Nuclear World Midterm
Henri Becquerel
19th century French physicist studying different minerals that glow in the dark; he wrapped photographic plate in black paper and set it against a substance containing uranium. When light passed through the black paper the photographic plates had large black prints; huge discovery that shows something is special about uranium
MAUD Committee and MAUD Report (1941)
British committee led by Frederick Lindemann to determine feasibility of the atomic bomb; Communications between MAUD and Americans resulted in identification of uranium as the main option for the bomb. The 1941 MAUD report outlined the possible production for a bomb. This report was sent to the US providing encouragement for an extensive uranium research program in America. The MAUD report advocated for the US to work more quickly to develop the bomb, determined uranium was the right material for the bomb, and estimated that a mass of 25 kilograms of active uranium would be the same as 1800 tons of TNT.
Vannevar Bush
Head of the office of science research and development; coordinated uranium committee and tried to restrict membership to American scientists (this shows the development of the National Security State here); Bush's main point is to emphasize secrecy and exclusivity
Semipalatinsk Test
Russians have the bomb; August, 1949
Robert Oppenheimer
" The Father of the Atomic Bomb." American theoretical physicist and professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley. Served as the Director of the Scientific branch of the Manhattan Project (Los Alamos). Resigned from his position after voicing serious philosophical and political reservations toward the use of nuclear weapons on civilian targets and communities. "I am become death, Destroyer of Worlds." After the war he becomes ostracized from society as the opposition to popular opinion of continued nuclear armament. Additionally, many question his communist sympathies.
NSC-68
1947 provided the blueprint for the militarization of the Cold War from 1950 to the collapse of the Soviet Union at the beginning of the 1990s." NSC 68 and its subsequent amplifications advocated a large expansion in the military budget of the United States, the development of a hydrogen bomb, and increased military aid to allies of the United States
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
1949 - brings alliance under nuclear umbrella; protects the freedom of its members especially when its targets include weapons of mass destruction, terrorism, and cyber attacks
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
19th century German experimenting with light rays; used Crookes tube and wrapped it in black cardboard and saw a fluorescent green light → called it the X ray; discovered this new ray that penetrates through covers
Truman Doctrine
947 - The principle that the US should give support to countries or peoples threatened by Soviet forces or Communist insurrection. First expressed in 1947 by US President Truman in a speech to Congress seeking aid for Greece and Turkey, the doctrine was seen by the Communists as an open declaration of the Cold War
Hibakusha
A Japanese word meaning "explosion-affected"; used to describe survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki; Need to continue to remember bombings because these people still face discrimination.
The World Set Free
A book written by H.G. Wells in 1913 who imagined a world with atomic weapons and nuclear warfare. The prophetic book predicted artificial radioactivity, and the harnessing of massive power of atomic radioactivity. The novel states that all of human history has been a military gathering of powers of destruction. Ultimately, humans develop the means to assure destruction. The only options, then, are either humanity's deterioration back to a state of barbarism or the creation of a world state. Humans decide for a world state, and Wells depicts a utopian global government which rises out of the ashes of nuclear war. Szilard reads this book, and later (after of course helping with the Manhattan Project) writes the Szilard Petition against outright use of the bomb.
Interim Committee
A secret high-level group created in May 1945 by United States Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of President Harry S. Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear energy; charged with a task to form a proper use of nuclear bombs during and postwar nuclear war policy; in part, b/c Truman did not have much foreign policy experience, and needed advice; Initial recommendations for both bombs on civilian centers by surprise; Target committee later determines the exact locations
Quebec Agreement
Agreement to share nuclear information between U.K. and U.S. in August, 1943. Leads to leaks to the Soviet Union; Klaus Fuchs is German (but comes from Britain) who gains information through Quebec Agreement and gives it to the Soviets
Trinity Test
Alarmorgordo, NM; America's extremely secret testing of an atomic bomb on July 16th, 1945; Laurence gives account of God-like power and harnessing of the sun; 100 miles of radiation spread; they find contaminated mules, even people, far away. Way more power than they expected
German nuclear program
April 1939 conference results in announcement of the search for Uranium; Nazis then build Haigerloch Nuclear Reactor and expanded their heavy water production through Norsk Gydro; They ultimately do not get much further, though, as the war turned and many Jewish scientists fled.
White House Press Release post Hiroshima
August 6, 1945 - Very dramatic; Talked about how much money it cost to cost, but how the bomb would pay dividends through a quick end to war, thus saving both resources and manpower; The U.S. also had to use it because of how much capital they had already poured into it (both human and monetary capital); Truman also romanticized the bomb by stating they were harnessing the basic power of the universe; They were defending freedom and democracy (it started from the fear of the Nazis, and now they can finally wipe out facism; Essentially, Truman laid out an already developed justification for the bomb
Adolf Hitler
Austrian born in 1889; Not a gifted student, tried to become an artist after WW1 where he served as a soldier and temporarily loses his eyesight from mustard gas (ironic); Becomes extremely political and joins right wing Nazis; German economy starts disintegrating and already powerful political organizations' attempts to help only create greater instability; Resent emerges for Treaty of Versailles and reparations; Nazis take advantage of this political and economic turmoil, promising a "New Germany;" Hitler becomes Chancellor 1933 → has racist rhetoric that he mixes in; Tries to consolidate industries through government resources, and does spark industrialization and the economy; Simultaneously, he uses propaganda to prevent opposing voices from surfacing; Really starts promoting Aryan race as his power consolidates; Then, he Invades Poland 1939 → Blitzkrieg in London in 1940; Head of Nazi party that, importantly, starts weapons expansion and experimentation, including nuclear weapons
Harry Truman
Became president in April 1945 after FDR died. Not much of an expert in foreign diplomacy, unlike FDR. Along with Henry Stimson, created the Interim Committee, a top-secret advisory board created to provide Truman with recommendations on nuclear policy and decision-making (ie. how should the USA use atomic weaponry against Japan). Participates in Potsdam conference and tells Stalin of weapon of mass destruction (although Stalin already knew); Truman ultimately chose to nuke Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Truman implements containment policy during his presidency through the Truman Doctrine (Direct challenge to soviet expansion and intervention in Greece and Turkey) and Marshall Plan (agreement to fund European democratic nations), which ultimately increases tensions and build up of weapons during Cold War; As tensions increase and Soviets get the bomb, containment policy goes away and expansionist policy becomes the norm (i.e. NSC-68)
Manhattan Project
Code name for the U.S. effort during World War II to produce the atomic bomb. Much of the early research was done in New York City by refugee physicists in the United States. Headed by Lieutenant General Leslie Groves. Massive scientific and industrial undertaking that required thousands of dollars of investment and coordination. Grand Design that included dozens of locations (including Berkeley, Richland, and Oak Ridge), and thousands of people. Remember for its secrecy and compartmentalization through the massive undertaking.
"You and the Atomic Bomb"
George Orwell. Published in October 1945, Orwell coins the term "Cold War." Talks of nuclear weapons as natural progression of technology, but warns against now mutually assured destruction; Relays extreme fear of totalitarian Gov't; According to him, only massive super powers will now emerge in struggle against one another; Point is that origins of cold war rests 100% in Nuclear Weapons
Albert Einstein
German physicist who developed the theory of relativity. Fled from Germany during WW2; wrote a letter with Szilard warning FDR about the Nazi's development of the bomb. Not an official member of the Manhattan Project, but felt pressure to be involved with scientific progress and halting of the Nazis.
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman
German scientists who discovered in 1938 that when atomic nucleus of the uranium atom was bombarded at high speed, it became unstable and split - releasing energy. This successfully sustained chain reaction quickly results in the beginnings of a Nazi bomb project in April 1939.
Franck Committee
Group of prominent scientists who wrote a report in June 1945 that said nuclear weapons can't remain a secret. They advocated for international control in fear of an international arms race. They also said that if the bomb was dropped, the US would lose public support and they don't want the US to fall behind in an arms race. They wanted to showcase the severity of this bomb to the world in an experiment. They warned against the destructive power of an all out attack
Leo Szilard
Hungarian-American physicist who helped conceive of the first sustained nuclear chain reaction in 1933, and was instrumental in initiating the Manhattan Project for the development of the atomic bomb. Wrote a letter to FDR with Einstein to warn about German advances in developing the atomic bomb which led to the formation of the Uranium Committee. He is representative of the Jewish scientist diaspora to the United States away from Germany during WW2. Later, he wrote a petition to Truman, asking him to inform Japan of the terms of surrender demanded by the allies, and allow Japan to either accept or refuse these terms, before America used atomic weapons.
Wernher von Braun
Important German physicist and engineer; eventually picked up by the US after the war and helps build missiles as a part of Operation Paperclip. Brilliant rocket scientist who helps create long-range missile prototypes (V-1 and V-2) and rocket-powered aircraft (Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet)
Enrico Fermi
Italian nuclear physicist (in the United States after 1939) who worked on artificial radioactivity caused by neutron bombardment and who headed the group that in 1942 produced the first controlled nuclear reaction
Potsdam Conference
July 17-August 2, 1945 - Truman wanted the war to stop and thought it was necessary to bring in the USSR. However, after he learned the Trinity Test had been successful, he gained confidence and realized he didn't need the Soviets. Thus, at Potsdam, he revealed a new and powerful weapon, and demanded that only Japanese surrender could stop total and utter destruction. On July 26, a joint statement by the big 3 was released demanding Japan accept unconditional surrender. When they did not, Truman started making plans for dropping the bomb.
Japanese Atomic Bomb Project
Led by Dr. Yoshio Nishina, the head of research at the RIKEN Institute. Despite a number of experiments and hundreds of workers, the project falls apart as the tide turns on Japan. Also, just not the compartmentalization and resources of the Manhattan Project.
Edward Teller
Molecular physicist who was marginalized by scientists in Manhattan project; eventually develops the hydrogen (thermonuclear) bomb. Responsible for the Mike Test and Operation Bravo; "Father of the Hydrogen Bomb"
Marie Curie
Notable female Polish/French chemist and physicist around the turn of the 20th century. Won two Nobel prizes. Did pioneering work in radioactivity. She is most famous for discovering and isolating radium which is more radioactive than uranium. Played an important role in discovering natural radioactivity; died of radiation poisoning; pioneer in studying the power of the atom and helped usher in the nuclear world and symbolized the positive and negative effects of the nuclear world; found the Radium Institute. Helps spark scientific interest and uncertainty in this observable natural radioactivity.
William Laurence
Official reporter hired as a public relations staff; was present for the Trinity Test and was the official insider of the Manhattan Project; U.S. public learns of Manhattan Project through his reports
Target Committee
Organized in late April with Groves and Oppenheimer as members; Zoomed in on possible sites to use the bomb; Stimson argued that it shouldn't be dropped on Kyoto because it had historical significance to Japan; Committee decided to drop the bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki once the weather cleared up around August 5
Origins of the Cold War
Orthodox View: argues that the Cold War was a series of battles US fought against the Soviet Union; the Soviets were the aggressors Revisionist View: 1960/70s view argues that the Cold War was rough unnecessarily because the US was an expansionist state and wanted to control the channels of the world economy Post Cold War View: both sides were partially held responsible
Einstein and Szilard Letter
Penned August 2, 1939, this letter written by Szilard and Einstein was sent to FDR as a warning about the development of atomic bombs by the Germans, and a recommendation for the United States to start its own Nuclear Program. Letter indicates the possibility of a bomb with immense destructive capabilities from a sustained chain reaction. FDR response authorizes funds for a committee to explore Uranium and its uses (i.e. the Uranium committee). Ultimately, this letter and FDR's response leads to the Manhattan project.
Paul Tibbets
Pilot of the Enola Gay, The plane that carried and dropped the first atomic bomb; After he drops the bomb, he really does not care; talks about not losing sleep, just doing his job
Acheson-Lilienthal Report
Plan on how to develop atomic energy in a peaceful manner proposed before the start of the Cold War; Recommendation of international committee and control including Soviets and open scientific communication; Oppenheimer is behind the scenes; As distrust of Stalin increases, the plan slips away
Operation Crossroads
Post-World War II nuclear testing at Bikini atoll; Able underwater test on July 1, 1946; Soviets know of continued testing, and really start believing in one dimensional diplomacy of U.S. calling for international control; Continued U.S. testing leads to Soviet Response
Uranium Committee
President Roosevelt responded to the call for government support of uranium research quickly but cautiously. He appointed Lyman J. Briggs, director of the National Bureau of Standards, head of the Advisory Committee on Uranium, which met for the first time on October 21, 1939. The committee, including both civilian and military representation, was to look into the current state of research on uranium to recommend an appropriate role for the federal government. In early 1940 the Uranium Committee recommended that the government fund limited research on isotope separation as well as Fermi's and Szilard's work on chain reactions at Columbia. Ultimately, the S-1 Committee became a lot more secretive under guidance of Vannevar Bush.
FDR
President during WW2 (1933-1945); Internationalist who sought to expand American influence during presidency; However, he wanted to maintain neutrality in the war, so, he pledged the United States to the "good neighbor" policy. This policy was neutral and noninterventionist by nature so that the U.S. could expand its economic and diplomatic interests abroad (this even includes deals with the Nazis). He also sought, through neutrality legislation, to keep the United States out of the war in Europe. But as the war progressed and it became clear that the U.K. needed American help, neutrality became all but impossible. FDR was tolerant, and decidedly less hostile to the Soviet Union - The Grand Alliance; However, as war came to an end, tensions and rivalry between Soviets and FDR increased
James F. Byrnes and role with Soviets
Sent by Truman to go to Stalin and establish relationship of trusteeship of control over Atomic energy and weapons. In turn, UN would create advisory board, but Soviets say no to having their facilities inspected; and they develop view of one-sided expansion by U.S. Leads to Warsaw Pact vs. NATO
Short Term vs. Long Term causes of Hiroshima
Short Term: concerns with Japanese resistance and the want for a quick end to WW2 Long Term: Modernity, Industrialization and the Rise of the Machines and mass production; The "Visible Hand" of the working class and the emergence of bureaucracy (and compartmentalization); Population Expansion; Modernity of Science
Richland, Washington
Site of massive plutonium development
George Kennan
Sovietologist, and "father of containment;" His containment policy becomes the policy of the US; Worked at the Russian embassy; In 1947 he posted an article about how he was skeptical of Moscow's international policy (essentially, Soviets are expansionary); called this the "long telegram;" Claimed that the Russians are expansionists and that U.S. should employ a multilateral strategy to CONTAIN not DESTROY; Called for this by use of diplomacy, psychology and restructuring allies (having Germany as an ally); Wanted to curb Russian influence; His Skepticism and detail of Russian expansionary tendency leads to Russian Bear mentality
Bernard Baruch (The Baruch Plan)
Tapped by Truman to lead Nuclear advisory board; His 1946 Plan called for: Extend to all countries the exchange of basic scientific information for peaceful conclusions; implement control of nuclear power to the extent necessary to ensure its use only for peaceful purposes; eliminate from national armaments atomic weapons and all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction; establish effective safeguards by way of inspection and other means to protect complying States against the hazards of violations and evasions proposal was rejected by the Soviet Union because they feared the plan would preserve American nuclear monopoly. Soviets said they would only agree to inspections only if the US halted bomb production and destroy all their weapons
Szilard Petition
The Szilárd petition, drafted by scientist Leo Szilard, was signed by 70 scientists working on the Manhattan Project in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago, Illinois. It was circulated in July 1945 and asked President Harry S. Truman to inform Japan of the terms of surrender demanded by the allies, and allow Japan to either accept or refuse these terms, before America used atomic weapons. However, the petition never made it through the chain of command to President Truman. It also was not declassified and made public until 1961.
Los Alamos
This is the national laboratory in New Mexico founded during WWII to develop the atomic bomb as part of the Manhattan Project
Marshall Plan
U.S. program providing aid to Western Europe following the devastation of World War II. It was enacted in 1948 and provided more than $15 billion to help finance rebuilding efforts on the continent. The brainchild of U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall, for whom it was named, it was crafted as a four-year plan to reconstruct cities, industries and infrastructure heavily damaged during the war and to remove trade barriers between European neighbors - as well as foster commerce between those countries and the United States.
Leslie Groves
US Army General and Director of the Manhattan Project. Chose the locations for the development of resources needed for the atomic bombs, along with the actual bombs themselves (Los Alamos). Oversaw a vast security, intelligence, and counterintelligence operation with domestic and foreign branches. As such, is remembered for his compartmentalizing, paranoid style of leadership that hindered communication within branches of the Manhattan Project. However, also celebrated for his ability to keep atomic bomb secrets and knowledge of the project extremely quiet.