacked the famous town of Troy. Many cities did he visit, and many were the nations with whose manners and customs he was acquainted; moreover he suffered much by sea while trying to save his own life and bring his men safely home; but do what he might he could not save his men, for they perished through their own sheer folly in eating the cattle of the Sun-god Hyperion; so the god prevented them from ever reaching home. Tell me, too, about all these things, O daughter of Jove, from whatsoever source you may know them." - Odyssey by Homer The point of action does not start with the fall of Troy. Instead, it begins spontaneously with the details of Odysseus being held captive on the island of Ogygiya by the nymph Calypso where he was for the past seven years.)

*Mystery Plays*

One of three principal kinds of vernacular drama in Europe during the Middle Ages (along with the miracle play and the morality play), focusing on the representation of Bible stories in churches as tableaux with accompanying antiphonal song while telling of subjects such as the Creation, Adam and Eve, the murder of Abel, and the Last Judgment (ex. Chester Mystery Plays)

*Heroic Couplets*

Paired, rhyming lines of poetry (usually iambic pentameter) found in epic or long narrative English poetry and translations Heroic couplets are always rhymed; usually in iambic pentameter; usually closed, meaning that both lines are end-stopped (by some type of punctuation), and the lines are a self-contained grammatical unit; and requires a heroic setting. (ex. And he bigan with right a myrie cheere His tale anon, and seyde as ye may heere. - Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales," an epic, heroic tale 1. Couplet? Yes. This is a pair of closed lines. 2. Rhyme/meter? Yes. The rhymed lines are in iambic pentameter. 3. Heroic? These lines are from the General Prologue of Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales," an epic, heroic tale.)

*Closed Form of Poetry*

Poetry that follows a regular or prescribed pattern of rhyme, rhythm/meter, line length, or stanza division (ex. The red blossom bends (5) and drips its dew to the ground. (7) Like a tear it falls (5) - The Rose by Donna Brock)

*Open form verse ("Free Verse")*

Poetry that rejects the organization and structure found in traditional poetry such as sonnets and haiku and does not follow patterns of lines, meter, rhymes, and stanzas; poetry that does not follow a regular, predictable pattern of rhyme, rhythm/meter, or line length and relies more on natural speech rhythms (ex. I celebrate myself, and sing myself, And what I assume you shall assume, For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you. I loafe and invite my soul, I lean and loafe at my ease observing a spear of summer grass. - "Song of Myself" by Walt Whitman Walt Whitman was one of the early masters of free verse in the English language, and inspired a myriad of poets after him. In this famous example of free verse, "Song of Myself," Whitman employs several other poetic techniques such as frequent repetition and unique turns of phrase. In just this short excerpt we can see the repetition of several words—"myself," "assume," and "loafe"—as well as the anaphora of beginning several lines with the word "I." Whitman is able to create his own poetic form even while shedding previous notions of form behind him.)

*Syllabic Meter*

Poetry whose meter is determined by the total number of syllables per line, rather than the number of stresses; a poetic form having a fixed or constrained number of syllables per line, while stress, quantity, or tone play a distinctly secondary role — or no role at all — in the verse structure (ex. In my craft or sullen art Exercised in the still night When only the moon rages And the lovers lie abed With all their griefs in their arms, I labour by singing light Not for ambition or bread Or the strut and trade of charms On the ivory stages But for the common wages Of their most secret heart. - Dylan Thomas's "In my Craft or Sullen Art" The poem has seven syllables in each line (except the last), but no consistent stress pattern. Because of its consistent short lines marked with end-rhyme, these lines could conceivably be heard as 7-syllable groups by a listener; however, they would be more likely to be perceived as (usually) 3-stress lines.)

*End Rhyme ("Tail Rhyme")*

Rhymes that occur in the final words of lines of poetry End rhyme does not require that two subsequent lines rhyme with each other. Rather, it just requires that rhymes occur in some pattern in the last word of some number of lines of poetry. A poem that alternates rhymes in the last word of every other line is still using end-rhyme. (ex. Bid me to weep, and I will weep While I have eyes to see And having none, yet I will keep A heart to weep for thee - To Anthea, who may Command him Anything by Robert Herrick)

*Formal Satire*

Satire that involves a direct, first-person-address, either to the audience or to a listener mentioned within the work who will possibly sympathize with their view (ex. Alexander Pope's Moral Essays)

*Order of Details*

Series of deliberate choices that the author makes in the course of drafting and revising a literary work

*Rising Meters*

Term used to describe end-stressed meters such as iambic and anapestic - as opposed to falling meter; meter containing metrical feet that move from unstressed to stressed syllables (ex. When I / consid / er how / my light / is spent - John Milton)

*Greek Drama, Ancient*

The Ancient Greeks took their entertainment very seriously and used drama as a way of investigating the world they lived in, and what it meant to be human. The three genres of drama were comedy, satyr plays, and most important of all, tragedy. Comedy: The first comedies were mainly satirical and mocked men in power for their vanity and foolishness. (ex. Menander wrote comedies about ordinary people and made his plays more like sit-coms.) Tragedy: Tragedy dealt with the big themes of love, loss, pride, the abuse of power and the fraught relationships between men and gods. Typically the main protagonist of a tragedy commits some terrible crime without realizing how foolish and arrogant he has been. Then, as he slowly realizes his error, the world crumbles around him. The three great playwrights of tragedy were Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Aristotle argued that tragedy cleansed the heart through pity and terror, purging us of our petty concerns and worries by making us aware that there can be nobility in suffering. He called this experience 'catharsis'. (ex. Oedipus Rex by Sophocles) Satyr Plays: These short plays were performed between the acts of tragedies and made fun of the plight of the tragedy's characters. The satyrs were mythical half-human, half-goat figures and actors in these plays wore large phalluses for comic effect. Few examples of these plays survive. They are classified by some authors as tragicomic, or comedy dramas. (ex. Cyclops by Euripides)

*Point of View*

The angle of considering things, which shows us the opinion or feelings of the individuals involved in a situation; the mode of narration that an author employs to let the readers "hear" and "see" what takes place in a story, poem, or essay; a reflection of the opinion an individual from real life or fiction has Three Major Types: 1. First person point of view involves the use of either of the two pronouns "I" or "we." (ex. "I felt like I was getting drowned with shame and disgrace.") 2. Second person point of view employs the pronoun "you." (ex. "Sometimes you cannot clearly discern between anger and frustration.") 3. Third person point of view uses pronouns like "he," "she," "it," "they," or a name. (ex. "Stewart is a principled man. He acts by the book and never lets you deceive him easily.") (ex. "I have of late, — but wherefore I know not, — lost all my mirth, forgone all custom of exercises; and indeed, it goes so heavily with my disposition that this goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a sterile promontory." - Hamlet by Shakespeare This is one of the best first-person point of view examples in literature. The use of first-person point of view gives us a glimpse into the real inner feelings of frustration of the character. The writer has utilized the first-person point of view to expose Hamlet's feelings in a detailed way.)

*Villain*

The bad guy (one of the archetype characters in many stories), the one who comes up with diabolical plots to somehow cause harm or ruin Types: 1. Traitor: This villain betrays the ones who trusted him or her. 2. Patriarch/Matriarch: These warped villains see themselves as the head of the family or group. 3. Tyrant: This villainous leader takes no guff from anyone - do as you're told or pay the price. 4. Outcast: Shunned and exiled from the community, this villain is getting revenge. 5. Devil: True evil at its worst, the devil villain has no good side. 6. Evil genius: Highly intelligent, this villain sees him/herself as superior to all others. 7. Schemer: This villain loves making diabolical plans and carrying them out. 8. Lunatic: Just plain crazy, this villain may not have any real motivation but the crazy conspiracies he or she "sees." 9. Fanatic: This villain takes strong beliefs to the max, truly believing that he or she is doing what's best for all. Villains are an important component in any work of literature. Without the villain, we wouldn't see how good the hero is; we wouldn't understand the dangers and conflict a community or person is facing, and we wouldn't have someone to hate and blame for all the problems. The villain is the foil of the hero - his/her evil ways bring out the goodness of the hero, making the hero's traits stand out, just as the hero's goodness is a foil for the villain's evilness. (ex. Iago in "Othello" by Shakespeare: Iago, the scoundrel, hates Othello so much that he tricks him into believing that his wife is having an affair with his Lieutenant. The sneaky devil plans a vendetta against him, driving Othello to kill his own wife. Noted as one of Shakespeare's most sinister villains, Iago possesses carefully nurtured qualities of deception and manipulation. You might not shake in terror if you met him in a dark alley, but if you've wronged him, you'd pay.)

*Simple Predicate*

The basic word or words that explain what specific action the subject of the sentence is doing; a verb or verb phrase that doesn't give any more information about the verb or verb phrase, which is why the predicate is considered "simple" (ex. "In the late summer of that year we lived in a house in a village that looked across the river and the plain to the mountains." - Ernest Hemingway's "A Farewell to Arms" The simple predicate in the example is "we lived.")

*Protagonist*

The central character or leading figure in poetry, narrative, novel or any other story (sometimes a "hero" to the audience or readers) (ex. Protagonist examples in many stories are not shown to be flawless. They generally undergo some change that causes a turn of events. This makes a story interesting and helps deliver a message. Sometimes, a moral weakness shows that causes the fall of the protagonist. For example, in William Shakespeare's play Hamlet, the protagonist experiences terrible events because of his indecisiveness, which troubles him while murdering his evil uncle. So, Hamlet's struggle in dealing with the antagonist is what precedes the story.)

*Detail Selection and Order*

The details that the author reveals for the purpose of adding to the desired dominant impression (based on what they tell the reader about the person, place or thing being described) DETAILS are the bits of factual information (about setting, character, action, etc.) that help the reader understand better. Sometimes, DETAILS carry connotation. DETAIL is typically more straightforward than IMAGERY. Where IMAGERY shows, DETAILS more frequently tell. Why did the author choose to include/mention certain facts? What detail is left out or not mentioned specifically? (ex. "I walked out into the desert...I thought I was the only one here." DETAIL in the passage vividly portrays the actions and reactions of both the man and the snake.)

*Quantitative Meter*

The dominant metrical system in Classical Greek and Italian poetry, in which the rhythm depends not on the number of stresses, but on the length of time it takes to utter a line, which depends on whether a syllable is long or short—a distinction that is harder to hear in English pronunciation (ex. Unhappy verse, the witness of my unhappy state, Make thy self flutt'ring wings of thy fast flying Thought, and fly forth unto my love, wheresoever she be: Whether lying restless in heavy bed, or else Sitting so cheerless at the cheerful board, or else Playing alone careless on her heavenly virginals. If in bed, tell her, that my eyes can take no rest: If at board, tell her, that my mouth can eat no meat: If at her virginals, tell her, I can hear no mirth. Asked why? say: waking love suffereth no sleep: Say that raging love doth appal the weak stomach: Say, that lamenting love marreth the musical. Tell her, that her pleasures were wont to lull me asleep: Tell her, that her beauty was wont to feed mine eyes: Tell her, that her sweet tongue was wont to make me mirth. Now do I nightly waste, wanting my kindly rest: Now do I daily starve, wanting my lively food: Now do I always die, wanting thy timely mirth. And if I waste, who will bewail my heavy chance? And if I starve, who will record my cursed end? And if I die, who will say: "This was Immerito"? - Iambicum Trimetrum by Edmund Spenser)

*Jacobean Drama*

The drama of the age of James-I (1603-1625), a period that was a dark form of the drama of Shakespeare and his contemporaries since no dramatist could come near Shakespeare and there was a decline in drama (due to change in patrons, lack of genius, and poor characterization) (ex. The Revenger's Tragedy by Thomas Middleton)

*Stressed Syllables*

The emphasis that falls on certain syllables and not others The arrangement of stresses within a poem is the foundation of poetic rhythm. The process of working out which syllables in a poem are stressed is known as scansion; once a metrical poem has been scanned, it should be possible to see the meter. (ex. "So. The SPEAR-danes in DAYS gone BY And the KINGS who RULED them had COUrage and GREATness. We have HEARD of those PRINces' herOic camPAIGNS." - Beowulf translated by Seamus Heaney Seamus Heaney paid much attention to the rhythm of the original Old English when creating his translation of Beowulf. This rhythm example comes from the very opening of the poem, and already it establishes a very sing-song like pattern. All three lines open with an anapest ("So the SPEAR," "And the KINGS," and "We have HEARD"). The lines generally have two unstressed syllables between stressed syllables, creating a waltz-like rhythm.)

*Subject of Sentence*

The first part in a sentence about which the second part, the predicate, tells something; the thing that performs an action, or indicates what or whom the sentence is about Types: 1. Simple Subject - In a simple subject, either a noun or a pronoun does the action. Unlike a complete subject, it does not need descriptive words or modifiers, but only the main noun or pronoun. (ex. "Superman saved the people." Here, "Superman" is a simple subject.) 2. Complete Subject - A complete subject is the main word in the sentence, along with the modifiers (often adjectives) that describe it. To determine a complete subject, see all the words modifying it. (ex. "The wise and beautiful woman fell into cold water." In this sentence, "the wise and beautiful woman" is a complete subject because "woman" did an action, "fell." The words coming before "woman" are modifiers, which have described the woman.) 3. Compound Subject - A compound subject is a combination of two or more subjects within a sentence. (ex. "THE GIRL AND HER MOTHER are planning holidays." The capitalized part is a compound subject containing two nouns "girl" and "mother," and includes the connector "and." This is a compound subject because the girl and her mother are doing the action together.) (ex. "The king and queen make a progress to the frontiers. The author attends them. The manner in which he leaves the country very particularly related. He returns to England." - Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift In this example, Swift has used a compound subject appearing at the beginning of the sentence. This compound subject is a combination of two nouns "king" and "queen," which are connected by "and.")

*Voice*

The form or a format through which narrators tell their stories and is prominent when a writer places himself herself into words, providing a sense that the character is real person while conveying a specific message the writer intends to convey; an author's individual writing style or point of view; a unique personality of a literary work Types: 1. Author's Voice - Author's voice is the writer's particular style, which he employs in a particular story, or piece of writing. 2. Character's Voice - A character's voice is the voice of the main character, how he views the world. It is a common narrative voice used with first and third person points of view. Here, the author uses a conscious person as a narrator in the story. (ex. Edgar Allan Poe's short story The Tell-Tale Heart is an example of first‑person unreliable narrative voice, which is significantly unknowledgeable, biased, childish, and ignorant, which purposefully tries to deceive the readers. As the story proceeds, readers notice the voice is unusual, characterized by starts and stops. The character directly talks to the readers, showing a highly exaggerated and wrought style. It is obvious that the effectiveness of this story relies on its style, voice, and structure, which reveal the diseased state of mind of the narrator.)

*Cosmic Irony ("Irony of Fate")*

The idea that some God or gods (like the Fates), or superior being is intentionally creating ironic situations in the lives and minds of humans; the idea that human fate and destiny is controlled by outside forces, even gods, who do not care about humans or their hopes and dreams (ex. Ancient Greeks believed that the Greek gods would toy/play with human desire and emotion)

*Complex Sentences*

The joining of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses; a sentence consisting of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses (ex. John left when his sister arrived)

*Coordination*

The joining of words, phrases, or clauses of the same type to give them equal emphasis and importance (ex. [The chicken] and [the rice] go well together)

*Sentences*

The largest grammatically independent unit, having a subject and a verb, and expressing a complete thought or an idea A sentence start with a capital letter, and ends with a punctuation mark, such as a period, an exclamation mark, or a question mark. Types: 1. Declarative Sentence: uses a simple statement instead of an exclamation, a question, or a command, in which the subject comes before the verb, and a period comes at the end (ex. "We have meat stored in the refrigerator because it is very hot outside.") 2. Interrogative Sentence: uses an interrogation or a question and hence, ends with an interrogation mark while using inversion, which is a reversal of the word order, where subject comes after the verb (ex. "Have you taken your breakfast this morning?") 3. Imperative Sentence: gives instructions or advice, or expresses a command or request, starting with the basic form of a verb and ending with an exclamation mark or a period (ex. "Give me liberty or give me death!") 4. Exclamatory Sentence: the main clause expresses strong emotions or feelings, with an exclamation mark, also referred to as an "exclamation point," at the end (ex. "Whoa, it's alive! It's alive!") (ex. "But to say I know more harm in him than in myself, were to say more than I know. That he is old, the more the pity, his white hairs do witness it; but that he is, saving your reverence, a whoremaster, that I utterly deny." - Richard IV by William Shakespeare This excerpt is an example of a declarative but complex sentence, as you can see Shakespeare has used simple statements. There are two complex declarative sentences. The first one starts with "But," and the second (in the second line) starts with "That.")

*Mixed Metaphors*

The linking of two or more disparate elements, which can result in an unintentionally comic effect produced by the writer's insensitivity to the literal meaning of words or by the falseness of the comparison; a succession of incongruous or ludicrous comparisons; when someone combines two unrelated metaphors (ex. "Driving down the dangerous terrains of Guatemala was nothing but playing with fire in the belly." This is a mixed metaphor example in literature where driving has been compared with fire in the metaphorical sense. Take a sample - "Jenny was pretty cool the day before the Chemistry paper. She is weak in Chemistry and was never good at it. Jenny has topped the subject now. Needless to say, her aunt was her Chemistry teacher. I smell a rat for sure!" Here, "I smell a rat" is an instance of a mixed metaphor example in literature, where relating the "smelling a rat" to an instance has no logical relation.)

*Epiphany*

The moment in the story where a character achieves realization, awareness, or a feeling of knowledge, after which events are seen through the prism of this new light in the story (ex. All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others. - Animal Farm by George Orwell Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an epiphany that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WWI. The use of Epiphany in the novel allows Orwell to make his position clear about the Russian Revolution and expose its evils.)

*Telling*

The narrative evokes in readers the impression that they are told about the events (rather than showing, in which the narrative evokes in readers the impression that they are shown the events of the story or that they somehow witness them) Using a spatial metaphor, the showing mode is also called a narrative with "small distance," presumably because readers get the impression that they are somehow near the events of the story, while the telling mode correspondingly evokes the impression of a "large distance" between readers and the events. (ex. Telling: Michael was terribly afraid of the dark. Showing: As his mother switched off the light and left the room, Michael tensed. He huddled under the covers, gripped the sheets, and held his breath as the wind brushed past the curtain.)

*Limited Point of View of Third-Person Narrator*

The narrator only knows the thoughts and feelings of one character, so all characters are described using pronouns, such as 'they', 'he', and 'she,' but one character is closely followed throughout the story (typically a main character) (ex. It was almost December, and Jonas was beginning to be frightened. No. Wrong word, Jonas thought. Frightened meant that deep, sickening feeling of something terrible about to happen. Frightened was the way he had felt a year ago when an unidentified aircraft had overflown the community twice. He had seen it both times. Squinting toward the sky, he had seen the sleek jet, almost a blur at its high speed, go past, and a second later heard the blast of sound that followed. Then one more time, a moment later, from the opposite direction, the same plane. - The Giver by Lois Lowry)

*Selection and Order of Details*

The nature and specificity of the details in a work, as well as their order in which they appear (ex. "All night at the ice plant he had fed the chute its silvery blocks, and then I stacked cases of orange soda for the children of Kentucky, one gray boxcar at a time with always two more waiting. We were twenty for such a short time and always in the wrong clothes, crusted with dirt and sweat. I think now we were never twenty." The narrator's recollection of factory work that he and another young man did stresses their youth at the time, expresses the drudgery and tedious work, and indicates that it robbed them of their youth and lightheartedness.)

*Alliteration*

The occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words (ex. She sells seashells by the sea-shore)

*Antagonist*

The opposing force that brings conflict and is instrumental in the development of the protagonist, or main character (ex. In "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde," author Robert Louis Stevenson explores the theme of doppelganger in which Hyde is not only an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll, but his antagonist. Jekyll creates Hyde by a series of scientific experiments in order to prove his statement: "Man is not truly one, but truly two," indicating that a human soul is a mixture of evil and good.)

*Structure*

The organizational method of the written material; arrangement or framework of a sentence, paragraph, or entire work Methods of Organization: 1. Narrative (order of occurrence or order of telling) 2. Chronological (time sequence) 3. Comparison and contrast 4. Cause and effect 5. Inductive (specific to general) 6. Deductive (general to specific) Narrative Arc: The setting and characters are introduced during the EXPOSITION, and we usually learn some background information to help us have a good understanding of the setting and characters. During the RISING ACTION, some form of problem or crisis becomes apparent. The CLIMAX is usually the turning point and includes the highest level of tension. During the FALLING ACTION, we begin to see the characters solving their problems or crises. Finally, there is the RESOLUTION, in which there is some form of closure. The figure below is a good visual to remember the parts of the narrative structure. Narrative Structures: 1. Linear/Chronological: When the author tells a story in chronological order. This structure can include flashbacks, but the majority of the narrative is told in the order that it occurs. Most books tend to fall under this narrative structure. 2. Nonlinear/Fractured: A nonlinear structure tells the story out of chronological order, jumping disjointedly through the timeline. David Mitchell's Cloud Atlas is an example of this narrative structure, as it switches between multiple characters at different points in time. 3. Circular: In a circular narrative, the story ends where it began. Although the starting and ending points are the same, the character(s) undergo a transformation, affected by the story's events. S.E. Hinton's The Outsiders is an example of circular narrative structure. 4. Parallel: In parallel structure, the story follows multiple storylines, which are tied together through an event, character, or theme. F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby or the movie Finding Nemo are both examples of this structure. 5. Interactive: The reader makes choices throughout the interactive narrative, leading to new options and alternate endings. These stories are most prominent as "choose your own adventure" books.

*Predicate*

The part of a sentence (or clause) that tells us what the subject does or is; everything that is not the subject At the heart of the predicate is a verb. In addition to the verb, a predicate can contain direct objects, indirect objects, and various kinds of phrases. A sentence has two parts: the subject and the predicate. The subject is what the sentence is about, and the predicate is a comment about the subject. (ex. "are ready to get food" in "we are ready to get food")

*Literary Forms*

The structure of a piece of writing (how it is constructed and organized); the "shape" or organizational mode of a particular poem In most poems (like sonnets), the form consists of a set number of lines, a set rhyme scheme, and a set meter for each line. In concrete poetry, the form of a poem may reflect the theme, topic, or idea of the words in the actual shape of the text on a piece of paper. In the free verse or open-form poetry common to the modernist and postmodernist movements, the rigid constraints of form are often discarded in order to achieve a variety of effects. The four major literary forms are nonfiction prose, fiction prose, poetry, and drama.

*Rhyme Scheme*

The pattern of rhyme that comes at the end of each verse or line in poetry; the structure of end words of a verse or line that a poet needs to create when writing a poem Types: 1. Alternate rhyme: It is also known as ABAB rhyme scheme, it rhymes as "ABAB CDCD EFEF GHGH." 2. Ballade: It contains three stanzas with the rhyme scheme of "ABABBCBC" followed by "BCBC." 3. Monorhyme: It is a poem in which every line uses the same rhyme scheme. 4. Couplet: It contains two-line stanzas with the "AA" rhyme scheme, which often appears as "AA BB CC and DD..." 5. Triplet: It often repeats like a couplet, uses rhyme scheme of "AAA." 6. Enclosed rhyme: It uses rhyme scheme of "ABBA" 7. Terza rima rhyme scheme: It uses tercets, three lines stanzas. Its interlocking pattern on end words follows: ABA BCB CDC DED and so on. 8. Keats Odes rhyme scheme: In his famous odes, Keats has used a specific rhyme scheme, which is "ABABCDECDE." 9. Limerick: A poem uses five lines with a rhyme scheme of "AABBA." 10. Villanelle: A nineteen-line poem consisting of five tercets and a final quatrain. It uses a rhyme scheme of "A1bA2, abA1, abA2, abA1, abA2, abA1A2." (ex. As I drew nearer to the end of all desire, (A) I brought my longing's ardor to a final height, (B) Just as I ought. My vision, becoming pure, (A) Entered more and more the beam of that high light (B) That shines on its own truth. From then, my seeing (C) Became too large for speech, which fails at a sight... (B) - Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri Dante has used terza rima tercet rhyming patterns (ABA, BCB, CDC ...) in this poem, giving an impression of irresistible movement, as well as dynamism.)

*Hero or Heroine*

The principal character of a literary work; the celebrated figures in certain ancient legends, and heroic epics (ex. Hamlet is the hero of the play Hamlet, written by William Shakespeare. He is a sort of modern hero, in that he faces physical as well as psychological dilemmas. However, he is also akin to classical heroes, for he is a larger-than-life figure, and the would-be king of Denmark after his uncle, Claudius. However, he is akin to a common man, a modern hero, in that he faces the same universal dilemmas about life and death as a common man faces. That is why Hamlet has achieved so much popularity, for he represents a common man facing common problems, despite his being a prince.)

*Anaphora*

The repetition of a word or expression at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, sentences, or verses especially for rhetorical or poetic effect (ex. "Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed" - MLK)

*Sestet*

The second part of the sonnet (the first part is called "octave" and comprises of eight lines) that has six lines and/or is a poem of six lines (or a six-lined stanza in a poem) which can be distinguished from other units by line breaks; a complete poem of six lines or a stanza in a poem with six lines (ex. "It was many and many a year ago, In a kingdom by the sea, That a maiden there lived whom you may know By the name of Annabel Lee; And this maiden she lived with no other thought Than to love and be loved by me." - Annabel Lee by Edgar Allan Poe Most of the stanzas in the given poem are sestets. Again this poet also begins the poem with sestet by using a rhyme scheme of ABABCB.)

*Prosody*

The study of meter, intonation, and rhythm of a poetic work; a phonetic term that uses meter, rhythm, tempo, pitch, and loudness in a speech for conveying information about the meanings and structure of an utterance; an important element of language that contributes toward rhythmic and acoustic effects in a piece of writing Types: 1. Syllabic Prosody - Syllabic prosody counts a fixed number of syllables in each line, while accent, tone, and quantity play a secondary role. 2. Accentual Prosody - Accentual prosody measures only the accents or stresses in a line of verse, while the overall number of syllables may vary in a line. It is very common in Germanic, old English, and modern English verses. 3. Accentual-syllabic Prosody - Accentual-syllabic prosody counts both the number of syllables and accents in each line. We commonly find it in English poetry. 4. Quantitative Prosody - Quantitative prosody does not measure the number of syllables, rather depending upon duration of syllables. This can be determined by the amount of time used on pronunciation, such as a free-verse poem that consists of unmeasured lines. We find this type of prosody in Roman and classical Greek poetry, and only very rarely in English poetry. (ex. "what if a much of a which of a wind gives the truth to summer's lie; bloodies with dizzying leaves the sun and yanks immortal stars awry? Blow king to beggar and queen to seem (blow friend to fiend: blow space to time) —when skies are hanged and oceans drowned, the single secret will still be man... - what if a much of a which of a wind by E. E. Cummings This poem is presenting a good example of accentual verse, in which the number of stressed syllables remains constant at four. They are underlined above, but the total number of syllables in each line does not remain constant and changes from seven to ten.)

*Tenor in Metaphors and Similes*

The subject of a metaphor; what is getting reimagined by the other part of the metaphor (the vehicle); the concept, object, or person meant in the metaphor (ex. All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players. - Shakespeare's "As You Like It" In this example, the world is the primary subject, and it gains attributes from the stage (ie, from theater). Thus, in the binary pairs, the world is the "tenor," the "ground," and the "target," while the stage is the "vehicle," the "figure," and the "source.")

*Tragic Irony*

The term applied to the situation, in Greek and other drama, in which the audience is aware of some impending catastrophe or important fact of which the characters are either totally ignorant or not fully aware, a condition rendered possible by the fact that Greek drama dealt with legends known to all the spectators Tragic Irony is a form of dramatic irony. (ex. The audience watching Romeo and Juliet knows from the Prologue that the lovers will die, but neither character is aware of his or her fate. This makes the passing references to death spoken by the lovers all the more shocking to the audience.)

*Ancient Greek Drama*

The theater of ancient Greece, the fountainhead of the entire Western dramatic tradition (ex. Oedipus Rex by Sophocles)

*Setting*

The time and place in which the story takes place. including social statuses, weather, historical period, and details about immediate surroundings, providing the backdrop to the story while helping to create mood Most pieces of literature include more—or many more—than one setting, either as the narrative progresses through time or to include points of view from more than one character. (ex. PROLOGUE: Two households, both alike in dignity, In fair Verona, where we lay our scene, From ancient grudge break to new mutiny, Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean. - Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare In this short excerpt of the prologue from Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare sets up both the city in which the action takes place—Verona, Italy—as well as giving a taste of the socioeconomic statuses of the characters. Shakespeare refers to the two households as being "both alike in dignity," which will greatly affect the way that the characters relate. Because of the high status of both the Montagues and Capulets, Romeo and Juliet are held to certain standards, especially in the era and city they lived in. A modern film version of the play chose to move the setting to Verona Beach, California, which changed the socioeconomic statuses of the characters involved.)

*Turn (Volta) in Sonnets*

The turn of thought or argument: in Petrarchan or Italian sonnets it occurs between the octave and the sestet, and in Shakespearean or English before the final couplet Volta is often indicated by such initial words as "But," "Yet," or "And yet." (ex. (1) My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun; (2) Coral is far more red than her lips' red; (3) If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun; (4) If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head. (5) I have seen roses damask'd, red and white, (6) But no such roses see I in her cheeks; (7) And in some perfumes is there more delight (8) Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks. (9) I love to hear her speak, yet well I know (10) That music hath a far more pleasing sound; (11) I grant I never saw a goddess go; (12) My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground. (13) And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare (14) As any she belied with false compare. - William Shakespeare's sonnet number 130 The volta occurs between the 12th and 13th lines in this sonnet.)

*Structural Irony*

The use of a naïve protagonist or unreliable narrator who continually interprets events and intentions in ways that the author signals are mistaken; irony that occurs when individuals internal to a narrative express faulty perceptions of reality When a naive protagonist or an unreliable narrator are confused or misguided in their observations of what's really going on - but the author and readers are fully aware of the truth - structural irony happens. (ex. "For a second I had the ridiculous feeling that they were there to judge me." - The Stranger by Albert Camus Meursault's feelings of guilt and paranoia make him feel judged. However, we know Meursault has an unreliable perception of others' feelings and views, so this idea of him being judged is most likely false.)

*Parallelism*

The use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same or similar in their construction, sound, meaning, or meter Parallelism adds balance and rhythm to sentences, giving ideas a smoother flow and thus persuasiveness, because of the repetition it employs. (ex. "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair." - A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens By repeating "It was..." in the passage, the readers are prompted to focus on the traits of the "age" they will read about in the succeeding passages.)

*Latinate Periphrasis*

The use of excessive and longer words instead of shorter ones to convey a meaning

*Imagery*

The use of figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses (requires the aid of figures of speech like simile, metaphor, personification, and onomatopoeia, in order to appeal to the bodily senses) (ex. "It was a rimy morning, and very damp. I had seen the damp lying on the outside of my little window... Now, I saw the damp lying on the bare hedges and spare grass, ... On every rail and gate, wet lay clammy; and the marsh-mist was so thick, that the wooden finger on the post directing people to our village—a direction which they never accepted, for they never came there—was invisible to me until I was quite close under it." - Great Expectations by Charles Dickens The repeated use of the words "damp" and "wet" makes us feel how miserable it was for him that damp and cold morning. The thick "marsh-mist" aids our imagination to visualize the scene of morning in a marshland.)

*Colloquial Language*

The use of informal words or phrases in writing or speech (ex. "I didn't want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn't like it; but now I took to it again because pap hadn't no objections... But by-and-by pap got too handy with his hick'ry, and I couldn't stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too, and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome." - The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain)

*Symbolism*

The use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by giving them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense It is important to note that symbols do shift their meanings depending on the context they are used in. "A chain," for example, may stand for "union" as well as "imprisonment". Thus, symbolic meaning of an object or an action is understood by when, where, and how it is used. It also depends on who reads the work. (ex. "My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time will change it; I'm well aware, as winter changes the trees. My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath a source of little visible delight, but necessary." - Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights presents almost every character, house, surroundings, and events in a symbolic perspective. The word "Wuthering," which means "stormy," represents the wild nature of inhabitants. The phrase "foliage of leaves" for is a symbol for Linton's fertile and civilized nature. On the contrary, Heathcliff is likened to an "eternal rock," which symbolizes his crude and unbendable nature.)

*Literal Language*

The use of words solely by their defined or primary meanings, as opposed to any other meanings we give them; language that uses words exactly according to their conventionally accepted meanings or denotation Literal language maintains a consistent meaning regardless of the context, with the intended meaning corresponding exactly to the meaning of the individual words. (ex. Grass is green)

*Poetic Diction*

The vocabulary, phrasing, and grammatical usage deemed appropriate to verse as well as the deviations allowable for effect within it; the operating language of poetry; language employed in a manner that sets poetry apart from other kinds of speech or writing and involves the vocabulary, the phrasing, and the grammar considered appropriate and inappropriate to poetry at different times (ex. "Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard Are sweeter: therefore, ye soft pipes, play on ..." - Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats Notice the use of the formal "ye," instead of the informal "you." The formality here is due to the respect the urn inspires in Keats.)

*Roman Drama*

Time period of theatrical practice and performance in Rome beginning in the 4th century B.C., following the state's transition from Monarchy to Republic The earliest Roman drama probably evolved from jolly carnivals and bawdy fertility rites performed on religious occasions. Its development was influenced greatly by the traditions of Greek colonists living in southern Italy and Sicily (influenced by Greek Drama). (ex. Plautus' "Aulularia")

*Sacred Text Citations, MLA style in*

Title. Editor statement, First Name Last Name of Editor, Publisher, Year of publication. (ex. The New Jerusalem Bible. Edited by Henry Wansbrough, Doubleday, 1985.)

*Scansion*

To divide the poetry or a poetic form into feet by pointing out different syllables based on their lengths; a description of rhythms of poetry through break up of its lines or verses into feet, pointing the locations of accented and unaccented syllables, working out on meter, as well as counting the syllables (ex. If music be the food of love, play on ... That strain again! it had a dying fall: - Twelfth Night by Shakespeare These lines contained unstressed syllables followed by stressed syllables, which are underlined. This pattern repeats five times, which means it is iambic pentameter with un-rhyming lines known as blank verse.)

*Couplets*

Two consecutive lines of poetry that rhyme and that are written to the same meter, or pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (ex. "Three be the things I shall have till I die: Laughter and hope and a sock in the eye." - Dorothy Parker)

*Rhymed Couplets*

Two lines that rhyme and also often have the same meter, or rhythmic structure in a verse or line; two lines of the same length that rhyme and complete one thought (ex. While the plowman near at hand, Whistles o'er the furrowed land, And the milkmaid singeth blithe, And the mower whets his scythe, And every shepherd tells his tale, Under the hawthorn in the dale. - John Milton's "L'Allegro" The rhyme scheme for this stanza would be a, a, b, b, c, c. With this effect of the stacked rhyming couplets, the reader is able to visualize all of the separate busyness that goes on in this pastoral setting. The first and third couplets focus on only one character, the plowman and the shepherd, respectively, and the second couplet is actually an interesting pacing agent. We see a snapshot of both the milkmaid and the mower in only the two lines, and this contributes to the 'business' we feel.)

*Notes, MLA style for*

Used to provide additional details, to refer readers to other sources, or to add comments about sources Notes can be footnotes or endnotes, which are signified by a subscript. Content notes offer the reader comment, explanation, or information that the text can't accommodate. In general, they should be used only when you need to justify or clarify what you have written or when further amplification of your point is especially helpful. In MLA style, bibliographic notes are best used only when you need to cite several sources or make evaluative comments on your sources.

*Accentual-Syllabic Meter*

Verse whose meter is determined by the number and alternation of its stressed and unstressed syllables, organized into feet. From line to line, the number of stresses (accents) may vary, but the total number of syllables within each line is fixed. (ex. A Knyght / ther was, / and that / a worth- / y man, That fro / the tyme- / e that / he first / bigan To rid- / den out, / he lov- / ed chiv- / alrie)

*Accentual Meter*

Verse whose meter is determined by the number of stressed (accented) syllables—regardless of the total number of syllables—in each line (ex. Star light, star bright, First star I see tonight, I wish I may, I wish I might, Have this wish I wish tonight.)

*Assonance ("Vowel Rhyme")*

When two or more words, close to one another repeat the same vowel sound, but start with different consonant sounds; the repetition of similar vowel sounds followed by different consonant sounds, especially in words close together ex. "When I have fears that I may cease to be Before my pen has gleaned my teeming brain, Before high-piled books, in charactery, Hold like rich garners the full ripened grain ..." - When I have Hears by John Keats This excerpt has been taken from John Keats' sonnet, When I Have Fears. The first line exhibits repetition of the long /i/ sound, as in tripe. The second line again contains the same long /i/ sound. The fourth line repeats /ai/ sound as in bye.)f

*Double Rhyme*

Words that have the same vowel sound in the second-to-last syllable and all following sounds; end rhyme involving two syllables (as in ceases and releases or inviting and exciting); a feminine rhyme involving one stressed and one unstressed syllable in each rhyming line (ex. if you enter the word soaring using this option, Rhymer retrieves a list of words with the sound oring such as adoring/exploring/restoring)

*Nonfiction*

Written works based on real events, real people, and real places, in which the stories contain facts, (information that can be proved to be true) Most nonfiction is written to express or to inform. (ex. Walden by Henry David Thoreau)

*Curtal Sonnet*

a curtailed or contracted sonnet; a sonnet of 11 lines rhyming abcabc dcbdc or abcabc dbcdc with the last line a tail, or half a line (ex. Glory be to God for dappled things— For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow; For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim; Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches' wings; Landscape plotted and pieced—fold, fallow, and plough; And áll trádes, their gear and tackle and trim. All things counter, original, spare, strange; Whatever is fickle, freckled (who knows how?) With swift, slow; sweet, sour; adazzle, dim; He fathers-forth whose beauty is past change: Praise him. - Pied Beauty by Gerard Manley Hopkins)

*Blank Verse*

a literary device defined as un-rhyming verse written in iambic pentameter (has a consistent meter with 10 syllables in each line (pentameter), where unstressed syllables are followed by stressed ones, five of which are stressed but do not rhyme); poetry that lacks rhymes but does follow a specific meter—a meter that is almost always iambic pentameter (a beat or foot that uses 10 syllables in each line) Features: 1. no fixed number of lines 2. conventional meter used for verse drama and long narrative poems 3. used in descriptive and reflective poems and dramatic monologues (where a single character delivers his thoughts in the form of a speech) 4. composed in any kind of meter, such as iamb, trochee, spondee, and dactyl Types: 1. Iamb pentameter blank verse (unstressed/stressed syllables) 2. Trochee blank verse (stressed/unstressed syllables) 3. Anapest blank verse (unstressed/unstressed/stressed syllables) 4. Dactyl blank verse (stressed/unstressed/unstressed syllables) (ex. But, woe is me, you are so sick of late, So far from cheer and from your former state, That I distrust you. Yet, though I distrust, Discomfort you, my lord, it nothing must. -Hamlet by Shakespeare Hamlet gives us a perfect example of a typical blank verse, written in iambic pentameter. Shakespeare employed the deliberate effort to use the syllables in a particular way. He brought variation by using caesuras (pause) in the middle of the line, as in the third line. Shakespeare has other literary pieces that are also good sources of blank verse examples.)