POL3370 - Midterm Prep

Describe the Hendrix example for stratified and homogenous sampling

ex. Hendrix (1988) - how researchers use some of these particularly qualitative samples in their studies Katherine HEndrix (1988) wanted to study how the credibility of a professor is communicated in the college classroom and how race influences a student's perception of a professor's credibility. "The participants in the study represented a "purposeful rather than random" sample... <y goal was to obtain the participation of male dyads reflecting professors who worked in the same division and possessed comparable years of teaching experience at the collegiate level. However, three professors would be Black and three would be White (p.741) Hendrix (1988) also wanted to interview a sample of students from each of these courses who had volunteered to be interviewed. These students were selected according to their class year, race, and major, using a random procedure. However, with a limited number of students volunteering, the random procedure was revised to ensure a diverse pool, and students were selected to match specific criteria, such as race. Hendrix (1988) used several sampling procedures in carrying out her research project. The first decision to sample came directly from he research problem; in her review of the literature on the topic of teacher communication, she noted that there were particularly difficult "restricted interactions" between black faculty and their white students. Hendrix speculated that within a predominantly white university she might find "particular challenges to building credibility and acceptance... for the Black teacher and professor" (p. 741). She wanted to follow up on this idea. She therefore chose a large 4-year university that had a predominantly white college student population. This was a homogenous sample, which enabled her to reduce the variation in race of the student population in order to study her particular problem. However, when it came to sampling six professors and a diverse group of students from their class, she employed a STRATIFIED PURPOSIVE sample to ensure certain characteristics of the faculty and students were included. Sampling for these differences was crucial n carrying out her stated research goals. Sometimes, however, sampling follows no logical plan; it just happens. Circumstance provides the researcher with an "opportunistic sampling" possibility. One anthropologist recalls his research in West Pakistan and how a sequence of events led to the unintended selection of individuals to interview: "I recall the use of opportunistic sampling during my first ethnographic trip to West Pakistan. The abundant visitors who voluntarily came to my home served as respondents for innumerable questions; I sought to plumb their motivations and other personality characteristics, and in some cases begged them to take the Rorschach test. Occasionally I solicited my guests with my interview schedule (that had been prepared for a random sample)... My wife and children also utilized invitations to the homes of relatively well-to-do or high-ranking families as opportunities to observe certain aspects of domestic life and obtain other information."(Honigmann, 1982, p. 81).

Define Analytic Induction

ANALYTIC INDUCTION: The iterative qualitative inductive method process of data collection, data analysis, and theory generation. As one collects data, one also interprets it and formulates a range of ideas to test out on additional data collected, and so on.

What do you ask when determining your research design?

Ask: - what methodological traditions characterize my research problem? ex. what methodological perspective might fit with studying eating disorders among college students?

Define CO-CREATION OF MEANING

CO-CREATION OF MEANING: this occurs when the researcher and research participant create meaning or knowledge collaboratively. The interview is often seen as a a site for the co-creation of meaning. The researcher's job is to listen intently to wha the researched has to say and be prepared to drop his or her agenda in response to what takes place during the interview.

CH.4: Define COMMON RULE

COMMON RULE: set up by the Office of the Protection of Research Risks, this rule was established to protect potential participants in research studies from exploitation. Most specifically, it mandated that a review board of proposals be set up for every institution that receives research funds, thereby benefiting the participants and maintaining the ethical boundaries of research studies.

CH.6 define comparative dimension

COMPARATIVE DIMENSION: a major appeal of segmentation is that it produces another level of knowledge by comparing groups that are similar in every way except the areas of difference that are relevant

What is Critical Realism?

CRITICAL REALISM: A critical realist holds on to a positivist view of the social world, namely that there is a real world "out there" independent of subjective knowledge, and at the same time is aware of and more accepting of the fact that human knowers must still socially construct a view of this world filtered through a subjective (constructivist) lens.

What is deductive reasoning?

DEDUCTIVE REASONING begins with a theory from which a specific set of hypotheses are derives and tested with the goal of confirming the basic tenets of the theory

define DENATURALIZATION

DENATURALIZATION: the process of understanding normative ideas and customs by challenging taken-for-granted assumptions that are difficult to discern

Define Feminist Perspectives

FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES: Feminist perspectives developed as a way to address the concerns and life experiences of women and girls, who, due to widespread androcentric (sexist) bias, had long been excluded from knowledge construction as both researchers and research subjects.

Explain Feminist Perspectives as part of the Critical Strand in qualitative research

Feminist perspectives developed out of the second wave of the women's movement as a way to address the concerns and life experiences of women and girls, who, because of widespread androcentric or male bias, had long been excluded from knowledge construction both as researchers and research subjects. *Feminism is a political project, which means that one of its goals is to foster social change. Feminists seek to create a more just world for women. Feminist researchers value women's experiences and unearth women's subjugated knowledges. A guiding understanding within feminism is that gender is a historically and socially constructed category. In general terms, feminism also challenges dichotomous thinking and provides alternative ways of thinking about social reality and correspondingly, the research process. Feminists critique the subject-object split that polarizes researchers and research subjects as a false dualism that is inherently flawed, artificial and ultimately undesirable. The feminist critique of the subject-object split has its roots in earlier feminist efforts to expose and correct the exclusion of women from research in the social and natural sciences. Halpin (1989) importantly links traditional scientific objectivity to a general process of "othering" in which women, people of colour, and sexual minorities have been deemed "other" and correspondingly treated as inferior to the traditional white heterosexual male scientist. This process has resulted in systematic "scientific oppression" (Halpin, 1989). A key dimension to this historical routinized exclusion/distortion has been the placing of the researcher on a higher plane than the research participants because the researcher is conceptualized as the knowing party (Sprague & Zimmerman, 1993). Feminism itself has been produced out of historical struggle and seeks to create contextualized and partial truths and avoid the absolutes that have historically oppressed women and other marginalized peoples. Dismantling a dichotomous view of objectivity and subjectivity, feminist objectivity places the two in a dialectical relationship lived throughout the entire research process. FEMINIST STANDPOINT EPISTEMOLOGY Although there are many feminist perspectives, I briefly recount feminist standpoint epistemology, which is a touchstone for many feminist researchers. Derives from Hegel's master-slave dialectic, and Karl Marx's subsequent scholarship, Dorothy Smith (1974) and Nancy Hartsock (1983) pioneered feminist standpoint epistemology based on the assumption that in a hierarchically structured social world, different standpoints are necessarily produced. For example, the United States has a long history of gender inequality in politics, economics and so forth. This constitutes an environment that is hierarchically structured along economic, social and political lines based on the construct of gender. ***In such a context, people have different visions of the world based on the gender categorization that they embody and their corresponding space in the social structure. Feminist standpoint theorists have primarily focused on the position that women occupy within a social context characterized by a patriarchal sex-gender system. Women, men, intersexual individuals, and transgendered individuals occupy different social positions that produce different life experiences; different access to the economic, cultural, and political reward system; and thus ultimately different standpoints. Some standpoint theorists argue that women's vision is not only different but in fact more complete and less distorted because they occupy a position of oppression in which they must come to understand their own social position as well as that of the dominant group (Hartsock, 1983; Jagger, 1989). AFROCENTRIC FEMINIST EPISTEMOLOGY/INTERSECTIONALITY THEORY Patricia Hill Collins (1990) has increased our understanding of standpoint as an epistemology and critical methodology by introducing the idea of an Afrocentric feminist epistemology that begins with the unique standpoint of black women. In essence, Hill-Collins theorizes that we live in a "matrix of domination" where race and gender are overdetermined in relation to each other, producing a unique standpoint fostered by these interlocking systems of oppression. By accessing the different standpoints within our social world, researchers are able to address new questions and resist- even challenge - former conceptions of truth and the ways of knowing from which they flow. This is referred to as an intersectionality theory.

Define Feminist Standpoint Epistemology

This approach is based on the assumption that in a hierarchically structured social world, different standpoints are necessarily produced.

What are the three major ontological positions?

There are three major ontological positions in qualitative research: positivism, interpretive, and critical. 1. Positivism posts that the social world is patterned and causal relationships can be discovered and tested via reliable strategies. 2. The Interpretive Position assumes the social world is constantly being constructed through group interactions, and thus social reality can be understood via the perspectives and social actors enmeshed in meaning-making activities. 3. Critical perspectives also view social reality as an ongoing construction but go further to suggest that discourses created in shifting fields of social power shape social reality and our study of it.

Define Epistemology - What are the three major epistemological stances (also ontological)

EPISTEMOLOGY An epistemology is a philosophical belief system about who can be a knower. An epistemology includes how the relationship between the researcher and research participants is understood. The three major epistemological stances are: 1. positivist - privileges the researcher as the authority in the research process due to his or her objective, value-neutral stance and his or her use of standardized measurement instruments - creates clear delineation between roles of the researcher and research participants because of that ^ 2. interpretive - views the researcher and research participants as co-creators in the knowledge-building process and emphasizes the perspective and the participants 3. critical - pays particular attention to how power is infused in the knowledge-building process.

define ETHICAL CODES

ETHICAL CODES: these are codes of conduct set in place to protect the research participants and their setting - neither of which should be harmed by the research process. Professional association have specific codes of ethics that spell out a set of rules governing research and based on moral principles.

How does ethical research and new technologies intertwine

ETHICAL RESEARCH AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES: - new technology changes nature of informed consent + potential abuse of personal use information through Internet + public/private line blurred - if public domain, to what extent can one verify the validity or accuracy of information on these sites? + should the researcher inform the individuals of their inclusion in research ex. underage drinking research from facebook profiles - understand the sensitivity of some public information if used for research purposes and maintain confidentiality + be aware of misrepresentation and "lurking" effects - Elgesem (2002) + minimize risk + respect subject autonomy + use appropriate methods + produce relevant knowledge

describe the ethics of focus groups (challenges etc.)

ETHICS OF FOCUS GROUPS: - participants cannot remain fully anonymous in a focus group setting + others in group have access to your specific opinions and the interactions with fellow members - researchers must emphasize the importance of confidentiality with group conversations and online transcripts - may be useful to assign pseudonyms or operate on first-name-only basis

Define ETHNOMETHODOLY

ETHNOMETHODOLOGY: Ethnomethodology focuses on the process whereby individuals understand and give a sense of order to the world in which they live. **Ethnomethodologists are particularly interested in how meaning is negotiated in a social context through the process of interaction with others. ___________________________ Ethnomethodology was popularized as a qualitative approach in the field of sociology in the 1960s through the work of Harold Garfinkel (1967). Ethnomethodology draws on the phenomenological perspective and is related to phenomenology in that they both focus on the process whereby individuals understand and give a sense of order to the world in which they live. Ethnomethodologists are particularly interested in how meaning is negotiated in a social context through the process of interaction with others. Ethnomethodologists ask questions such as these: - how do people go about making sense of their everyday lives? - what are the specific strategies, especially those that appear to be commonsensical, that individuals use to go about the making-meaning process? To the ethnomethodologist, social life itself is created and recreated based on the micro understanding individuals bring to their everyday social contexts. Ethnomethodologists use a range of methods to go about capturing this process of meaning making that can range from observing individuals in natural settings as they go about their daily routines, to interviews. Ethnomethodologists are especially interested in how individuals engaged in interaction talk about their experiences, asking questions such as the following: - how is meaning created in everyday conversation individuals have with eachother The main theoretical tenets of ethnomethodology are congruent with the methods of observation and interview that dominate qualitative practice.

What are the protections in place for human subjects in research today?

INFORMED CONSENT LETTER: - participants must be fully informed about nature and aims of study, along with risks and benefits - provides contact information for questions and concerns - provides assurance of procedures to deal with any negative outcomes - voluntary participation and early termination explained - privacy and confidentiality - safeguards participants from any mental or physical harm - provides expectations on the part of researcher and participant

define MODERATOR

MODERATOR: the researcher must take on the role of the moderator in the focus group; she or he greatly influences the flow of the conversation and thus the group dynamic and manner of the group narrative. The main concerns of the moderator are structure and control.

Define MORAL INTEGRITY

MORAL INTEGRITY: the moral integrity of the researcher is a critically important aspect of ensuring that the research process and the researcher's findings are trustworthy and valid

Define THEORETICAL SATURATION

"Agar (1996) notes that if the researcher finds the results are the same for a particular group of individuals and learns nothing new by sampling again from this population, then a point of theoretical saturation for this group of individuals is reached.

What is missing from the quantitative research design from the point of view of qualitative researchers?

1. Some acknowledgement of the influence that a particular philosophical framework (paradigm choice) has on the research process 2. emphasis on importance of subjective meaning individuals bring to the research process and the importance of the social construction of reality 3. dynamic interaction between different parts of research process 4. goal is theory generation (research questions are tentative and most often not framed in terms of hypotheses (looking for cause and effect) thats why theres interaction between the research problem and literature review etc.) Having said that, this does not mean qualitative researchers have no interest in testing out their ideas. In fact, some qualitative researchers, especially those employing a grounded theory perspective, stick close to their data and are constantly testing out their ideas as their data are being collected.

describe the history of ethics in research

A SHORT HISTORY OF RESEARCH ETHICS: codes that currently guide research stem from a history of lapses in moral integrity ex. tuskegee syphilis study (1932-1972): African-American men with syphilis + recruited into study on "natural course" of disease + no informed consent; beneficial treatment withheld; racism + took advantage of vulnerable population + at least 28 mend died of advanced syphilis - nuremberg code (1949) + "scientific" atrocities performed on jews and other minority groups in WW2 nazi concentration camps + this led to the first formal code of ethics to be created which states all research participation must be voluntary - declaration of helsinki (1964), CIOMS followed soon after - milgram (1963) and social science + instructed participants to administer fake electric shock + deceived to study obedience (no informed consent) + no allowance of retracted consent + psychological harm from participation + jerry burger repeat (2009) - national research act (1974) + congress creates office for protection of research risks (oprr) + instituted common rule: any institution receiving federal funds for research must establish an institutional review board - IRBs now oversee all research proposals that involve working with human participants and animals + do benefits of a study outweigh its risks? + have consent procedures been carefully carried out? + has any group of individuals been unfairly treated or left out of potential positive outcomes? - some disciplinary professional association outline their own ethical guidelines + elaborate or extend federal requirements + american educational research association (AERA) + american sociological association (ASA) - american psychological association (APA) - sometimes even these may be compromised + risen (2014): APA officials may have covertly worked with the CIA and Pentagon + bend ethical guidelines in support of "torture" interrogation programs - how do you think we can make organizations like the APA more accountable for their ethics violations?

Describe a quantitative research design

A quantitative research process, also known as a positivistic approach to research, mostly employs quantitative methods and is presented as a wheel or a stepwise procedure. Step 1: Define Research Problem Step 2: Literature Review Step 3: Hypothesis Formulation Step 4: Research Design (methods) Step 5: Instrumentation and Sampling Step 6: Data Collection Step 7: Data Analysis Step 8: Conclusions Step 9: Revise Hypothesis So these steps are followed in order and in one direction, with no interaction between them. The research "climbs a linear ladder to an ultimate objective truth" (Crabtree & Miller, 1999, p. 8). *There is a connection back to the beginning step, whereby the researcher refines the problem (Step 1) in response to research findings (Step 9). This positivistic model of knowledge building is known as the scientific model of research. This viewpoint about the social world became popular at the turn of the 20th century and continues to operate today. Positivistic researchers practice objectivity in conducting their research; in other words, they advocate a strong separation of the researcher's values and attitudes from his or her research projects. They assume that to gain a true picture of reality, researchers must hold their ideas and biases in check—that is, by not allowing their values or attitudes or feelings to enter into the research process. Instead, researchers hold them in abeyance by "bracketing" these attitudes and values while conducting their research project. For instance, classical ethnographers studying a community are likely to treat villagers as "foreigners" or "the other" and construct a story from the field that is thought to be an objective account of events.

How might a quantitatively driven researcher differ from a qualitative one?

A quantitatively driven researcher would usually begin with a why question but quickly reframe this into a testable hypothesis that posits a case-effect relationship using variable language: ex. "The higher the self-esteem among college women, the lower the rates of binge-eating disorders" Self-esteem and rates of binge-eating would be treated as variables that take on a set of numerical values. The researcher would most likely test out this hypothesis on a large-scale data set selecting among a wide spectrum of collge-age women and seeking to find whether the relationship between self-esteem and binge eating, both treated as variables and expressed in numerical terms, is statistically significant even after controlling for other likely causal factors in the literature that are also said to be related to college-age women's binge-eating type behaviours.

How is Methodology a bridge between the philosophical level and the research design level? - 3 things that methodology determines/accomplishes

A researcher's methodology is shaped by a set of philosophical assumptions that in turn serve to guide the research design process LINKAGE BETWEEN PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS AND RESEARCH DESIGN Philosophical Level: 1. Ontology - worldview/paradigm 2. Epistemology - determines theoretical perspectives chosen - determines the type of research problems selected Research Design Level: 3. Methodology -determines specific method(s) used - determines specific data analysis used - and guides interpretation of research findings

how do you analyze and interpret interview data?

ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING INTERVIEW DATA - begin data analysis in tandem with data collection + data collection and data analysis are "iterative" processes (each informs the other, so its a back and forth) - use "memo-ing" + as you begin data analysis, write down ideas + how are the data fitting with the project? = do the data permit you to address your research question? = is there sufficient evidence to support your interpretations? = are there "negative cases" that provide evidence to the contrary? + identify any important breakthroughs + "memo-ing" promotes reflexivity

what are the main takeaways from the ethics chapter?

- ethics are vital to the conduct of research + ethical considerations do not end with informed consent + ethics pervade every facet of day-to-day research process - researchers should comply with ethics guidelines. but also have a clearly defined set of ethical values + ethics must be reflexive + attending to complexities of research to respect subjects throughout the process

How can literature be used to formulate a research question?

- literature review as "extended conversation" + retrieval of sources or "conversants" + listening closely to ongoing discourse in review + talking back - helps narrow from general topic to specific question or offer context to predetermined question - familiarize yourself with databases and useful key words - review does not occur at fixed point, but throughout + to formulate a set of relevant exploratory questions not generate a specific set of hypotheses to test + initial review may not be as exhaustive as in the quantitative study +iterative

how does the researcher paradigm influence research? How does existing research influence research?

- researcher paradigm influences all aspects and phases of research process, including research design + qualitative research is a holistic, layered, interactive process - existing research can help us redefine our research question

As the three paradigms- compare and contrast: - positivism - interpretive - critical

1. POSITIVISM Developed: - natural sciences Focus: - scientific objectivity - reliability, verification, replication 2. INTERPRETIVE STRAND Developed: - disciplinary contexts Focus: - subjective experience - small-scale interactions - seek understanding - meaning-making 3. THE CRITICAL STRAND Developed: - interdisciplinary contexts Focus: - power-laden environments - hegemonic/ dominant discourses - resist binary categories - social justice

define COVER STORY

COVER STORY: researchers who choose to use deception may go out of their way to develop an elaborate story to explain their research project (this may be built into the original design of the research project).

give the history/background on focus groups

BACKGROUND ON FOCUS GROUPS: - developed in 1940s - economical way to gather a relatively large amount of qualitative data from multiple human subjects + useful across many fields, especially marketing + three purposes of marketing focus groups 1. clinical (uncover feelings) 2. exploratory (generate ideas) 3. phenomenological (reveal shared life experiences) - good for gaining data from difficult populations + those feeling unsafe, stigmatized - important tool for accessing the subjugated experiences of marginalized and minority groups - profound experience for researcher and researched that generates unique data + not comparable to the sum total of individual interviews

CH.5 Define BRACKETING OFF

BRACKETING OFF: this research technique is borrowed from a phenomenological approach said to occur when a researcher aims to hold ideas and biases in check- through a process known as "bracketing" - while conducting the research project. This strategy, however, may not always be possible. Researcher values and attitudes enter into one's research in a multitude of ways that cannot be bracketed.

what are the key takeaways from chapter 5? - objectives of interviews - rapport and reciprocity - reflexivity

CONCLUSION 1. objectives of interviews - understand interviewee's perspective and lived experience - getting the participant to tell their own story 2. rapport and reciprocity - meaning is "co-created" during interview - takes on the flow of conversation 3. reflexivity - develop deep-listening skills - researcher values, power, and difference acknowledged, not hidden

what are the key take aways of chapter 6 focus groups?

CONCLUSION: - focus groups are valuable and time-efficient for gathering data form multiple participants at once •Useful for exploratory or multi-method designs - Unearths both individual and group narrative•Researcher as moderator •Determines degree of control and structure - Strength and challenge in managing group dynamic

Define CONFIDENTIALITY

CONFIDENTIALITY: this mens that research participants are protecting by remaining unidentifiable. That is, their names may not be used in any written material concerning the research or in discussions of the research project, and all interview materials are stored in a safe place that no one save the researchers can access.

Define CONVENIENCE SAMPLE

CONVENIENCE SAMPLE: The sample used by researchers finding that the selection of informants boils down to who is available, who has some specialized knowledge of the setting, and who is willing to serve in that role. There may not be an opportunity to sample among a group of informants according to a given criteria such as age, sex, or social class.

Define the Critical Approach, Critical Approaches and Critical Deconstruction

CRITICAL APPROACH Derived from a philosophical tradition known as the Frankfurt school. It is a point of view onto knowledge building that assumes knowledge is socially constructed and subjective. It is particularly focused on the power relationships and social, historical, and ideological forces that serve to constrain knowledge building and seeks to uncover dominant points of view guised as universal truths. CRITICAL APPROACHES: Critical approaches suggest we live in a power-rich context. These approaches seek to reflexive step outside of the dominant ideology (insofar as is possible) in order to create a space for resistive, counter-hegemonic knowledge production that destabilizes oppressive material and symbolic relations of dominance. CRITICAL DECONSTRUCTION: Jacques Derrida developed this approach to post-structural research that posits breaking down unities in order to reveal that which has been rendered invisible.

Explain Critical Race Theory as part of the Critical Strand in qualitative research

CRITICAL RACE THEORY Critical Race Theory is an umbrella term for diverse research that developed in a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary context. Critical race theory emerged out of the intersections of feminism, post-structuralism, and legal studies (Ritzer, 2008) as well as the civil rights movement. As with feminism, critical race theory seeks to create a more just world by ending racial inequality and oppression. Critical race theory explains that racism is insidious and normalized. In this vein, critical race theory investigates "hierarchical racial structures of society" and posits that race is a historically and socially constructed category. Delgado and Stefancic (2001) suggest that dominant groups racialize different minority groups at different historical moments as a result of changes in social, material, or symbolic context. For example, white America racialized Arabs after September 11, 2001. Critical race theory can inform methodological practice in many ways. Generally speaking, this approach greatly values experiential knowledge (Ritzer, 2008). In this regard, researchers are interested in accessing the subjugated knowledges of racial minorities. Denzin (2005) posits that racial minorities are never able to escape "the prism (or prison) of race that has been imposed by a racially coded and constraining society" (p. 279). Over the past two decades, critical race theory has also trended toward theories of intersectionality. As noted in the last section on feminism, theories of intersectionality posit that people cannot be reduced to one shared characteristic (such as race) but rather researchers must consider the intersections of race, class, gender, sexuality and nationality. Researchers must therefore be attentive to overlapping and even conflicting identities (Ritzer, 2008).

Explain the Critical Strand

Critical is an umbrella term for a large set of qualitative approaches. A critical approach is developed in an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary context. There are 2 main strands within the critical umbrella: 1. postmodern and post-structural - emerged largely out of theoretical work 2. feminism, critical race theory, queer theory - developed out of social justice movements of the 1960s and 1970s, including the women's movement, civil rights movement, and gay right movement - all have a social justice or activist component and have been labeled ethical epistemologies Critical approaches assert that we live in a power-laden context. Things aren't just the way they are; they have been constructed and reconstructed within shifting power-laden contexts. Critical theorists are weary of notions of absolute truth and base their concerns on the historical inequities produced by this rigid view of knowledge (espoused in positivism). Therefore, critical approaches reject and challenge binary categories that seek to polarize and essentialize difference. Ex. categorizations such as male-female do two things: they oppose two groups, and they imply a similarity or sameness among all the members of one group. This could lead to ideas like "women's experiences," which assumes that all women, regardless of race, social class, sexuality, religion, or nationality, have the same experiences. The traditional scientific process ultimately creates knowledge that is used to maintain (justify, fortify, reconstruct) the status quo in which all those forced to the peripheries of the social system (women, people of colour, sexual minorities, and the lower socioeconomic classes) are continually oppressed through the reproduction of hierarchical dominant ideology. Dominant ideology refers to the set of ideas and values put forth by those in power, which maintain the structures on which the power rests (through creating what nondominant groups come to see as a "common sense" set of ideas that everyone is exposed to but in reality this knowledge is socially constructed by dominant groups to benefit their agenda). Critical theory seeks to reflexively step outside of the dominant ideology (in so far as is possible) in order to create a space for resistive, counterhegemonic (counterdominant) knowledge production that destabilizes oppressive material and symbolic relations of dominance. Critical theorists seek to access subjugated knowledges - the unique viewpoints of oppressed groups - and often examine the micro-politics of power (Foucault, 1976). As noted earlier, there are many variations within the larger umbrella of critical theory. - postmodernism - post-structuralism - feminisms - critical race theory - queer theory

how do you deal with a reluctant participant in an interview?

DEALING WITH A RELUCTANT PARTICIPANT: - always examine the differences you think might cause problems before beginning + prepare commonalities and other bridges both before and during the initial portion of an interview - go to the interview with your list of "must have" questions + use only after actively engaging the participant's support - remind your participant that the interview is confidential + if recording, ensure participant comfort first - read any nonverbal cues that your participant gives off and respond accordingly - prepare for times when you can do very little to turn around a difficult participant + be firm, professional, and don't take it personally

explain the dilemma of deception and covert research

DECEPTION AND COVERT RESEARCH: - deviant behaviour studies may sometimes require undercover work - some view researcher objectivity as enhanced by deception - greater intimacy with subjects also leads to other issues of deception and trust - may be necessary in "studying up" + IRB restrictions of covert research may work to favour the dominant class + "ethics creep" and over-regulation

Define DECEPTION

DECEPTION: researchers may be dishonest about who they are and what they are doing and thus use deception to conduct their research. Sometimes, deception may be more subtle and unintentional on the researcher's part.

Give an example of Descriptive Research

DESCRIPTIVE "Now let's say we are interested in understanding the experiences of military spouses coping with having their spouse serving in a war. For this study, we are interested in describing the experiences of military spouses, developing "thick descriptions" of the reality of the lives of people in this situation. These might be some of our research questions: - How did you feel when your spouse was called to war? - What did you do as a family to prepare for him or her to leave? - What did you do individually to prepare? - What are the hardest aspects of this experience? - How has your daily life changed with your partner away? Describe the details of a typical day now. - How has your parenting role changed with your partner away? - What coping strategies do you use to deal with the worry, tensions, or pressure? The best way to gather this kind of data is directly from the population we are interested in. Given the sensitive nature of the topic as well as the in-depth data we are after, we might be interested in conducting in-depth interviews, observations, or oral history interviews, which will lead to thick descriptions."

how do you design a focus group project?

DESIGNING A FOCUS GROUP PROJECT: 1. determine your research problem - one that seeks to gain explanatory information or help answer a specific set of questions 2. determine your group format - primary source data for your study (gain standalone exploratory information) - supplement to more dominant data collection methods (collect specific information in service of larger study) - linked/combined with other collection methods (target specific questions that will allow you to clarify another method) - supplementary or linked formats can use focus groups before or after other qualitative and quantitative methods - can serve as means of checking validity, determining what questions to as, or navigating disparate findings - combines well with individual interviews, participant observations, surveys and experiments 3. determine your sample - participants need have a great deal of knowledge or personal insight on the research topic - consider what type of differences are relevant in your selection - consider accessibility, location and timeline - recruitment procedures and group composition are key to success - over-recruit, send reminders, and provide incentives 4. determine the type of focus group: - heterogenous group of dissimilar participants: + uncommon, but appropriate for range of responses over depth + valuable to future research and development of subsequent focus group questions - homogenous group of participants with similarities relevant to the research question: + most common, good for in-depth understanding + helpful in creating a comfort level within the group - segmentation creates differentiated groups within the study, each with similar members + stratifies groups based on the particular traits of differences under examination + creates a comparative dimension in the research 5. determine how you will structure your focus group study + how you want to conduct the inner workings of your specific focus groups - how large you want your focus group to be + 2 to 5 groups composed of 6-10 participants may be a good guideline - how much control you want the moderator to have - highly structured focus groups: pursue set, pre-existing agenda + may pressure participant agreement with moderator - less structured focus groups: gain candid, exploratory data: + more difficult to compare across groups - funnel-based focus groups: develop structure as group dynamic grows + moderators need to be familiar with topic and trained in listening to the range of group feedback 6. determine what the question-asking process will look like: - consider both focus group structure (structured or unstructured) and overall goal (broad or narrow) - your overall goals and research problem should guide question formulation, how tightly run your focus group will be, and degree of standardization + the more standardized, the more space for valid comparison between all groups - standardization lies opposite to open-ended or grounded theory approaches + allow participants freedom to speak to their own experiences in their own language with meaning + allow group dynamic to flow more smoothly towards a unique narrative power (participants as co-authors) + upholds heart of qualitative ideals + allow important themes to emerge inductively out of the interview situation for later use 7. determine how you will ensure participation and satisfaction - ensure all participants can voice their opinions - allow participants time to introduce themselves to one another + assert respectful and mindful environment - prepare as et of questions to guide the discussion (max. 12) + beginning: ice-breakers + middle: key questions you want to ask + ending: summarize and provide closure - sequence naturally - manage time effectively - listen intently to all participants - interact with participants after the focus group concludes - follow up with a personal thank you 8. select the moderator and determine her role - moderation styles can vary greatly - important moderation work is done before the focus groups meet + recruit people who are also personally invested in the topic + pretest questions with individual or group interviews + moderation level is tightly linked to standardization decisions = push-pull relationship between standardization and flow + two main areas of moderation = controlling issues discussed = managing group dynamic ex. marketing researchers often exercise a high level of moderation by both controlling topics and checking group dynamic closely - make it clear that your primary role is to listen to members speak - state that you want to hear from everyone - stress that all points of views are respected - stress that group confidentiality is critical - reassure anonymity in findings - establish reflexive moderator role - allow time for informal mingling between members before beginning + provide welcoming atmosphere with introductions and ground rules - key moderator skills include: + excellent interpersonal skills + enthusiasm, empathy, comfortable, and focused + great listening skills + strong conceptual skills in recognizing implications and connections 9. analyze and represent focus group data - begin ongoing reflection as soon as you have collected the data for any given group - incorporating reflective analytical moments along the way of collection allows for reexamination of interview guide + provides opportunity to go over puzzling information - unit of analysis must be determined + individual level of analysis: what each member said + group level of analysis: group interaction/dynamic part of the data - first read over transcripts and memo - next begin coding line by line + begin thinking about prioritizing themes

how do you design and conduct interviews?

DESIGNING AND CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS: 1. research topic selected and research question defined 2. interview participants selected - sampling methods (snowball, theoretical etc.) - interviewees must have knowledge, experience and information the research wants to know + best interviews: knowledgeable subjects who want to share views - ideally conducted in person (richer accounts, more sharing) + 1-2 hours; private area 3. ethical considerations and interviewing + holistic view of informed consent + confidentiality, subject role must be addressed beforehand + opportunities to ask questions

define DISCLOSURE

DISCLOSURE: a researcher may or may not reveal, or disclose, his or her identity and research purpose. In accordance with ethical considerations, I advocate full disclosure whenever possible.

Define DRAMATURGY

DRAMATURGY: dramaturgy uses the metaphor of theater to understand social life. Dramaturgy as a theoretical approach to research that focuses on people's presentation of self in everyday life. Under this conception, social reality is conceived in terms of "front stage" and "back stage." Front stage is that which occurs in front of others. Put differently, it is the public self. The back stage is the behind-the-scenes part of life that others do not see. Moreover, dramaturgy views social actors as constantly engaged in the processes of "impression management" and "facework." This means that people are routinely trying to manage how they are perceived by others. Researchers working from this perspective might use observational techniques to address questions such as these: - how does context impact people's behaviour? - how do people act in embarrassing situations? - how do people publicly and privately cope with disappointment?

How does one derive specific research topics?

Deriving specific research topics ex. positionalities on internet privacy - economic and time constraints must be considered - use of internet may be subverted as it may expose private data for other researchers to use for whatever purpose "target ads etc" - some pursue a particular topic because public/private granting agencies are dispensing funds to study it

Give an example of explanatory research

EXPLANATORY: What is the relationship between media consumption and college women's level of body image satisfaction? Now let's say we are interested in explaining the relationship between college-age women's media consumption and their body image (the ways in which they think about their appearance, their satisfaction, and their dissatisfaction). Based on our prior knowledge and assumptions, we are specifically interested in associations between media consumption, such as regular reading of women's fashion magazines, and poor body image. For this kind of project we might choose a more structured approach to interviewing where participants are asked a range of specific questions such as these: - How do you feel about the way you look? - What do you like about your appearance? What do you dislike? Why? How does that make you feel? - What television programs do you watch? What do you like about them? - Do you read magazines? Which ones? What do you think about the images you see? How do they make you feel? - Do you wish you looked more like the models? How so? - If the magazines make you feel badly, why do you continue to read them? - Do you hang clips from magazines in your dorm? If so, why? How do you decide which clips to hang? How do you feel when you look at them? As an alternative to structured interviews, we might be interested in a mixed methods approach to this research. One way to do this would be to combine survey research designed to get a breadth of responses from college-age women with in-depth interviews aimed at getting a depth of data from fewer participants. Another approach would be to combine structured interviews with a content analysis of the images in a representative sample of women's magazines. This approach would allow us to examine both the images themselves as well as how our participants internalize those images.

define EXPLORATORY DATA

EXPLORATORY DATA: preliminary data used during research design phase

Give an example of Exploratory Research

EXPLORATORY: Understanding the contexts in which minority students engage in binge drinking would be an exploratory research project. "Binge drinking has recently become the topic of considerable conversation at U.S. colleges and universities, and, accordingly, studies on this behaviour have been conducted. Let's say we are interested in the experience of binge drinking specifically by minority students at predominantly white colleges. This is an under-researched topic, so our study seeks to explore this topic and gain some preliminary insights into the key issues to help shape future research. These might be some of our research questions: - Where do minority students "party" at predominantly white colleges? - Do minority students attend predominantly white parties? If so, what is this experience "like? What is the drinking environment like? - In what contexts do the minority students engage in drinking? - In what contexts, if any, do the minority students engage in excessive drinking? - Is this, if at all, a strategy of fitting in or coping with the pressures of being a minority in that context? If yes, how so? The best way to answer these questions is to gather data directly from the student population we seek to understand. We might therefore gather data through focus group interviews where minority students are interviewed together. Not only would this provide responses to our initial questions, but the group dynamic is also likely to bring the conversation into areas that we might otherwise not know to tap into. Moreover, the participants can help guide us to select language that is appropriate to "get at" their experiences, which we, at this point, know very little about. Put differently, because there isn't much existing scholarship available about this topic that can help shape our research questions, we need to be open to learning unexpected information from our research participants. Alternatively, we might conduct an ethnographic study, observing minority students in their social environments. This would allow us to observe students in their natural setting, during which we could take in-depth notes based on our direct observations, and we could informally interview research participants."

What are focus group interviews?

FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS: - multiple participants interviewed together - good for when the researcher doesn't know all of the issues surrounding a topic + inductive discovery of key issues, ideas, and concerns from multiple perspectives + well suited to exploratory data - useful in evaluating programs to help measure success, strengths and weaknesses + also in developing content for new programs + ex. social welfare agencies and criminal justice system

give an example explaining the gray ethical waters of ethnography

GRAY ETHICAL WATERS OF ETHNOGRAPHY: - student exercise: alice goffman + total immersion ethnography of 6th street boys - each type of research method has its own unique set of ethical concerns - there is no method of data collection that should bypass careful ethics praxis

define GROUNDED THEORY APPROACH

GROUNDED THEORY APPROACH: allows themes to emerge directly from the data, in this case, the subjects, drawing directly on their ideas, language, and ways of understanding their own behaviours and attitudes

define GROUP EFFECT

GROUP EFFECT: the dynamic produced within the group that impacts individuals and their responses

define GROUP LEVEL ANALYSIS

GROUP LEVEL ANALYSIS: the analysis is focused on the group narrative that emerges, which is larger than the sum of its parts

define HETEROGENOUS

HETEROGENOUS: a group consisting of dissimilar participants

Define Holistic

HOLISTIC By Holistic we mean that researchers must continually be cognizant of the relationship between epistemology, theory, and methods and look at research as a process. in other words, a holistic approach does not require researchers to disavow their underlying belief systems, but rather examine how ontological and epistemological perspectives impact methodology. Therefore, a holistic approach views research as a process rather than an event. Additionally, it is not just the resulting information or research findings that we learn, but the process itself becomes a part of the learning experience. In this regard, qualitative approaches to social inquiry foster personal satisfaction and growth

define HOMOGENOUS

HOMOGENOUS: a group consisting of similar participants

how do you analyze and interpret interviews (not data)?

HOW TO ANALYZE AND INTERPRET INTERVIEWS: - data analysis is just as important as data collection - begin "memoing" after first interview and continue consistently - reevaluate your interview guide periodically (after 10 interviews) - create data memos (connect theme, quote(s), and literature) - consider the contrary + look for evidence to contrary; embrace complexity - create coding categories after 15-20 interviews

how do you work across different in interviews?

HOW TO WORK ACROSS DIFFERENCE 1. positivist approach - "bracket off" interviewer-respondent differences + standardize objectivity to minimize effects 2. qualitative approach - goal is interpretive - understand lived experience by engagement with the participant's own subjective meanings - taking difference into account maximizes objectivity by ensuring participant's voice is represented - acknowledge influence of social and cultural differences on interview and entire research process + interview questions are often value-laden - practice reflexivity in being aware of researcher-researched situational dynamics + how they impact the co-creation of knowledge - quantitatively and qualitatively driven question-asking designs lie along a continuum + can two different question-asking styles be integrated in same interview +ex. anderson & jack, 1991

define IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW explain it. when is it appropriate? how do you conduct an in-depth interview?

IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW: a qualitative interview where the researcher seeks knowledge from the participant's point of view. The interview questions are primarily open-ended. The degree of structure to the interview depends on the extent to which the interviewer has a specific agenda - a set of of particular questions he or she would like answers to. A less structured interview does not contain a specific interview protocol, but rather the object of the interview is to listen to what the participant feels is important to talk about with the interviewer coming prepared with some sensitizing or initial questions to get the process moving around the general topic of the interview. - also known as intensive interview - uses individual as point of departure + assumes individuals have unique and important social world knowledge - yield deep exploratory and descriptive data + draw patterns from "thick descriptions" - may be used standalone or in conjunction + pairs well with ethnography - interview as conversation and partnership + active asking and listening required + equality between researcher and researched WHEN IS AN INTENSIVE INTERVIEW APPROPRIATE? - issue-oriented research (topically focused) + example: body images among gay, lesbian and bisexual persons + to get at both experience and perception knowledge - ideal for revealing subjugated knowledge from marginalized persons + access to invisible experience CONDUCTING IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS: - interviews as meaning-making partnership + knowledge-producing conversation + reducing hierarchy in favour of reciprocity is critical + interviewees are experts on their stories - active listening is crucial + build rapport with interviewee + create safe, comfortable environment; and show genuine interest + pay attention to markers, pick up on to show interest and gain valuable, thick description data - take stock of interview as it unfolds + be aware of respondent's mood and body language + social cues that will aid your understanding + be careful to still focus on story + be prepared for and note disruptions + note questions that provoked enthusiasm or ambivalence + consider your own attitudes, feelings and interest during interview - use probes consistently to delve deeper + sign of understanding, interest + helps participant to continue on, go further, or provide example - main goal is to actively listen and relate participant experiences with minimum intervention from you

analyze in-depth vs. focus group interviews

IN-DEPTH V. FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS: - each group interview is a dynamic process + conversation within any given group will not be reproduced in another group - conversation style reveals dimensions of understanding that often remain unattainable in on-to-one interview + anecdotes, jokes, and loose word association - focus groups unfold as a happening under which group dynamic starts to create a story + useful for identifying the language, definitions and concepts that participants find meaningful - priority is given to the participants' hierarchy of importance + can alleviate power imbalance of in-depth interview by privileging multiple voices rather than one in authority - group effect means that data do not equal sum total of individual interviews + unique data develop as participants disagree, explain and query + helps to denaturalize common-sense assumptions + information produced is framed by understandings of the interviewees, not the interviewer - participants may feel more comfortable than in one-on-one interview + spotlight is not constantly on them - dynamic can encourage group members to explain normative behaviours that are mundane to them - what any given participant says is mediated by and reflected through the eyes of the group as they continue the conversation

define INDIVIDUAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

INDIVIDUAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS: the analytical focus is on what each individual group member has said

What is Inductive Reasoning?

INDUCTIVE REASONING begins with specific data out of which more general ideas or theories are generated. The goal is exploratory and not confirmatory.

define iNFORMED CONSENT

INFORMED CONSENT: informed consent is a critical component in ethical research that uses human participants. Informed consent aims to ensure that the subject's participation is fully voluntary and informed, based on an understanding of what the study is about, what its risks and benefits are, how the results will be used, and the fact that participation is voluntary and can be stopped at any time and that identity will be protected.

how do you navigate the inside or outsider dichotomy in an interview?

INSIDER OR OUTSIDER - insider-outsider status is fluid + can change in course of single interview 1. insider status + researcher matches some of their important status characteristics (e.g. race, age, gender, and sexual preference) to participants - makes gaining access to an interview and obtaining cooperation and rapport easier - decreases possibility of power imbalance - sometimes sharing some insider characteristics is not enough 2. outsider status - researcher-respondent differ by gender, race, class, etc. - can interfere with access, rapport, and understanding - difference can also create space for understanding to occur + unbiased; researcher takes nothing for granted - researchers must recognize and, often, negotiate difference for full access

Define INSIDER STATUS

INSIDER STATUS: This is developed from a trait, characteristic, or experience the researcher has in common with his or her research participants. One strategy researchers have used to overcome the impact of difference in the interview process is to match some of their important status characteristics (e.g., race, age, gender, sexual preference) so that they can take advantage of their insider status in gaining access to an interview and obtaining cooperation and rapport within the situation in order to expedite understanding their participants.

Define INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARDS (IRBs)

INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARDS: ensure that studies using living participants are ethical and will not cause harm

Define INTERVIEW GUIDE

INTERVIEW GUIDE: a list of topics and/or questions constructed prior to the interview to be used at the discretion of the researcher

describe the different types of interview structures

INTERVIEW STRUCTURES: - variations in structure: highly structured, semi-structured and low-structured interviews 1. highly structured interviews - same questions for all subjects; interviewer controls topic - postpositivist and quantitative groundings - use to confirm and augment data from other methods - concrete answers and standardization facilitate comparisons - however, conversational flow constrained 2. semi-structured interview - questionnaire guides conversation, with freedom for variation - allows for unexpected directions and unanticipated respondent insights 3. low-structured interview - few, broad questions let topic-based conversation go wherever subject takes it - highly individual, nonstandardized - more structure means more researcher control

Define Interpretive Approaches

Interpretive approaches are based on the interpretation of interactions and the social meaning that people assign to their interactions. This perspective asserts that social term-27meaning is creating during interaction and people's interpretation of interactions. The implication is that different social actors may in fact understand social reality differently, producing different meaning and analyses.

What is Intersectionality theory?

Intersectionality theory examines the interlocking nature of race, class, gender, sexuality and nationality

define KNOWLEDGE-PRODUCING CONVERSATION

KNOWLEDGE-PRODUCING CONVERSATION: the qualitative interview is a special kind of knowledge producing conversation that occurs between two parties. The relationship between the interviewer and participant is critical to the process of constructing meaning

define LINE OF INQUIRY

LINE OF INQUIRY: Also known as domain of inquiry, each topic listed on the interview guide is known as a line of inquiry that you want to pursue during the interview session..

Explain Queer Theory as part of the Critical Strand in qualitative research

Like feminism and critical race theory, queer theory is an interdisciplinary, social justice-oriented perspective that seeks equality for the sexually marginalized. J. Michael Ryan (2007) notes that defining queer theory is particularly challenging because queer theory posits that "naming something constitutes a form of closere" (p. 633). With this said, the main tenets of queer theory can be delineated: 1. Queer theory rejects binary categorizations. Binary categorizations of sexuality and gender polarize difference and reinforce hierarchy. Stein and Plumer (1994) note the following as a main component of queer theory: "A conceptualization of sexuality which sees sexual power as embodied in different levels of social life, expressed discursively and enforced through boundaries and binary divides." (pp. 181-182). Stein and Plumer are suggesting that heterosexuality is normalized in different arenas (e.g., popular culture, education, religion, health care, the law), and researchers must study sexual discourses in these diverse contexts. 2. In this vein, Stein and Plummer assert all areas of social life are influenced by societal understandings of sexuality that must be interrogated. 3. Queer theory also problematizes traditional understandings of identity. Queer theorists assert that identity is not fixed but rather historically and socially constructed. 4. Moreover, queer theory rejects essentialist practices that erase differences and ignore the complexity of diversity as the result of multiple shifting and intersecting characteristics (e.g., sexual orientation, gender, race, ethnicity). In this regard, queer theory challenges more conventional identity politics. Queer theorists typically avoid using minority identity status (such as homosexual or bisexual) because such use reinforces and thus legitimizes these dominant categories.

Define MARKERS

MARKERS are important pieces of information that participants may offer as they talk about something else. It is important to remember and return to markers as appropriate.

Define Methodology

METHODOLOGY Harding (1987) explains that a methodology is a theory of how research does or should ensue. A researcher's particular methodology flows from a set of philosophical assumptions regarding ontological and epistemological beliefs held by the researcher and provides a bridge that brings philosophical assumptions together with research design (methods, analysis, and interpretation). SIMPLE WORDS: A methodology is, most simply, a strategy or plan for how a study will be executed. Methodology describes the rationale for choosing a specific method in your study. Methodology is more than methods though. Methodology guides your choice of methods and HOW you will use them. Methodologies are also linked to specific paradigms. What methodology you select is determined by the given paradigm you're working in. Methodology links the paradigms, theoretical perspectives, and research questions that serve to determine your strategy or plan of how you will answer your question, from the set of methods you select to gather the information pertaining to your problem to the analysis and interpretative steps you take to answer the question. Ex. although a quantitative and qualitative researcher may decide on using an interview methods, the specific type of interviewing method will depend on a researcher's paradigmatic point of view onto the social world. So, if i'm a positivist researcher, I will most likely select a survey given that I hold certain assumptions regarding the social world that assume the the social reality is knowable -- meaning that I assume there is a "truth" out there for me to ascertain. I want to be objective in how I go about obtaining knowledge, so I do not allow my own values and attitudes to enter into my research study. ex. If I were a qualitatively driven researcher whose goal is to understand the lived experience, my goal would be to privilege subjective experiences of those I study. I do not assume there is a truth out there waiting to be found, Instead, a core assumption I hold about the social world is that reality is multiple and fluid, and there are in turn, multiple truths out there waiting to be found. My stance toward my research participants is one of listening deeply and knowing and being aware of the attitudes and values that I bring into the research project. - If i'm studying eating disorders, I might want to first obtain hard numbers on the rates of eating disorders among college students, and in addition I might want to look for demographic differences among these individuals with the goal of testing out several hypotheses on the causes of eating disorders among college students. As a qualitatively driven researcher, I'll ask what the prevalence of eating disorders on the college campus is. This question assumes there is a number "out there" waiting to be found. On the other hand, a qualitatively driven researcher who privileges a more subjective understanding of eating disorders would be interested in the lived experiences of college students with eating disorders. The qualitative researcher would ask how college-aged women experience the stigma of having an eating disorder. To obtain answers to each of these two questions may require doing an interview, but the type of interview will be different. - In order to answer questions about the rate of eating disorders, a close-ended survey that asks specific questions on the frequency of eating disorder behaviours with the goal of gathering statistical data would better fit the goals of this particular study. - On the other hand, the second question regarding the lived experiences of college students with eating disorders would use an in-depth interview that allows for open-ended questions whose goal is to get at lived experience CRITICAL TAKEAWAY: One's methodology determines and guides the researcher through creating the research design, from question formulation through analysis and representation. Methology is the bridge that links a given researcher's paradigmatic assumptions with the overall enactment of a specific research design (methods selected, type of analysis and interpretation of research data)

Define the NUREMBERG CODE

NUREMBERG CODE: a code of ethics established after WW2 that begins with the stipulation that all research participation must be voluntary

how do you observe ethics in your own research?

OBSERVING ETHICS IN YOUR RESEARCH: - ethics codes vs. ethical values + follow ethical guidelines, but recognize that these codes cannot cover every situation + thus, ethical values are needed, moral obligations go beyond and underlie following letter of the law + ethics do not exist in a vacuum, but in particular contexts - ethical dilemmas in student research + review dilemmas and strategies in Table 2.1, p. 92 = research as therapy = inattention to safety precautions = use of family and friends as research subjects + short pilot studies, reflective memos and supervisor feedback are key

describe online focus groups

ONLINE FOCUS GROUPS: - instead of participants meeting in the same space at the same time, they meet on the internet in different spaces and times + asynchronous vs. synchronous, see table 6.1 - recruiting participants becomes much easier online with the use of eligibility surveys and wide variety of sources + may exclude some segments without Internet access - negates need for travel and offers freeing degree of anonymity to socializing with strangers - difficult to ensure no distractions and proper turn-taking - lack of nonverbal cues to emotional tenor of group + difficult to prevent misunderstandings - important to give and get feedback, and establish ground rules

how do you go about oNLINE in-depth interviewing?

ONLINE IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWING - traditional qualitative methods are being transformed under challenge of going online - online study can vary from synchronous (ongoing) to asynchronous (time lag) CHALLENGES - lack of visual cues to assess emotional climate + loss of meaning? BENEFITS: - better suit the needs of sensitive topic research - cuts recruiting and traveling costs - provides anonymity and protection - asynchronous methods open up a variety of time zones - as research moves online, communication boundaries may become fluid between "real" and "cyber"

Define Ontology - what is the impact on ontological assumptions? (3)

ONTOLOGY An Ontology is a philosophical belief system about the nature of social reality - what can be known and how. The conscious and unconscious questions, assumptions, and beliefs that the researcher brings to the research endeavour serve as the initial basis for an ontological position. A researcher's ontological assumptions impact topic selection, the formulation of research questions, and strategies for conducting research.

define OPEN-ENDED APPROACH

OPEN-ENDED APPROACH: under this frame the moderator imposes less structure on the interview situation

define OPEN-ENDED INTERVIEW

OPEN-ENDED INTERVIEW: in this type of interview, the researcher has a particular topic for the study, but he or she allows the conversation to go wherever the research participant takes it, and each interview becomes highly individual. This is also referred to as a low structure interview.

define OUTSIDER STATUS

OUTSIDER STATUS refers to major differences between the researcher and research participants, such as a difference in race, gender, social class, sexual orientation, educational level, and so on. The standard thinking on difference in the interview situation suggests that if the interviewer is an outsider this might make it more difficult for him or her to gain access to and understand the situation of "the other."

Define Paradigm

PARADIGM Thomas Kuhn (1962) introduced the concept of "paradigm" to the scientific community by arguing that the practice of science is usually characterized by a particular paradigm or way of thinking. Kuhn noted that all knowledge is filtered through a paradigm or set of paradigms currently dominant within a particular discipline or field. A paradigm is a theoretically constructed worldview that provides the categories and concepts through and by which science and social science construct and understand the world. Paradigms are socially constructed approaches to knowledge building. You can think of a paradigm as a way of seeing the social world that carries with it a particular point of view about the knowledge-building process-- what can be known, who can know, and how researchers should go about studying the social world around us. Paradigms are not "real" but instead should be considered useful or not useful lenses for pursuing the research problems and questions you might want to address in your own research.

how do you conduct peer-to-peer reciprocal interviewing?

PEER-TO-PEER RECIPRICOL INTERVIEWING - places peers into a reciprocal and participatory model + research participants interview each other as a way to create more symmetry in power - fosters a dyadic relationship + each person is trained in interviewing skills by the researcher heading up the study + paired up by crucial status factors + participants take turns asking and responding in co-creation process. - may also be a way to enable individuals to talk about highly sensitive topics + pairs those who might have experienced a similar sensitive issue + ex. highet (2003) adolescent cannabis study LIMITATIONS - peer difference may require reflexivity - requires an additional layer of resources and time for training and debriefing - confidentiality concerns for peer interviews' network - compensation considerations

Define PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS

PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS: may go unstated or unexamined but are crucial underpinnings to the research enterprise and help shape its process. These assumptions brought to research should be reflected on with regard to how you see the social world and what you believe can be known about it.

Define POSITIVISM

POSITIVISM: positivists view social reality as knowable. There is a real world out there waiting to be researched. One of the key tenets of positivism is the practice of objectivity. Researchers are expected not to allow their own values to intervene in their research project, thus preventing researcher bias from entering into the research process.

what are some preliminary tips for data analysis?

PRELIMINARY TIPS FOR DATA ANALYSIS: - write fairly complete memo every time your work takes a new direction - you may present/publish with subsample theme alone - periodically draft project outline - appreciate uniqueness of each interview + summary sheet for each interview recommended - may test out ideas and hypotheses on respondents - pay attention to extreme cases + deviant cases can be very informative

how do you prepare an interview guide?

PREPARING AN INTERVIEW GUIDE: - a list of topics and/or questions used to conduct the interview + settle on abstract prioritized topics, or lines of inquiry + create questions to ask after each line + important analytical preparation this helps the researcher identify key ideas and think about what they might like to ask - pilot interviews help test out guide in advance + can the modified to better suit needs? + is the guide clear and readable? + does the guide cover all the topical areas you are interested in?

Define PROBE

PROBE: the researcher's way of getting a participant to continue with what he or she is talking about, to go further or to explain more, perhaps by virtue of an illustrative example. Sometimes a probe is simply a sign of understanding and interest that the researcher puts forward to the interviewee.

Define PURPOSIVE SAMPLE

PURPOSIVE SAMPLE: also known as a Judgement Sample. Respondents are chosen to participate in a study based on their particular characteristics as determined by the specific goals of the research project. So, for example, a research study may call for respondents who are female and between the ages of 20 and 30. A researcher will select respondents within these specific age and gender parameters.

What is phenomenology?

Phenomenology seeks to understand experience, arguing that there is not one reality in which events are experienced. Phenomenology had its early roots in the 18th century. Phenomenology is closely associated with European philosophy in the early 1900s, most notably in the works of German philosopher Edmund Hesserl and French phenomenologist Merleau-Ponty (1963). Husserl was interested in human consciousness as the way to understand social reality, particularly how one "thinks" about experience, in other words, how consciousness is experienced. To understand how consciousness operated enables us to capture how individuals create an understanding of social life. Husserl was especially interested in how individuals consciously experience an experience. How s it that we become aware of these experiences? Alfred Schutz, a colleague of Husserl, brought the phenomenological perspective to American sociology and was particularly interested in how individuals process experience in their everyday lives. Phenomenologists were critical of the natural sciences for assuming an objective reality independent of individual consciousness. Phenomenology is not only a philosophy but also a research method for capturing the lived experiences of individuals. Phenomenologists are interested in questions such as these: - how do individuals experience dying? (Kubler-Ross, 1969) - how does one experience depression (Karp, 1997) - how does one experience divorce? (Kohler-Riessman, 1987) - how does one experience the bodily aspects of pregnancy? (Pillow, 2006) For phenomenologists, there is not one reality to how each of these events is experienced. Experience is perceived along a variety of dimensions: how the experience is lived in time, space, vis-à-vis our relationships to others, and as a bodily experience. Phenomenologists use a variety of methods, such as observations, in-depth interviews, and looking at written accounts of these experiences in materials such as diaries. Ex. interview q: - can you tell me what it's like to live with depression (terminal illness, an eating disorder)? In sum, phenomenology is a qualitative approach aimed at generating knowledge about how people perceive experience.

Explain positivism

Positivism Positivist social thought emanated out of the late 1800s, which saw the rise in rationalist thinking and is often referred to as the scientific method. Perhaps positivism's most basic assumption about knowledge building is that there exists "truth" independent of the research process. A fundamental ontological and epistemological assumption of positivism is that the social world can be knowable and predictable. It is also governed by rules that allow the researcher to discern patterns of behavior. It is therefore possible to posit causal relationships between phenomena usually measured as variables that the positivist seeks to identify and explain. Positivists rely on a more deductive model of logic whose goal is theory testing. They frame their research questions as hypotheses that set up causal relationships between variables. An example of a hypothesis might be something like this: - the higher the education (a variable that takes on numerical values, for example, from high education to low education), the lower the fertility rate (a variable that takes on numerical values, for example, from high to low) among women. A key idea of positivist inquiry is that in carrying out a research project, the researcher must practice objectivity. Researchers need to remain value-free, a process whereby they remain objective by bracketing their particular values or attitudes toward a given topic and do not intervene in the process of empirical investigation. It is objectivity in the service of knowledge building and not subjectivity or experiential knowledge that is valued. In fact, subjectivity is devalued in this view of knowledge building. You can see, given the assumptions about reality and knowledge construction, that this perspective is more congruent with quantitative analysis; however, some qualitative researchers may also choose to work from this kind of theoretical framework. Positivism is a classical term, but more contemporary positivists call themselves "postpositivists" "neopositivists," or "critical realists." All three of these terms are variations on the classical positivist term and share at their core the basic tenets of positivism but differ on some tenets by degree rather than as sharp break from this classical term.

Describe the epistemology through which quantitative practice developed as the model of science

Positivist science holds several basic beliefs about the nature of knowledge, which together form positivist epistemology, the cornerstone of the quantitative paradigm. Positivism holds that there is a knowable reality that exists independent of the research process. The social world, similar to the natural world, is governed by rules, which result in patterns. Accordingly, causal relationships between variables exist and can even be identified, proven, and explained. Thus, patterned social reality is predictable and can potentially be controlled. The quantitative approach to the study of body image can be understood as a manifestation of these assumptions: there is a knowable, predictably reality that exists "out there" constituted by clear causal relationships, such as patterned and predictable relationships between gender and race and multiple dimensions of eating disorder vulnerability identified as existing regardless of the research process and subsequently "tested" in our earlier example. Positivism places the researcher and the researched, or knower and what is knowable, on different planes within the research process. The researcher and the research, or subject and object, are conceptualized in a dichotomous model. Not only is there a rigid division between subject and object, but it is a hierarchical division in which the researcher is privileged as the knower. This is particularly important in the social sciences where data are largely derived from human subjects who, under this framework, become viewed as objects for research processes: they are acted on by others -- the knowers.

Explain Post-Structuralism as part of the Critical Strand in qualitative research

Post-structural research is a subversive process of break down unities (such as meta-narratives) and decentering the locus of research in order to create situated knowledges that challenge dominant ideology. This is necessarily an engaged process. One method of pursuing this project is called CRITICAL DECONSTRUCTION: a method of oppositional reading whereby the goal is to counter the more visible textual interpretation by revealing the more subjugated/unconscious textual meaning. During a discussion of the oppression of women within the symbolic and material realms, Luce Irigaray explained deconstruction as follows: "It is surely not a matter of interpreting the operation of a discourse while remaining within the same type of utterance as the one that guarantees discursive coherence... the issue is not one of elaborating a new theory... but of jamming the theoretical machinery itself, of suspending its pretension to the production of a truth and of a meaning that are excessively univocal." Post-structuralism is concerned with creating transformational tension within the social system itself, rather than producing knowledge that feeds the system. In this vein, Jacques Derrida (1966), who has been at the forefront of changing how researchers think about knowledge and its production, urges a method of critical deconstruction in which that which has been marginalized through social historical processes is transformed into the locus of investigation. Derrida also advocates breaking down unities in order to expose that which has been rendered invisible in dominant discourse.

Define Post-structuralism

Post-structuralism is an engaged theoretical approach that advocates breaking down unities, decentering, and subversive practice.

Define Postmodernism

Postmodern theories focus on the prominence of dominant ideology and the discourses of power that normalize this ideology to the maintenance of a dominant world order - locally, nationally and globally.

Explain Postmodernism as part of the Critical Strand in qualitative research

Postmodernism focuses on the prominence of dominant ideolgy and the discourses of power that normalize this ideology to the maintenance of a dominant world order- locally, nationally and globally. In particular, the discursive logic that accompanies the postmodern capitalist system is investigated. Frederic Jameson, who has contributed immeasurably to the development of postmodern theory, explains that we must examine the "culture logic of late capitalism" (also called postmodernity), which is both a moment and discourse. Antonio Gramsci (1929) explains that people partly consent to their own oppression through the internalization of dominant ideology. In other words, hegemonic authority is maintained because, as Foucault (1976) explains, our ideas become the chains that bind us best. Being social creatures, our ideas are not simply created in our minds, but are rather a part of a larger social, political, symbolic, and discursive context with its own materiality. The project of postmodern scholarship thus becomes accessing "subjugated knowledges" in order to transform power relations. Because all knowledge is produced within shifting fields of power, research must be historically engaged. Generally speaking, postmodern researchers aim at creating embodied truths that are not disconnected from the historical material realities that produced them. In this way, knowledge produced from a postmodern approach is grounded in ongoing historical processes and the power-knowledge relations in which it is enmeshed.

Compare and Contrast the qualitative and quantitative approaches based on their: - ontology - epistemology - methodology - methods used

QUANTITATIVE APPROACH: Positivism (critical realism and post-positivism are considered variations on this overall approach). Ontology (what is the nature of the social world): - assumes a truth out there waiting to be found Epistemology (what can be known? who can be a knower?): - the social reality is knowable. There is truth out there waiting to be found. Research must be objective and not allow values and attitudes to enter into research inquiry. Methodology (theoretical perspective: research questions): - positivist perspective: goal is to describe causal relationships framed with variable language - stresses causality and a deductive mode of inquiry - seeks confirmation through testable hypotheses. Seeks social facts that lie outside individuals' meanings. - How is experience shaped by the outside reality? Methods Used (analysis and interpretation of data): - emphasizes the importance of qualitative measurement techniques and measures. Emphasis on the creation of variables in order to come up with testable hypotheses - looks for causal relationships outside of the individual that can predict human behaviour. Employs statistical analysis with the goal of generalizing research findings. QUALITATIVE APPROACH: Interpretative and critical perspectives are two umbrella approaches. Ontology (what is the nature of the social world): - assumes a reality where there are multiple truths and privileges multiple realities and constructivism Epistemology (what can be known? Who can be the knower?): - the social reality is knowable but subjective. There are multiple truths out there. Goal is to understand the intersubjective nature of reality. Methodology (theoretical perspective: research questions): - interpretative perspective stresses the importance of induction as a mode of inquiry. Seeks to generate theories of the social world. Asks how the world is experienced subjectively by a range of others - critical theorists would ask question regarding the power relationships that hold dominant socially constructed points of view in place such that they seem to be truths Methods Used (Analysis and Interpretation of data): - emphasis is on capturing subjective meaning - seeks research methods that can enable understanding lived reality from multiple perspectives - uses analytical methods to get at subjective understanding, such as grounded theory, with the goal of generating theory - interpretative techniques privilege lived experience and retain the worlds of participants' narratives with the goal of getting at the process of a given issue or problem under study.

Is qualitative research typically inductive or deductive

Qualitative research is typically inductive, although qualitative researchers use deductive techniques, for example, in the analysis of their data. This means projects frequently begin with the accumulation of specific data, the analysis of which leads to a more general understanding of the topic. Therefore, guiding research questions are generally open-ended, allowing for a multiplicity of findings to emerge.

How does qualitative research incorporate the concept of a hypothesis? (generally a feature of quantitative)

Quantitative research aims to CONFIRM a given hypothesis, unlike a qualitative approach, whose goal is to explore and discover subjective meaning. This does not mean, however, that qualitative researchers do not also develop ideas they also test out on their qualitative data. We might, for example, find that in our study of college students with eating disorders, we have a group of women, whom we label Group A, who appear more obsessed with issues of weight and appearance than a second group, Group B. Group B students do not talk about these issues very mucht. We might then begin to speculate about what makes these two groups so different by looking at what other factors we think might contribute to weight and appearance obsession, that are offered by research literature. So, for example, some of the literature on eating disorders looks at the impact of peer group pressure on weight and appearance, so we might see if there are any differences we can discern in the way in which Group A women and Group B women talk about their peers. You can see we are beginning to test out in a very informal way some of our hunches about what might be going in our qualitative data.

Define RAPPORT

RAPPORT: researchers help participants share their stories by building rapport. Participants must feel safe, comfortable, and as though what they are saying is valued. In order to accomplish this, researchers need to take the role of active listener while the interviewee is speaking. Showing genuine interest is critical to the establishment of rapport.

define RECIPROCAL INTERVIEWING

RECIPROCAL INTERVIEWING: an interviewing style that breaks down the hierarchal relationship between interviewer and interviewee by having research participants interview each other

how do you practice reflexivity in the interview process?

REFLEXIVITY - researcher recognizes how their own social background and assumptions can intervene in the research process - being aware of he differences between the researcher and the researched + anything that can impact the creation of knowledge (ex. power dynamics) - empowers the negotiation of difference and similarity for new insight + explore difference, not disavow - being mindful of the importance of difference to research project as a whole + the projects selected, questions asked, and way data are collected, analyzed, written and interpreted

Define REFLEXIVITY

REFLEXIVITY: a process whereby researchers engage in self-critical action that allows them to explore and critically evaluate how their own values, attitudes and biases may enter into the research process. It is the awareness and tending to this type of researcher bias that serves to make the research project more objective.

Define Research Methods

RESEARCH METHODS Methods are the tools that researchers use in order to gather data. A research method is a technique for gathering evidence. There are also analytical methods tools for analyzing data. ...Sandra Harding (1987) definition: "One can reasonably argue that all evidence-gathering techniques fall into one of the three categories: 1. listening to (or interrogation) informants 2. observing behaviour 3. examining historical traces and records" Qualitative researchers often use one or more of the following data-gathering and analytical methods (although this is not an exhaustive list): - ethnography or field research - interview - oral history - autoethnography - focus group interview - case study - discourse analysis - visual or audiovisual analysis - evaluation - historical comparative - ethnodrama - narrative inquiry

How are research questions designed in qualitative research?

Research questions typically begin with words like why, how, and what. For example, consider the following sample questions: - how do people with a racial minority status experience prejudice in their workplace? In what ways does this occur? How does this make people feel? How does this impact work productivity? How does this impact professional identity? - Why do many working women experience struggles to balance work and family? What is the nature of these struggles? How do working women cope with these challenges? What are the differences between working fathers' experiences and working mothers'? What are the differences between the experiences of white and minority women? - How do people experience divorce? What does the process entail on an emotional level? What does it mean to uncouple? How does this impact self-concept? - Why do students binge drink? In what contexts do they binge drink? what kinds of atmospheres promote binge drinking? How is binge drinking experienced by male and female students?

define SAMPLING PROCEDURE

SAMPLING PROCEDURE: the variety of sampling methods employed to collect data in any given research project. These methods can range from non-probability to probability types of sampling designs.

define SEGMENTATION

SEGMENTATION: a design feature that maximizes the benefits of homogeneity while allowing for comparison among populations; this is when each group consists of similar members but the different groups within the study as a whole are different from each other. segmentation is a way of stratifying groups based on the particular traits you want to examine difference (such as race or gender)

define SEMISTRUCTURED INTERVIEW

SEMISTRUCTURED INTERVIEW relies on a certain set of questions and try to guide the conversation to remain, more loosely, on those questions

Define SMALL SAMPLES

SMALL SAMPLES: qualitative approaches to research are often characterized by small sample sizes. The logic behind a smaller sample is that the researcher's goals is to collect in-depth information, trading breadth for depth. One of the downsides associated with small sample sizes is the ability of the researcher to generalize findings to a wider population. Qualitatively driven researchers might respond to this by saying that the goal of their study is to understand a given social process as opposed to generalizing their study's results to a wider population.

define STANDARDIZATION

STANDARDIZATION: each research participant answers the same set of questions so the conversation will not stray off topic

Explain step 4 of the research process: drawing a research sample. How do you draw a research sample?

STEP 4: DRAWING A RESEARCH SAMPLE - qualitative samples are typically small = focus on understanding, explaining, not generalizing - purposive sampling (16 types, more than one can be used) + respondents selected because of specific characteristics related to goals of research - depends on research question and resources available - purposive sampling procedure types + homogenous and stratified + convenience, theoretical, snowball - homogenous sample: + reducing variation in population of study in order to explore a particular problem - stratified sample: + ensures certain essential characteristics of subjects are included by crafting diversity - convenience sample + who is available and willing to serve in role - who has some specialized knowledge of the setting - ex. Agar (1996) ethnography informants - theoretical sample + common in grounded theory + researcher decides who or what to sample next based on making comparisons + references prior data from the same research project = may reach point of theoretical saturation * results are the same for new group of individuals * nothing new can be learned by sampling again * time to seek a new perspective * original meaning and measurement is contested - snowball + sampling from a known network to work around difficult access to a sample populationm - one research contact leads to another, and so on - ex. female abuse victims on college campuses

How do you determine method of data collection in step 5? STEP 5: DETERMINE METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

STEP 5: DETERMINE METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION - several collection methods may be used in pursuit of one question - consider close link between research question and method - ex. would an exploratory study be better suited to in-depth or structured interviews? - some methods, such as participant observation, will require further adjustment to fit research question + what will researcher role be? Complete participation? Complete observation?

How do you conduct step 6&7: how you will analyze and write up data?

STEP 6 AND 7: HOW YOU WILL ANALYZE AND WRITE UP DATA - select analysis tools that best allow you to get your chosen subjective experience - ex. grounded theory and content analysis - be sure to calibrate your writing level to your audience + where does your target audience place you on the writing style continuum - how much can be assumed? how much detail is required?

describe how step 8: detail issues of validity and limitation is conducted

STEP 8: DETAIL ISSUES OF VALIDITY AND LIMITATION: - validity: + tell you audience how you know whether your findings are plausible and credible + process, not end goal = gaining reader's trust - in qualitative research, validity means subjecting one's findings to competing claims + refute all falsification attempts - important to discuss the limitations of your study = they will affect your conclusions and the generalizations you make - strength, not weakness + acknowledging limitations increases trustworthiness and validity - though not generalizable in the quantitative sense, qualitative results contain analytic generalizability + discover of underlying social forms

define STRUCTURED INTERVIEW

STRUCTURED INTERVIEW: a structured interview means the researcher asks each participant the same series of questions. If the participant strays too much from the topic at hand, or says some interesting things that aren't directly relevant to the study, the interviewer guides the conversation back to the interview questions.

Define SUBJECTIVE MEANING

SUBJECTIVE MEANING: Although qualitative research paradigms may differ in terms of their assumptions regarding the extent to which knowledge can be objective, most qualitative paradigms agree on the importance of the subjective meanings individuals bring to the research process and acknowledge the importance of the social construction of reality.

Describe STEP 1 of Creating a Research Design: Step 1: Reflect on Your Own Research Standpoint Before You Begin

Step 1: Reflect on Your Own Research Standpoint Before You Begin Whether aware of it or not, all researchers start their projects with a certain set of values and ideas about social reality and the ways that it can be known. This makes up their researcher positionality. A researcher's given positionality is a strong factor in guiding their questions and research design process. The values and beliefs that make up one's researcher position often solidify into the type of research paradigm a researcher maps onto the research process. Being able to identify and articulate your research position before you start your project is critical because it serves as an important guide to making coherent, ethical and theoretically informed choices at every stage of the research process. Any given research paradigm or position that a researcher adopts also provides a window onto social realities that may be unseen from a different position. The following provides you with some tips on how to begin the reflexivity process when conducting your own research: REFLEXIVITY: TIPS FOR STUDENT RESEARCHERS Reflexivity is the awareness that "all knowledge is affected by the social conditions under which it is produced; it is grounded in both the social location and the social biography of the observer and the observed" (Mann & Kelley, 1997, p. 392). Critical reflexivity denotes an understanding of the diversity and complexity of one's own social location and knowing the differences, and, frequently, "internal contradictions... complicate and enrich the analysis" conducted in a qualitative research project (Bardnt, 2008, p. 355). A useful way for beginning researchers to practice reflexivity is to take about 20 minutes to complete the following exercise. This exercise is adapted from Hesse-Biber and Piatelli (2007, p. 510): Take 20 minutes and write down the various ways your position in society impacts the way you observe and perceive others in your daily life. Answer the following questions: - what particular biases, if any, do I bring to or impost onto my own research? - how do my specific values, attitudes, and theoretical perspectives influence the research style I take on? How do my values, attitudes, and beliefs enter into the research process? Do I ask questions only from my own perspective? - how does my own agenda shape what I ask and what I find? - how does my position on these issues impact how I gather, analyze, and interpret my data? From whose perspective do I perform these actions? In addition, you might begin to keep a research journal where you write down your reflections on the research process as your project proceeds. Look over what you wrote on a weekly basis, and reflect on your journal entries. - Are there some common themes that characterize your weekly journal reflections? - How do your attitudes and values enter into the research process, and do they compromise the research process in any way?

Describe STEP 2 of Creating a Research Design: Step 2: Maintain a Tight Link Between the Research Question and Your Research Design

Step 2: Maintain a Tight Link Between the Research Question and Your Research Design As discussed in Chapter 1, methodology is a bridge between our philosophical standpoint (onotology and epistemology) and methods; it is related to how we carry out or research. Methodologies are derived from our assumptions about the nature of existence (ontology) and are also linked to our viewpoint on the nature of knowledge building (epistemology), which guides how we produce knowledge and decide what can be known and who can be the knower. The research problem we select is often tied to how we engage methodologically with the concrete social world, including the methods we select to answer problems. The Case Study on pages 48-50 reveals how important it is to maintain your link to your research question as you begin your research design. What it also reveals is that sometimes you may need to shift your original research design because it doesn't fit your overall research problem: CASE STUDY Sociologist Joseph Diaz (1999) started out as a classical ethnographer trained in a positivist paradigm, a worldview of social reality that assumes his positivistic perspective provides him with a ready-made window onto the social world. His paradigm assumes social reality is ordered and an objective reality is out there waiting to be found. Diaz wanted to conduct a modern ethnography of a plasma-buying clinic located on the Las Vegas Strip. He began his research project by noting the following: "I intended to write a colourful, but "classical" ethnography where I find causes, effects, and decipher the hidden codes of the plasma donors and workers. I think I owe this default approach to inquiry to my training as a quantitative methodologist, which teaches, within the positivist perspective, that there is a knowable reality." (Diaz, 1999, p. 1) What Diaz soon found out, much to his dismay, is that this window onto the social world wasn't working for him. "In the early data gathering phase of this study, I had to admit that the "plasma experience" appeared neither homogenous nor easily modeled as a finite and discrete set of causes and effects. When I noticed that my notes, thoughts, experiences, beliefs and observations regarding my plasma-donating experiences were often contradictory with each other, I realized my approach needed to change. In short, I sought to find a "Truth" which I soon realized does not exist in human interaction and experience.... I tried, therefore, to employ the approach that seemed most appropriate to this confusing, and often self-contradictory practice of selling plasma: The Postmodern Ethnography." the reality of events unfolding in the plasma clinic was highly subjective and filled with contradiction, and Diaz soon found himself playing a crucial role in the data gathering and interpretation of that world. As a participant observer, he uncovered a series of multiple realities or "tales" of plasma donor experiences, including his own: "In this study I accept the postmodern notion that an author can never be truly objective... nor can the descriptions [of] events, people, places, and situations be entirely "true," concretely factual, or objectively representative... Instead of attempting to remove myself (the author) from the study and pretend that my assumptions and interpretations of given events are correct and irrefutable, as one might in a "classical ethnography," I will instead make my presence in the study explicit and will respond to occurrences and evoke emotions and thoughts rather than try to define a given event or situation."(Diaz, 1999, p. 2) Diaz started out his research project with a set of philosophical assumptions concerning the nature of the social world. These assumptions may often go unstated and unexamined, but they are crucial underpinnings to the research enterprise and help shape its process. The philosophical framework -- the underlying values and ideas or theoretical paradigm of a research enterprise -- guide our interpretation of reality regarding some core metaphysical issues such as these: - what is the nature of social reality? - what is the nature of the individual (the individual's concept of social reality and humanity, or ontology)? - how is knowledge constructed? - who can be a knower? - what can be known? (What is the individual's particular view of epistemology?) Diaz's philosophical viewpoint took a dramatic turn as he began to conduct participant observation at a plasma clinic in the Southwest. He found that he had shifted his viewpoint toward a different view of social reality, toward that of a qualitatively driven ethnographer whose basic orientation embraces an interpretative approach to social reality, where the goal is to understand and explore the nature of social life. The basic questions of his research moved toward comprehending the lived reality of those who regularly donate blood at the plasma clinic. His research questions reflected the overarching shift in his ontological and epistemological beliefs; namely, he viewed the social reality as constructed and believed in a theory of knowledge building that is open to multiple interpretations of the social world. His research question took the following shape: - how can we understand underlying social processes -- how people interact and make meaning from their participation as regular donors to this clinic? Paradigms and worldviews are neither right nor wrong; one way of seeing is another way of not seeing. However paradigms are powerful ways of looking at that reality, and they are windows giving us information about the social world, and often framing the particular questions we seek to answer. Diaz realized that he needed to shift how he was approaching his research topic, and this, in turn, necessitated a redesigning of his original research question as well as overall research design. Diaz also demonstrates the power of reflecting on the tight fit between your question and research design. And, when things don't fit, researchers need to be willing to recalibrate their approach as a whole to obtain a between fit between the two components - the question and the design.

Describe STEP 3 of Creating a Research Design: Step 3: Formulate Your Research Question: What Do You Want to Ask?

Step 3: Formulate Your Research Question: What Do You Want to Ask? - Use open-ended questions for inductive theory generation - "what" questions are exploratory and descriptive of social phenomena ex. what are women's perceptions of their bodies? - "how" questions are explanatory of how meaning is constructed ex. body image: how do these perceptions differ, if at all, by race ethnicity? - "why" questions seek understandings and explanations of social processes ex. weaving of macro- and micro-understanding

Define Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic Interactionism examines the interaction between individuals and small groups, between individuals and objects, and between individuals and small groups, on the one hand, and objects on the other. This approach suggests that this interaction process is an interpretive and meaning-making endeavour where shared symbols and used to communicate meaning. Symbolic interactionism was pioneered by two American sociologists, Charles Horton Cooley (1902) and George Herbert Mead (Morris, 1934). The term was coined by Herbert Blumer (1969), a student of Mead's, and Blumer is credited with carrying forth the tradition of Mead's writing and further conceptualizing and expanding this perspective. Symbolic interactionism posits that people act differently with different people in different situations. People also act differently toward the different objects they encounter. The source of these differential actions and reactions is the meaning we attach to particular people, interactions, and objects as well as our perception of those interactions. For example, a religious person responds differently to a necklace with a symbol of his or her religion, such as a cross or Star of David, as compared to a purely decorative necklace. The difference in reaction results from the meaning people assign to the object. According to a symbolic interaction perspective, these meanings develop out of ongoing social interactions. Social meanings are therefore created and re-created through an interpretive process. In turn, these meanings shape attitudes, influence behaviours, and help people determine how to act "appropriately" in different situations. Symbolic interactionism is interested in questions such as these: - What meaning do people place on objects? - How do people interpret facial expressions and gestures as part of meaning making?

Explain the interpretive strand of paradigms

THE INTERPRETIVE STRAND This set of diverse paradigmatic approaches to research focuses on understanding, interpretation, and social meaning. Furthermore, interpretive approaches presuppose that meaning is socially constructed via the interaction between humans or between humans and objects. Therefore, meaning does not exist independent of the human interpretive process. Researchers working from interpretive traditions value experience and perspective as important sources of knowledge. Interpretive approaches are associated with the hermeneutic tradition, which is about seeking deep understanding by interpreting the meaning of interactions, actions, and objects. This perspective posits that the only way to understand social reality is from the perspective of those enmeshed within it. Writing his most important work, in the 1920s, titled Sein und Zei (Being and Time), German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1962) asserted that understanding is inseparable from the human condition. He notes that our understanding of the social world is situated in reflecting on our everyday lives and existence. It is this 20th-century philosophical stance that informs interpretive approaches to research. - symbolic interactionism - dramaturgy - phenomenology - ethnomethodology

explain the conjecture between the principle and the reality of informed consent

THE PRINCIPLE AND THE REALITY: - some researchers have been careless with informed consent + some participants can't understand the full extent of project + careless practices have disastrous consequences - full disclosure + difficult when execution of inductive research may raise unanticipated opportunities and unexpected dilemmas + IRB guidelines stain certain research projects (ethnography) + balance must be struck between inclusion and protection, particularly of vulnerable populations - researchers may be attempting to protect or not remain tied to a particular research goal = cover story - participant refusal is sometimes mistakenly seen as failure of researcher + may attempt coercion - sometimes want for social change might make ethical guidelines appear not in the best interests of respondents + ex. baez (2002) confidentiality conundrum in minority faculty tenure discrimination + respondents are now challenging right to show identity for empowerment purposes - ethics are a doorway to reflexivity and an ongoing process

Define THEORETICAL SAMPLING

THEORETICAL SAMPLING: Another important type of purposive sample, this kind of sample is often used as a part of a grounded theory approach to research. Glaser and Strauss (1967) define theoretical sampling as "the process of data collection for generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes and analyzes his data and decides what data to collect next and where to find them in order to develop ... theory as it emerges" (p. 65).

Define THEORY GENERATION

THEORY GENERATION: Instead of testing out a hypothesis (X is thought to cause Y), the researcher's goal is to explore a social phenomenon to come up with some type of theoretical framework or explanation that serves to place his or her research findings in a wider explanatory context.

Define TRAJECTORY

TRAJECTORY: research questions are grounded in a philosophical standpoint regarding the nature of reality, but they are also guided by a range of factors such as academic and personal interests, abilities, social values, and access of the researcher to the particular economic and lifestyle resources. All of these determine the type of research trajectory for a given research project.

What is Qualitative Research? - goal - focus - tools of analysis - how numbers are incorporated

The goal is qualitative research is to obtain an understanding of a social issue or problem that privileges subjective and multiple understandings. Qualitative researchers are after MEANING. The social meaning people attribute to their experiences, circumstances, and situations, as well as the meanings people embed into texts, images, and other objects are the focus of qualitative research. Therefore, at the heart of it, qualitative researchers extract the co-created meanings they gather from their participants' data in order to get multiple subjective accounts. The focus of research is generally words, texts, and images as opposed to gathering statistical data (numbers) which would test out hypotheses using a variable language, with the goal of generalizing and confirming their research hypotheses. However, this does NOT mean that qualitative researchers do not use numbers or that quantitative researchers do not use words. Numbers can be used by a qualitative researcher as a way to summarize some of the major qualitative themes generated from participants' in-depth interviews. Ex. when Delia talks about her eating disorder she often uses words that focus on weight and appearance. In her interview, she also uses the word thin and fat several times. She also mentions appearance-related words such as pretty and good facial features. We might want to obtain a frequency count of the number of times Delia mentions words related to weight and appearance in order to get a quantitative measure of just how focused her narrative is on weight and appearance issues across her interview. - doing this frequency count might serve as an important quantitative indicator of just how focused Delia is on these two issues in her entire interview. - we might want to compare Delia's word counts on these two issues with others in the study, in order to get a sense of how often these weight-and appearance-related words appear across the interviews collected for the entire study - we then might want to compare and contrast participants whose frequency count is high or low with regard to weight, appearance issues, and so on.

What forms the philosophical basis of a research project? What is the Philosophical Framework of Research Inquiry? (5)

The researcher's ontological and epistemological positions form the philosophical basis of a research project. This philosophical foundation impacts every aspect of the research process, including topic selection, question formulation, method selection, sampling and research design. 1. Ontology - What's out there to know? 2. Epistemology - What and how can know about it? 3. Methodology: - How can we go about acquiring that knowledge 4. Methods - which precise procedures can we use to acquire it? 5. Sources - Which data can we collect?

What are the 3 types of primary research purposes that help guide the type of research question you will ask?

The three types of primary research purposes are: 1. Exploratory - seeks to investigate an under-researched aspect of social life 2. Descriptive - seeks to richly describe the aspect of social reality under investigation 3. Explanatory - seeks to explain an aspect of social life Knowing your overall research purpose (to explore, describe, or explain) is a critical way to guide your formulating research question that in turn leads to the selection of an appropriate method that is best suited to address this particular type of question. Reflecting on the purpose of your research also ensures that you will have a tight fit between the research purpose, the question, and the method.

What is the process of analytical induction?

There is an iterative qualitative inductive methods practice between data collection, data analysis, and theory generation in a process known as analytical induction. As one collects data, one also interprets it and formulates a range of ideas to test out on additional data collected and so on. There is dynamic interaction between Steps 6 (data collection), 7 (data analysis), and 3 (hypothesis formulation). Data collection and data analysis can lead to the creation of ideas and hypotheses concerning the data. This, in turn, might lead the researcher to collect specific types of data via a particular sampling procedure (Step 5), that is, sampling specific cases to test out these ideas (theoretical sampling). Researchers move back and forth in the steps of research, almost as if they are doing a dynamic dance routine. The steps are often unstructured, subject to what type of data the researchers happen to obtain, and researchers are open to trying new approaches at a moment's notice. There is no one right approach or set routine to follow, one must be open to discovery. THE DYNAMIC DANCE: THE PROCESS OF INDUCTION IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: (in a circle) - look for patterns in data - formulate tentative ideas (hypothesis) to explore by gathering more data - generation of theory - start by gathering observations - look for patterns in data

Define VALIDITY

VALIDITY: Positivists are interested in validity especially as it is concerned with the measures they employ in their research. Measurement validity asks whether the measure actually reflects the specific reality it is purported to measure. Researchers working within the qualitative paradigm conceptualize validity differently than traditional positivist conceptions of the term. Generally speaking, validity is one of the issues researchers address as they make a case or argument that the knowledge they have produced is reflective of the social world and is compelling.