Nutrition Chapter 4

Fibers

(grains fruits vegetables) the indigestible parts of Plant foods, largely nonstarch polysaccharides that are not digested by human digestive enzymes, although some are digested by resident bacteria of the colon. Fibers include cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, gums, mucilages, and a few non-polysaccharides such as lignin

Endosperm

(the bulk of the edible part of a grain, the starchy part.) the soft, white inside portion of the kernel, containing starch and proteins that help nourish the seed as it sprouts

Fructose vs Glucose (fats)

-1/2 of all sweet sugars -140 g -no response to insulin, cannot enter brain -obesity -stimulates liver to stimulate fat molecules -metabolism is costly -some not absopbes by intestine -NAFLD in liver (type 2) -releases insulin to suppress apetite -reduce desire for high calorie foods

There is no cure for type 2, but there are 3 ways to reduce the risk of getting it/ prevention:

-A healthy body weight -A nutritious eating pattern -Regular physical activity

Problems with the Glycemic Index

-Little difference in blood glucose control or cardiovascular disease risk is reported between low-GI diets and high-GI diets. (diet tests differ) -An individuals metabolism affects insulin response (differs per person) -each food can differ to depending on how old it is

Starch digestion

-begins in mouth -stops in the stomach bc of saliva breakdown -resumes in the small intestine (where another starch-splitting enzyme is delivered by the pancreas)

Fibers vs starch

-fiber is undetectable -fiber sugar units held together by bonds that the human digestive enzymes cannot break -fiber provides little energy

Resistance starch

-least digestible starch (not easy digestion to glucose) -technically a kind of fiber because much of it passes through the small intestine undigested into the colon -most remains intact until the bacteria of the colon eventually ferment it. -(raw potatoes, cooked dried beans and lentils, oatmeal, intact seeds and kernels, and under-ripe bananas)

How does fiber help lose weight

-low in fats and sugars -needs less energy per bite -absorbs water from digestive juices, -full feeling, delaying hunger, reducing intake

Terms that do NOT mean whole grain

-multi grain -wheat bread -stone ground

Diets rich in fibers and carbs

-protective against heart disease and stroke -low in saturated fat and trans fat -high in nutrients and phytochemicals -lower risk of heart disease

Soluble fiber benefits

-reduce risk of type 2 diabetes -regulate blood glucose following a carb rich meal -delay transit of nutrients through the digestive tract -slow glucose absorption and rebound -can modulate blood glucose and insulin levels, helping prevent medical complications -lower risk of colon and rectum cancer -prevent weight gain

How many calories should come from carbs?

45-65% (225-325g) DRI table: multiply 45-65%, divide by 4 fruit: 1/2 cup, 15g vegetables: 15g grains: 15g dairy: 14g (no carbs in butter and cream cheese: solid fat) (no carbs in oils and fats)

Toxicity of Excess Blood Glucose

Alters metabolism in virtually every cell of the body. -some cells convert excess glucose to toxic alcohols, causing the cells to swell -others attract excess glucose to protein molecules in abnormal ways (cannot function) -inflammation of body tissues -blood vessels and nerves become damaged (gangare)

Carbohydrate and Weight Maintenance

Complex carbohydrates can help to control body weight and maintain lean tissue. Carbohydrate-rich foods contribute less to the body's available energy than do fat-rich foods, and they best support physical activity to promote a lean body. (lean=45-65%)

T/F: All grains consumed should be whole

False, 1/2 can be refined

The basic carbohydrate unit used for energy by each of the body's cells

Glucose (carbs are best known for providing energy)

Carbohydrate Stored as Fat

Liver breaks down glucose and assembles them into fatty acids which travel to adipose tissues to be combined and stored

Excess Glucose

The body cells use as much glucose as they can for energy at the moment while the rest is stored as glycogen until the muscle and liver is overflowing. Excess= body tissues burn more glucose for energy in place of fat. As a result, more fat is left to circulate in the bloodstream until it is picked up by the fatty tissues and stored there. any more= liver in control

The Release of Glucose from Glycogen

When blood glucose starts to fall too low, the hormone glucagon floods the bloodstream and triggers the breakdown of liver glycogen to single glucose molecules. Enzymes in liver cells respond to glucagon by attacking a multitude of glycogen ends simultaneously to release a surge of glucose into the blood for use by all the body's cells.

Multi grain

a term used on food labels to indicate a food made with more than one kind of grain. Not an indicator of a whole-grain food.

White wheat

a wheat variety developed to be paler in color than common red wheat (most familiar flours are made from red wheat). White wheat is similar to red wheat in carbohydrate, protein, and other nutrients, but it lacks the dark and bitter, but potentially beneficial, phytochemicals of red wheat (tastes like refined white flour but has the nutrients of whole grains

Wheat bread

bread made with any wheat flour, including refined enriched white flour

Dental Caries

decay of the teeth (cariesmeans "rottenness")

Whole wheat flour

flour made from whole-wheat kernels; a whole-grain flour. Also called graham flour

Refined sugars

frutose, sucrose. contain no nutrients, proteins, vitamins, fibers, etc

Diabetes

metabolic diseases characterized by elevated blood glucose and inadequate or ineffective insulin, which impair a person's ability to regulate blood glucose. The technical name is diabetes mellitus ("honey-sweet") -affects 29 million Americans -leading cause of death -costs $174 billion

What is the only animal derived food that provides carbs?

milk

What is a good substitute for Carbs?

nothing!

Diverticula

sacs or pouches that balloon out of the intestinal wall, caused by weakening of the muscle layers that encase the intestine. The painful inflammation of one or more of the diverticula is known as diverticulitis

Granules

small grains. Starch granules are packages of starch molecules. Various plant species make starch granules of varying shapes

Nonnutritive sweeteners

sugar substitutes that provide negligible, if any, energy -non caloric

Simple carbohydrates

sugars, including both single sugar units and linked pairs of sugar units. The basic sugar unit is a molecule containing six carbon atoms, together with oxygen and hydrogen atoms

Hemorrhoids

swollen, hardened (varicose) veins in the rectum, usually caused by the pressure resulting from constipation

Protein-sparing action

the action of carbohydrate and fat in providing energy that allows protein to be used for purposes it alone can serve (Protein is indispensable to body functions, and carbohydrate should be kept available precisely to prevent the use of protein for energy.)

Fermentation

the anaerobic (without oxygen) breakdown of carbohydrates by microorganisms that releases small organic compounds along with CO2 and energy

To obtain glucose from newly eaten food...

the digestive system must first render the starch and disaccharides from the food into monosaccharides that can be absorbed through the cells lining the small intestine

Husk (chaff)

the dry outermost layer, inedible part of a grain (in animal feed)

Chlorophyll

the green pigment of plants that captures energy from sunlight for use in photosynthesis

Lactase

the intestinal enzyme that splits the disaccharide lactose to monosaccharides glucose and galactose during digestion

Germ

the nutrient-rich inner part of a grain the part that grows into a new plant (ie wheat) and therefore contains concentrated food to support the new life (rich in oils, vitamins, and minerals)

Amounts of glucose

too little: dizziness, weak too much: confusion, dyspnea

The largest of the digestible carbohydrate molecule that requires the most extensive breakdown:

Starch

Conversion of polysaccharides to monosaccharides

Sucrose and lactose from food, along with maltose and small polysaccharides freed from starch, undergo one more split to yield free monosaccharides before they are absorbed. (This split is accomplished by digestive enzymes attached to the cells of the lining of the small intestine.)

Other organ responses to insulin

The liver and adipose tissue take up excess blood glucose (liver speed up their glycogen production)

Unbleached flour

a beige-colored refined endosperm flour with texture and nutritive qualities that approximate those of regular white flour

A1C test

a blood test for type 2 diabetes that measures the percentage of hemoglobin (a blood protein) with glucose attached to it. The test reflects blood glucose control over the previous few months. Also called glycosylated hemoglobin test or HbA1C test (Hb stands for hemoglobin)

Ketone bodies

acidic, water-soluble compounds that arise during the break-down of fat when carbohydrate is not available (accumulation of normally scarce acidic products)

Fermentable soluble fibers

all fibers help the colon. Although human enzymes cannot digest these fibers, colonic bacteria readily ferment them, deriving sustenance that allows beneficial colonies to multiply and flourish resist fermintation by the colons bacteria and remains in tact in the digestive tract

Epinephrine

also triggers the breakdown of liver glycogen as part of the body's defense mechanism to provide extra glucose for quick action in times of danger

Hypoglycemia

an abnormally low blood glucose concentration, often accompanied by symptoms such as anxiety, rapid heartbeat, hunger, and sweating (low carb diet- 130g) (normal=rises after eating) -replace carbs with whole carbs and proteins -more likely with diabetes or medications

White flour

an endosperm flour that has been refined and bleached for maximum softness and whiteness (contains folate) (refined enriched wheat flour)

Ketosis

an undesirable high concentration of ketone bodies, such as acetone, in the blood or urine (can disturb the normal acid-base balance)

Polysaccharides

another term for complex carbohydrates; compounds composed of long strands of glucose units linked together

Wheat flour

any flour made from wheat, including refined white flour

Fats

are not used as fuel by the brain and central nervous system—these tissues prefer glucose, and red blood cells use glucose exclusively

Brown bread

bread containing ingredients such as molasses that lend a brown color; may be made with any kind of flour, including white flour

Pancreas enzyme

breaks starch down into disaccharides and small poly-saccharides. Other enzymes liberate monosaccharides for absorption

Erythritol

cannot be metabolized by human enzymes (calorie free

Nutrients that provide energy

carbohydrates, proteins, and fats

Carbohydrates

compounds composed of single or multiple sugars. The name means "carbon and water," and a chemical shorthand for carbohydrate is CHO, (from PLANTS) (meet energy needs, feeds the brain, keep digestive system fit, fuel physical activity) -digestible: add bulk to food, provide energy -indigestible: fibers, yield no energy

Prediabetes

condition in which blood glucose levels are higher than normal but not high enough to be diagnosed as diabetes; a major risk factor for diabetes and cardiovascular diseases -86 million Americans (1/3) -can lead to type 2

Constipation

difficult, incomplete, or infrequent bowel movements associated with discomfort in passing dry, hardened feces from the body (fiber can relief)

Fatty acids

durable energy-storage compounds

Saliva

enzymes made of protein, deactivated by the stomach's protein-digesting acid

T/F: High fiber equals whole grain

false, HF derives fiber from wheat bran or cellulose, not whole grains. it is nutritious, but cannot substitute whole grain

Fasting plasma glucose test

a blood test that measures the current blood glucose concentration in a person who has not eaten or consumed caloric beverages for at least 8 hours; the test can detect both diabetes and prediabetes. Plasma is the fluid part of whole blood.

Insulin resistance

a condition in which a normal or high level of circulating insulin produces a less-than-normal response in muscle, liver, and adipose tissues; thought to be a metabolic consequence of obesity

Bile

a digestive juice that contains cholesterol compounds. Bile is made by the liver and secreted into the intestine. Normally, much of bile's cholesterol would be reabsorbed from the intestine for reuse, but the fiber carries some of it out with the feces

Sucrose

a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose; sometimes known as table, beet, or cane sugar and, often, as simply sugar

Lactose

a disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose; sometimes known as milk sugar

Maltose

a disaccharide composed of two glucose units; sometimes known as malt sugar (appears wherever starch is bring broken down)

Maltose

a disaccharide liberated from starch by saliva

Autoimmune Disorder

a genetic disease in which the body develops antibodies to its own proteins and then proceeds to destroy cells containing these proteins. Examples are type 1 diabetes= no insulin= glucose build up (must eat insulin)

Glycogen

a highly branched polysaccharide that is made and stored by liver and muscle tissues of human beings and animals as a storage form of glucose. Glycogen is not a significant food source of carbohydrate and is not counted as one of the complex carbohydrates in foods

Insulin

a hormone secreted by the pancreas in response to a high blood glucose concentration. It assists/ signals cells in drawing glucose from the blood to build the polysaccharide glycogen -regulate fat metabolism -store energy nutrients -suppress apetite

Glucagon

a hormone secreted by the pancreas that stimulates the liver to release glucose into the blood when blood glucose concentration dips (releases glucose from glycogen)

100% whole grain

a label term for food in which the grain is entirely whole grain, with no added refined grains

Glycemic Load (GL)

a mathematical expression of both the glycemic index and the carbohydrate content of a food, meal, or diet

Galactose

a monosaccharide; part of the disaccharide lactose (milk sugar) (rare in nature) (same atoms at glu and fru)

Fructose

a monosaccharide; sometimes known as fruit sugar my by rearranging the atoms in glucose (natural in fruit and honey but is mostly in high fructose corn syrup)

Starch

a plant polysaccharide (storage) composed glucose. After cooking, starch is highly digestible by human beings; raw starch often resists digestion (insoluable seeds)

Glycemic Index (GI)

a ranking of foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose relative to a standard food such as glucose (do NOT base food choices on this)

Glucose

a single sugar used in both plant and animal tissues for energy; sometimes known as blood sugar or dextrose (6 Carbon). formed by water, CO2 and sunlight (soluable) the cells of the brain and nervous system and RBC depend almost exclusively on glucose

High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)

a widely used commercial caloric sweetener made by adding enzymes to cornstarch to convert a portion of its glucose molecules into sweet-tasting fructose

Soluble fibers

food components that readily dissolve in water, become viscous, and often impart gummy or gel-like characteristics to foods. An example is pectin from fruit, which is used to thicken jellies (natural in oats, legumes, etc) best known in the body to help modulate blood glucose levels, lower blood cholesterol, and promote colon health

Refined grains

grains and grain products from which the bran, germ, or other edible parts of whole grains have been removed; not a whole grain. Many refined grains are low in fiber and are enriched with vitamins, as required by U.S. regulations

Whole grains

grains or foods made from them that contain all the essential parts and naturally occurring nutrients of the entire grain seed (except the inedible husk) just 3 servings makes you healthier and correlate with lower risks of heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and cancers

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans urge everyone to make how much of their daily grain choices whole grains?

half; (three 1 ounce equivalents of whole grains)

Viscous

having a sticky, gummy, or gel-like consistency that flows relatively slowly

HFCS and sucrose

identical metabolic effects source of sugars matter to disease risk

Lactose intolerance

impaired ability to digest lactose due to reduced amounts of the enzyme lactase (symptoms: nausea, pain, diarrhea, gas) -lactose in the intestine demands dilution -can consume 6g (1/2 cup) without symptoms

Dialysis

in kidney disease, treatment of the blood to remove toxic substances or metabolic wastes; more properly, hemodialysis, meaning "dialysis of the blood"

Appendicitis

inflammation and/or infection of the appendix, a sac protruding from the intestine

The body's cells cannot use foods or even whole molecules of _____________, _____________, or _______________for energy. They need the _________in those molecules.

lactose, sucrose, or starch; glucose

How does fiber help constipation?

large, soft stools ease the task of elimination. Pressure is then reduced in the lower bowel (colon), making it less likely that rectal veins will swell (hemorrhoids). Fiber prevents compaction of the intestinal contents, which could obstruct the appendix and permit bacteria to invade and infect it (appendicitis)

Salt trick

loaves of bread contain 1 teaspoon of salt, so any ingredient listed afterwards is less prevalent

Complex carbohydrates

long chains of sugar units arranged to form starch or fiber; also called polysaccharides

Chelating agents

molecules that attract or bind with other molecules and are therefore useful in either preventing or promoting movement of substances from place to place -link chemically with important nutrient minerals (iron, zinc, calcium, and others) and then carry them out of the body -often sold by supplement vendors to "remove toxins" from the body -can be used to treat lead poisoning

Consuming -saccharides

monosaccharides absorb into the blood while disaccharides must be digested first (split to 2 monos)

Excessive body fat Sugar causes diabetes?

more related to type 2 than diet affects blood pressure insulin dampens body weight. doesn't trigger obesity -maintain body weight and eat healthy

Iron

mostly absorbed at the beginning of the intestinal tract, and excess insoluble fibers may limit its absorption by speeding foods through the upper part of the digestive tract

Tolerable Upper Intake lever for fiber

none, but can be dangerous and block the intestine. -water is very much needed -takes up a lot of room in the stomach, so -only eating that can keep you from getting your daily amount of nutrients -can also cause gas but start small and chew throughly or try enzymes

Grinding wheat

nutrient rich bran and germ and endosperm leaving durable flour with high starch and less fiber

Foods that lower cholesterol

oatmeal, apples, barley (contain gel forming fibers, bile)

Disaccharides

pairs of single sugars linked together (di means "two")

What is the first organ to respond to high glucose levels?

pancreas

Carbohydrates importance

play vital roles in the functioning of body tissues. (ie sugars that dangle from protein molecules alter the shape and function of certain proteins.) lubricate the intestines. Sugars also bind to the outsides of cell membranes, where they facilitate cell-to-cell communication and nerve and brain cell functioning.

Cellulose

polysaccharide that helps form the supporting structures of plants

Stone ground

refers to a milling process using limestone to grind any grain, including refined grains, into flour

Enriched, fortified

refers to the addition of nutrients to a refined food product. As defined by U.S. law, these terms mean that specified levels of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, and iron have been added to refined grains and grain products. The terms enriched and fortified can refer to the addition of more nutrients than just these five; read the label

U.S. Enrichment Act of 1942

requires that iron, niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, (and folate since 1996) be added to all refined grain products before they were sold

Sugars

simple carbohydrates; that is, molecules of either single sugar units or pairs of those sugar units bonded together. By common usage, sugar most often refers to sucrose (combo of water and CO2 by photosynthesis)

Monosaccharides

single sugar units (mono means "one"; saccharide means "sugar unit")

Plant tissues store glucose in long chains of ____________ while animal muscle tissues store glucose in long chains of _________________

starch; glycogen (but longer chains)

Sugar alcohols

sugar-like compounds (sugar substitutes) in the chemical family alcohol derived from fruits or manufactured from sugar dextrose or other carbohydrates; sugar alcohols are absorbed more slowly than sugars, are metabolized differently, and do not elevate the risk of dental caries. Also called polyols. -1/2 the calories of sugars -lower glycemic response -safer for teeth -resist metabolism of sugars into acids

Added sugars

sugars and syrups added to a food for any purpose, such as to add sweetness or bulk or to aid in browning (baked goods). Also called carbohydrate sweeteners, they include concentrated fruit juice, glucose, fructose, high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose, and other sweet carbohydrates

Seed/ kernel

the part of a typical grain plant, such as wheat, that is made into flour (and then into bread, cereals, and pasta). Has 4 main parts: -germ -endosperm -bran -husk

Photosynthesis

the process by which green plants make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using the green pigment chlorophyll to capture the sun's energy (photo means "light"; synthesis means "making")

Refined

the process by which the coarse parts of food products are removed. For example, the refining of wheat into white enriched flour involves removing three of the four parts of the kernel—the chaff, the bran, and the germ—leaving only the endosperm, composed mainly of starch and a little protein

Bran

the protective fibrous coating around a grain or kernel; the chief fiber donator of a grain (rich in fiber and nutrients)

Insoluble fibers

the tough, fibrous structures of fruits, vegetables, and grains; indigestible food components that do not dissolve in water, do not form gels, and are not viscous. poorly fermented. form structures (outer layers) that retain shape and texture after being cooked. aid digestion by easing elimination

Type 2 diabetes

the type of diabetes in which the pancreas makes plenty of insulin but the body's cells resist insulin's action; often diagnosed in adulthood. "non-insulin-dependent diabetes" -90% of cases -tissues lose sensitivity to insulin -insulin resistant muscle and adipose don't respond -obesity, weight gain= higher chance normal fat storage sites are full, excess lipids are placed in other tissues (liver), trigger inflammation

Type 1 diabetes

the type of diabetes in which the pancreas produces no or very little insulin; often diagnosed in childhood, although some cases arise in adulthood. Formerly called juvenile-onset or insulin-dependent diabetes -5-10% of all diabetes -often in children

Methylcellulose (from wood pulp) and psyllium (from seed husk)

unfermentable manufactured fibers. cannot nourish beneficial bacteria but swells with water softening the feces. also stimulate colon lining to secrete water and mucous which enlarges the stools

Protein rich foods

usually expensive and, when used to make fuel for the body, provide no advantage over carbohydrates

Splitting Glucose

-broken in 1/2 releasing energy -2 pathways open -are put back together or broken down more -break down to CO2 and H2O, building blocks for protein, or hitched together into fat (but fat can't become glucose)

Diets that produce ketosis

-deficiencies of vitamins and minerals -loss of bone minerals -elevated blood cholesterol -impaired mood -glycogen stores become too scanty to meet a metabolic emergency or to support muscular work -provide a fuel alternative to glucose for brain and nerve cells when glucose is lacking (still uses some protein) -could reduce seizures with epilepsy

Added sugars vs natural

-empty calories -calories, vitamins, minerals, fibers, phytochemicals -8 tsp limit (16 cal, 4g carbs) Added: -concentrated sweetner -double consumption than recommended -mostly by adolesent boys (>1/2 cup) -95% sugars are added by manufactures -replaced staple foods

Liver function

-glucose to the body (and store) -turns galactose to glucose -fructose if fuel for the liver or broken down into fats

3 monosaccharide simple sugars

-glucose! -fructose -galactose

Unsaturated fats

-good for calories -almost no carbs -exception: nuts and legumes (low fat sources of starch and fiber) -cal from carbs now at 49% >300calories

3 disaccharide simple sugars

-lactose -maltose -sucrose

Where is glycogen stored?

-the muscles hoard two-thirds -he brain stores a tiny fraction for emergency -the liver stores the remainder (is generous with its glycogen, releasing glucose into the bloodstream for the brain or other tissues when the supply runs low) Meals with starch and soluble fiber combined with some protein and a little fat slow digestion so that glucose enters the blood gradually in an ongoing, steady rate

DRI Minimum Recommendation for Carbohydrate

130g daily (to feed the brain and reduce ketosis and store glycogen)

DRI fiber intake recommendations

14g per 1000 calories -25g daily for women -38g daily for men people today are only getting half (also drink water to help wash down)

Liver cells store about ___________ calories of glycogen, the fat cells of an average-size person store over __________ calories of fat, and their capacity to store fat is almost limitless

2,000; 70,000

Controlling _______________ intake plays a central role in controlling blood glucose

Carbohydrate

Whole grains

Enriched grain foods are nutritionally comparable to whole-grain foods only with respect to their added nutrients; -lots of vitamin B6, Mg, and Zinc, fibers, phytochemicals (bran) and oils (germ), -unlike refined

When the body faces a severe carbohydrate (glucose) deficit, it has two problems:

Having no glucose, it must turn to protein to make some (the body has this ability), diverting protein from its own critical functions, such as maintaining immune defenses. When body protein is used, it is taken from blood, organ, or muscle proteins; no surplus of protein is stored specifically for such emergencies. Shift in the body's energy metabolism. Instead of producing energy by following its main metabolic pathway, fat takes another route in which fat fragments combine with each other. This shift creates ketone bodies. Fat regenerates a small amount of glucose but not enough to feed the brain and nerve tissues

When is food converted to nutrients

when monosaccharides cross these cells and are washed away in a rush of circulating blood that carries the absorbed carbohydrates (glucose, galactose, and fructose) to the waiting liver. -The liver convert fructose and galactose to glucose. -The circulatory system transports the glucose and other products to the cells. -Liver and muscle cells store circulating glucose as glycogen; all cells split glucose for energy

Insulin regulates blood glucose by:

▪Facilitating blood glucose uptake by the muscles and adipose tissue ▪Stimulating glycogen synthesis in the liver.

Dietary recommendations for diebetics

▪Moderate amounts of carbohydrate should be delivered in well-timed meals in amounts sufficient to balance the body's available insulin. (No additional benefit is seen with low-carbohydrate diets.) ▪Carbohydrate from controlled portions of whole foods, such as vegetables, fruit, whole grains, legumes, and dairy products, is preferable to sources with added fats, sugars, or sodium. (Avoid sugar-sweetened beverages.) ▪Protein should be consumed in adequate amounts. (Excess protein can worsen diabetic kidney disease.) ▪Alcohol intake, if any, should be moderate. (Those using insulin or insulin-releasing drugs must take alcohol only with food.) ▪Vitamin or mineral supplements are not advised for those without nutrient deficiencies. (Herbal, spice, or other unproven supplements are not recommended.) diet, medication, exercise

2 safe-guard activities against unbalanced glucose levels

▪Siphoning off excess blood glucose into the liver and muscles for storage as glycogen and into the adipose tissue for storage as body fat. ▪Replenishing diminished blood glucose from liver glycogen stores 2 hormones needed: insulin and glucagon

Possible effects of fiber fermentation:

▪maintain the health of the colon in ways that oppose colon cancer ▪oppose allergies ▪reduce inflammation ▪support immunity