Nutrition Exam 1

People with what health conditions should limit their consumption of egg yolks?

heart disease and diabetes

What makes the omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids essential?

humans cannot synthesize the cis double bond at the n3 and n6 positions omega3 is less abundant in modern western diets than it was in the primitive human diet used to be 1:1 but now is 10:1 in favor of omega6

What is the current understanding of the health risks of eating eggs?

increased risk for heart disease triggered numerous warnings to avoid foods that contain cholesterol, especially eggs and liver. However, scientific studies show a weak relationship between the amount of cholesterol a person consumes and his or her blood cholesterol levels

What types of cooked meat should be limited in the diet?

Reduce your exposure to food-borne carcinogens by avoiding smoked or cured foods and charred or seared fish, meat, and poultry.

List food sources of healthy fats. Why are they considered healthy?

"Good" unsaturated fats — Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats — lower disease risk. Foods high in good fats include vegetable oils (such as olive, canola, sunflower, soy, and corn), nuts, seeds, and fish.

List the mechanisms whereby dietary fat can influence heart disease risk.

1. How fats affect blood lipids 2. How fats affect vascular physiology 3. How fats affect heart physiology 4. How fats affect the incidence of disease and related deaths

List all of the effects of dietary trans fats that increase heart disease risk.

1. Increase LDL and related lipid risk factors 2. Lower HDL 3. Promote platelet dysfunction 4. Promote systemic inflammation16 5. Contribute to insulin resistance17 6. An increase of 2% of calories from trans fat increases heart disease risk by 23%.

What undesirable effects do trans fats have on human physiology?

- Raise bad LDL and lower good HDL - Create inflammation - a reaction related to immunity - which has been implicated in heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and other chronic conditions - Contribute to insulin resistance - Can have harmful health effects even in small amounts - for each additional 2 percent of calories from trans fat consumed daily, the risk of coronary heart disease increases by 23 percent.

List the food sources of each type of dietary fat

1. Monounsaturated fats are found in high concentrations in: Olive, peanut, and canola oils Avocados Nuts such as almonds, hazelnuts, and pecans Seeds such as pumpkin and sesame seeds 2. Polyunsaturated fats are found in high concentrations in Sunflower, corn, soybean, and flaxseed oils Walnuts Flax seeds Fish Canola oil

Besides the effects on serum cholesterol and LDL, what other cardiovascular benefits occur when unsaturated fat replaces saturated fat?

1. Stable total cholesterol or LDL 2. Higher HDL 3. Lower triglycerides

Explain the meaning of scientific abbreviations for essential fatty acids, such as 18:3n-3.

18 = how many carbons in this fatty acid 3 = there are 3 double bonds n-3 = the first double bond is at the third carbon from the omega end

What values for Body Mass Index are associated with increasing health risks?

25.0 and 29.9; and a BMI of 30 or higher is considered obese.

What is the BMI of a person who is 67 inches tall and weighs 178 pounds?

28

Describe the differences between narrative reviews and systematic reviews.

A narrative review is a synopsis of previous research without a clearly stated method for how the studies were located, selected, and evaluated for quality. A systematic review6 specifically defines a research question, locates and selects relevant previous research studies according to a specific searching method, and evaluates each study for the quality of its research design.

Consider you are reading a research study investigating the relationship between water-drinking habits and prevention of the common cold. How could you recognize whether the study is a retrospective observational design, a prospective observational design, or a controlled intervention design?

A retrospective observational study will observe 2 sets of individuals that drink plenty of water and those that don't and compare the the prevalence of the flu in both groups. A prospective observational study will follow a group of people that drink over a period of time and have them drink water and correlate the difference. A controlled study will have a group of people drink water and look for effects over a period of time.

What is the argument for recommending a multivitamin supplement to all patients? Which vitamins and minerals are recommended in extra amounts?

A supplement is only useful to people whose diets are lacking in that specific nutrient; a randomized trial that gives vitamin pills to well-fed participants may not show any results.

Describe the functions of each of the four major classes of lipoprotein.

A. Chylomicrons 1. Deliver dietary fatty acids as triglycerides to tissues 2. Remnant delivers dietary cholesterol and fat-soluble micronutrients to liver 3. Abnormal chylomicron levels are uncommon B. VLDL 1. Produced by the liver to distribute cholesterol and endogenous triglyceride to tissues 2. Endogenous triglyceride = fat synthesized from precursors entering the liver (dietary glucose and fructose are most important) 3. Abnormalities are commonly of clinical importance C. IDL 1. Develops in the circulation from the VLDL "remnant" 2. High in cholesterol 3. Typically is converted to LDL but can be removed from circulation by liver 4. Occasionally of clinical importance D. LDL 1. Develops in the circulation from IDL 2. Very high in cholesterol 3. Delivers cholesterol and micronutrients to tissues or is removed from circulation by liver 4. Abnormalities are commonly of clinical importance E. HDL 1. Secreted by liver 2. Begins as an empty sac 3. Collects cholesterol from tissues and returns it to liver 4. Also, has important interactions with other lipoproteins 5. Abnormalities (low levels) are commonly of clinical importance

Distinguish between the principal dietary sources of the four main types of fat: saturated, monounsaturated, omega-6, and omega-3 polyunsaturated.

A. Monounsaturated 1. Olive oil 2. Canola oil, peanuts and peanut oil 3. Most nuts other than walnuts, most seeds 4. Avocado B. Omega-6 Polyunsaturated 1. Most other non-hydrogenated vegetable oils 2. Safflower, corn, sunflower grapeseed are highest C. Omega-3 Polyunsaturated 1. Flaxseed, flaxseed oil, chia seed oil 2. Smaller but still significant amounts in walnuts, soy or canola oil 3. Fatty fish

List all of the pathways that the liver might use to regulate its internal pool of cholesterol.

A. Takes up dietary cholesterol from chylomicron remnant B. Takes up dietary glucose and converts excess to triglycerides C. Assembles VLDL to distribute cholesterol and endogenous triglycerides D. Produces HDL E. Takes up circulating cholesterol from IDL, LDL, and HDL F. Manages cholesterol body burden by regulating de novo synthesis and biliary disposal

What is the most abundant dietary lipid, and what other dietary components are also lipids?

A. Triglycerides (AKA triacylglycerides) (primarily composed of fatty acid residues) 1. These account for 95% of dietary fat B. Cholesterol and other sterols C. Phospholipids (also composed in part of fatty acid residues) D. Fat-soluble vitamins - A, D, E, K E. Other fat-soluble nutrients (e.g. carotenoids, coenzyme Q)

How can the typical Western diet be made healthier by adjusting the intake of dietary fats?

According to most observational research and intervention trials, replacing saturated fat with unsaturated fat reduces risk of cardiovascular disease and insulin resistance. This is also consistent with many healthy dietary patterns (e.g. Mediterranean diet, DASH diet)

Why is evidence from in vitro research, animal research, or ideas and opinions less reliable for choosing effective nutrition recommendations than is evidence from controlled human observational or intervention research?

Animals or cells are no substitute for humans. Notwithstanding the value of philosophy and basic science understanding, neither are perfect predictors of human response to nutritional interventions. Therefore we should prefer results of experiments designed to test philosophical theories and interpretations of basic science when this type of evidence is available.

What are some useful tips for deciphering medical news reported in the media? What are the characteristics of media stories about diet that determine how reliable their conclusions are?

Are they simply reporting the results of a single study? If so, where does it fit in with other studies on the topic? Only very rarely would a single study be influential enough for people to change their behaviors based on the results. How large is the study? Large studies often provide more reliable results than small studies. Was the study done in animals or humans? Mice, rats, and monkeys are not people. To best understand how food (or some other factor) affects human health, it must almost always be studied in humans. Did the study look at real disease endpoints, like heart disease or osteoporosis? Chronic diseases, like heart disease and osteoporosis, often take many decades to develop. To get around waiting that long, researchers will sometimes look at markers for these diseases, like narrowing of the arteries or bone density. These markers, though, don't always develop into the disease. How was diet assessed? Some methods of dietary assessment are better than others. Good studies will have evidence that the methods have validity.

What foods high in fat appear may have some influence on risk of breast or colon cancer?

As with breast cancer, international comparisons initially suggested an association between total dietary fat intake and colon cancer risk. But later and better studies contradicted these earlier findings and revealed no significant association. Although the exact connection between dietary fat and prostate cancer is unclear, there is some evidence that diets high in animal fat and saturated fat may increase prostate cancer risk.

List some ways to evaluate supplement studies that may help resolve conflicting conclusions.

Ask the following questions: How did researchers measure the supplement's effectiveness? When did study participants take the supplement? Who were the study participants—and how healthy were their lifestyles? What vitamin dose did study participants take—and for how long did they take it?

What types of personal or family history indicate that alcohol consumption should be avoided?

Avoid alcohol if you have a personal or family history of breast or colon cancer or alcoholism.

Which foods contain most of the trans fat consumed in the Western diet?

Beef Fat and Dairy Fat

Reducing saturated fat in the diet does not improve health risks if this fat is replaced by __________.

Carbohydrates

List the diseases associated with weight problems

Cardiovascular disease, heart attack, stroke Diabetes Cancer Arthritis Gallstones Asthma Cataracts Infertility Snoring Sleep apnea

What is the value of large cohort studies to the development of nutrition science?

Cohort studies gather the information all along and before anyone develops the disease being studied. As a group, these types of studies have provided valuable information about the link between lifestyle factors and disease.

Explain the terms responders and non-responders, which are used in reference to the effects of consuming high cholesterol foods such as eggs.

Dietary cholesterol may need to be restricted in patients with high blood cholesterol or type 2 diabetes.20 1. Only trial and error can determine who is a dietary cholesterol "responder."

From the omega-3 family of polyunsaturated fats, distinguish between good sources of EPA/DHA and good sources of ALA.

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) come mainly from fish, so they are sometimes called marine omega-3s. Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), the most common omega-3 fatty acid in most Western diets, is found in vegetable oils and nuts (especially walnuts), flax seeds and flaxseed oil, leafy vegetables, and some animal fat, especially in grass-fed animals.

How does the amount of cholesterol made by the human body compare to the amounts typically found in the human diet?

For most people, the amount of cholesterol eaten has only a modest impact on the amount of cholesterol circulating in the blood.

Explain the difference between dietary cholesterol "responders" and "non-responders."

For some people, though, blood cholesterol levels rise and fall very strongly in relation to the amount of cholesterol eaten. For these "responders," avoiding cholesterol-rich foods can have a substantial effect on blood cholesterol levels.

When serum triglycerides are high or HDL cholesterol levels are low, what dietary substitutions are advised (i.e. what types of foods should be reduced and what types should replace them)?

Healthy unsaturated fats (mono, omega6, omega3)

How is a Mediterranean-style diet different from a typical Western diet?

High intake of olive oil (preferably extra virgin), nuts, vegetables, fruits, and cereals Moderate intake of fish and poultry Low intake of dairy products, red meat, processed meats, and sweets Wine in moderation, consumed with meals

What happens to blood lipids and blood pressure when unsaturated fats replace carbohydrate in the diet?

More recently, a randomized trial known as the Optimal Macronutrient Intake Trial for Heart Health (OmniHeart) showed that replacing a carbohydrate-rich diet with one rich in unsaturated fat, predominantly monounsaturated fats, lowers blood pressure, improves lipid levels, and reduces the estimated cardiovascular risk.

Describe some strategies for increasing foods that are high in healthy fats.

Most people don't eat enough healthful unsaturated fats. The American Heart Association suggests that 8-10 percent of daily calories should come from polyunsaturated fats, and there is evidence that eating more polyunsaturated fat—up to 15 percent of daily calories—in place of saturated fat can lower heart disease risk.

Why may the omega-6/omega-3 ratio of the diet not be very useful in predicting health outcomes?

In the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, for example, the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fats wasn't linked with risk of heart disease because both of these were beneficial.

To what extent can increased ALA consumption compensate for low marine omega-3 consumption?

In the human body, ALA is not converted to the marine omega-3s. EPA and DHA, to any large extent. So, the evidence does not support eating ALA as a replacement for seafood consumption.

When might a BMI in the overweight range not be associated with increased health risks?

Indirect and imperfect measurement—does not distinguish between body fat and lean body mass Not as accurate a predictor of body fat in the elderly as it is in younger and middle-aged adults

What type of nutrition studies are easiest to reliably carry out using randomized controlled trials?

Intervention research types

Which mineral should not be present in a multiple vitamin-mineral supplement taken by most men and postmenopausal women?

Iron: In general, men and postmenopausal women should avoid taking an MVM containing iron. If you are anemic, consult your physician.

What are the shortcomings of the USDA Food Pyramid and MyPyramid?

It does not address the issue of healthy vs unhealthy fats, low vs healthy carbs. water, alcohol, supplements?

What is the evidence for a role of omega-6 fats in heart disease?

Many other studies and trials in humans also support cardiovascular benefits of omega-6 fats.

Distinguish between the effects of different types of dietary fat on LDL and HDL cholesterol.

Mono - lowers LDL; raises HDL Poly - lowers LDL; raises HDL Saturated - raises both LDL and HDL Trans - raises LDL

List the names and scientific abbreviations of the biologically-important omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.

Omega 6 ● LA = linoleic acid (18:2 n6) ● DGLA= linoleic acid (18:3n6) ● AA = Arachodonic acid (20:4 n6) Omega 3 ● ALA = alphalinoleic acid (18:3 n3) ● EPA = eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5 n3) ● DHA = docosahexanoid acid (22:6 n3)

At what degrees of excess body weight (measured by BMI) does the presence of significant health risks or high waist circumference add significant predictive ability about the health risks of the excess weight?

Overweight is defined as a body mass index of 25 to 29.9, and obesity is defined as a body mass index of 30 or higher.

What advantages does the use of partially-hydrogenated fats give to the food industry?

Partially hydrogenating vegetable oils makes them more stable and less likely to become rancid. This process also converts the oil into a solid, which makes them function as margarine or shortening. Partially hydrogenated oils can withstand repeated heating without breaking down, making them ideal for frying fast foods.For these reasons, partially hydrogenated oils became a mainstay in restaurants and the food industry - for frying, baked goods, and processed snack foods and margarine.

What are the biggest sources of unhealthy saturated fats in the US diet, and what undesirable effects does it have on blood lipids?

Pizza and cheese Whole and reduced fat milk, butter and dairy desserts Meat products (sausage, bacon, beef, hamburgers) Cookies and other grain-based desserts Mexican fast food dishes

Why are potatoes not included with other vegetables in the Healthy Eating Pyramid?

Potatoes are chock full of rapidly digested starch, and they have the same effect on blood sugar as refined grains and sweets, so limited consumption is recommended.

Describe some strategies for replacing foods that are high in unhealthy fats with better alternatives.

Rather than adopting a low-fat diet, it's more important to focus on eating beneficial "good" fats and avoiding harmful "bad" fats. Fat is an important part of a healthy diet. Choose foods with "good" unsaturated fats, limit foods high in saturated fat, and avoid "bad" trans fat

What evidence suggests that dietary cholesterol is not as unhealthy as other animal fats?

Research has used egg consumption to separate risks from dietary cholesterol from other animal fats 1. No apparent cardiovascular risk for the general population from more egg consumption, but risk of type 2 diabetes may be higher 2. Higher cardiovascular risk from more egg consumption for people with type 2 diabetes

Discuss the results of intervention research comparing different weight-loss diets to each other.

Researchers concluded that all of the diets resulted in meaningful weight loss, despite the differences in macronutrient composition. The study also found that the more group counseling sessions participants attended, the more weight they lost, and the less weight they regained. This supports the idea that not only is what you eat important, but behavioral, psychological, and social factors are important for weight loss as well. (25)

Compare the pros and cons of including fish in the diet, and describe strategies for making the healthiest seafood choices.

Results from the Health Professionals Follow-up Study and others show that men whose diets are rich in EPA and DHA (mainly from fish and seafood) are less likely to develop advanced prostate cancer than those with low intake of EPA and DHA. (6) At the same time, some-but not all-studies show an increase in prostate cancer and advanced prostate cancer among men with high intakes of ALA (mainly from supplements). However, this effect is inconsistent.

How does the level of PCBs in seafood compare to PCBs in other parts of the U.S. food supply?

Second, levels of PCBs and dioxins in fish are very low, similar to levels in meats, dairy products, and eggs. Third, more than 90 percent of the PCBs and dioxins in the U.S. food supply come from such non-seafood sources, including meats, dairy, eggs, and vegetables.

How does each of the following contribute to the development of overweight and obesity? Skipping breakfast - Television and other screen time activities - Insufficient sleep - Stress -

Skipping breakfast - skipping breakfast usually backfires when hunger comes raging back mid-day, often leading to overeating. Television and other screen time activities - promote unhealthy eating though the ads, product placements, and other promotions that constantly pitch high-calorie, low-nutrient food and drinks. Insufficient sleep - There is more and more evidence that a good night's sleep is important to good health—and may also help keep weight in check. Stress -Today's world is full of daily stresses. This is a normal part of life, but when these stresses become too much, they can take a toll on health and contribute to weight gain by leading to unhealthy eating and other unhealthy activities.

According to some studies, what unhealthy changes to human physiology are more likely to occur with increasing abdominal fat than with increasing fat elsewhere in the body?

Some studies suggest that abdominal fat plays a role in the development of insulin resistance and inflammation, an immune system response which has been implicated in heart disease, diabetes, and even some cancers.

What are the differences between the Healthy Eating Pyramid and the USDA Food Pyramid?

The Healthy Eating Plate is based exclusively on the best available science and was not subjected to political or commercial pressures from food industry lobbyists. Myplate doesn't address issues such as fat. It also suggests milk at every meal regardless of lack of evidence. It also doesn't specify protein source.

How do the criteria for high waist circumference vary with gender and race?

The National Institutes of Health concluded that a waist larger than 40 inches for men and 35 inches for women increases the chances of developing heart disease, cancer, or other chronic diseases. Waist size is a simple, useful measurement because abdominal muscle can be replaced by fat with age, even though weight may remain the same. So, an increasing waist size can be an important "warning sign," and should prompt you to examine how much you are eating and exercising.

What fish species and sources should be avoided or limited by women who are or may become pregnant, nursing mothers, and young children?

The healthiest approach for women who are or may become pregnant, nursing mothers, and young children is to eat two servings per week of fish or other seafood, including up to one serving per week of white (albacore) canned tuna, and avoid the four fish species higher in mercury (shark, swordfish, tilefish, king mackerel).

Which has more impact on weight control, total calories consumed or the relative amounts of fat, protein, carbohydrate in the diet?

The strongest evidence to date shows that calories matter, but focusing on food quality is an equally important part of preventing weight gain and promoting weight loss.

What are the special functions of omega-3 fatty acids?

They are an integral part of cell membranes throughout the body and affect the function of the cell receptors in these membranes. They provide the starting point for making hormones that regulate blood clotting, contraction and relaxation of artery walls, and inflammation. They also bind to receptors in cells that regulate genetic function. Likely due to these effects, omega-3 fats have been shown to help prevent heart disease and stroke, may help control lupus, eczema, and rheumatoid arthritis, and may play protective roles in cancer and other conditions.

Why are cohort studies more reliable than case-control studies in nutrition research?

Though time-consuming and expensive, cohort studies generally provide more reliable information than case-control studies because they don't rely on information from the past.

Which fats are known to influence diabetes risk?

Trans Fats increases Type II diabetes Polyunsaturated fats reduce Type II diabetes

Which category of fat makes up most of what we eat and most of what circulates in the blood?

Triglycerides

Why is it necessary to offer an alternative to dairy products to meet calcium and vitamin D requirements?

Vitamin D plays a key role along with calcium in boosting bone health.

What measurement in addition to height and weight helps to indicate weight-related health risks? How is this measurement done?

Waist circumference is the simplest and most common way to measure "abdominal obesity"—the extra fat found around the middle that is an important factor in health, even independent of BMI. It's the circumference of the abdomen, measured at the natural waist (in between the lowest rib and the top of the hip bone), the umbilicus (belly button), or at the narrowest point of the midsection.

How has the current food environment contributed to the epidemic of obesity?

What's become the typical Western diet—frequent, large meals high in refined grains, red meat, unhealthy fats, and sugary drinks—plays one of the largest roles in obesity. Foods that are lacking in the Western diet—whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and nuts—seem to help with weight control, and also help prevent chronic disease.

What is wrong with a public health message stating that people should limit the fat in their diet?

When it comes to dietary fat, what matters most is the type of fat you eat. Contrary to past dietary advice promoting low-fat diets, newer research shows that healthy fats are necessary and beneficial for health

Why do low-fat weight-loss strategies often fail?

While low-fat was once the diet du jour, subsequent research has shown that low-fat diets are ineffective, and moreover, that eating healthy fats is beneficial for health.

How can recently reported successes, at least in the short-term, from low-carbohydrate diets be explained?

While many "diets" are fads meant to be followed for short periods of time, research shows that some approaches, including some low-carbohydrate diets and Mediterranean diets can be good models upon which to base your own dietary strategy as long as they incorporate healthy, high-quality foods.

What are the advantages of whole grains over refined grains?

Whole and intact grains—whole wheat, barley, wheat berries, quinoa, oats, brown rice, and foods made with them, such as whole wheat pasta—have a milder effect on blood sugar and insulin than white bread, white rice, and other refined grains.

What three aspects of weight strongly influence long-term disease risk?

Your weight, your waist size, and the amount of weight gained since your mid-20s

Describe the differences between cross-sectional studies and case-control studies.

a cross sectional study surveys current behaviors or characteristics and health outcomes at one moment in time to answer a question and a case-control study compares people with and without a disease to look for differences in current or past behaviors that might answer a question

What is meant by an "established relationship" between diet and health, and what determines which relationships can be considered "established."

an established relationship between is that one variable is a predictor of the other, and reliable research can be used to determine which relationships can be considered established.

Which traditional diets are also better alternatives to the USDA's My Pyramid?

anti-inflammatory diet, the mediterranean diet, and the DASH diet

Which omega-3 functions are important for the prevention of heart disease?

appear to help the heart beat at a steady clip and not veer into a dangerous or potentially fatal erratic rhythm. (1) Such arrhythmias cause most of the 500,000-plus cardiac deaths that occur each year in the United States. Omega-3 fats also lower blood pressure and heart rate, improve blood vessel function, and, at higher doses, lower triglycerides and may ease inflammation, which plays a role in the development of atherosclerosis. (1)

Why may "underweight" populations have increased mortality in epidemiological studies?

because globalization has brought fast food to these regions, It has thus super-charged the "nutrition transition," a term for the obesity-inducing shift from traditional to Western diets that accompanies modernization and wealth.

What disease risks are increased by a combination of high BMI and high waist circumference?

cardiovascular diseases; colorectal, breast and other cancers; and type 2 diabetes.

List the healthier sources of protein from food

choose fish, poultry, beans or nuts, protein sources that contain other healthful nutrients. It encourages them to limit red meat and avoid processed meat, since eating even small quantities of these foods on a regular basis raises the risk of heart disease, diabetes, colon cancer, and weight gain.

Why is red meat potentially harmful to health?

eating even small amounts of red meat, especially processed red meat, on a regular basis is linked to an increased risk of heart disease and stroke, and the risk of dying from cardiovascular disease or any other cause

Discuss how each of the following weight-loss diets can be made healthier: 1) low-carb, 2) low-fat, 3) high-protein.

low carb with high protein and good fat. Low-fat with high protein. high-protein with good fat.

What are the drawbacks of recommending a diet low in total fat?

many people substitute fat for carbohydrates

What are the risks of weight gain after the age of 20?

men who gained 11 to 22 pounds after age 20 were up to three times more likely to develop heart disease, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, and gallstones than those who gained five pounds or fewer.

Which has more impact on blood cholesterol, cholesterol in the diet, or the type of fats in the diet?

mix of fats and carbohydrates in your diet—not the amount of cholesterol you eat from food.

Name the two broad categories of "good" fats

monounsaturated and polyunsaturated

What types of processed foods can be high in trans fats?

partially hydrogenated oils 1. Some margarines 2. Vegetable shortening 3. Fried fast foods 4. Commercial baked goods

Healthy eating guidelines recommend eating most vegetables in abundance, with one exception, which vegetable is it?

potatoes

What are the advantages and disadvantages of randomized trials studying nutrition?

randomized, controlled trials can isolate the effect of a single intervention, such as a supplement or a dietary change, but subjects must comply with intervention throughout the trial, and effective blinding is necessary to control for placebo effects.

What are the structural differences between the two main categories of polyunsaturated fats?

refers to which carbon the first double bond resides on

What would be the qualities of the ideal weight-loss diet? Why may such a diet need to be modified for different individuals?

there may be some benefits to a macronutrient-based dietary approach, but research also shows that while a particular diet may result in weight loss for one person, it may not be effective for another person due to individual differences in genes and lifestyle. For those seeking the "perfect" one-size-fits-all diet, then, there isn't one!

What two types of fatty acid tend to be increased by the process of partial hydrogenation?

trans-unsatruared and saturated fatty acids

Which has more impact on health and disease, total fat intake or the type of fat eaten?

type of fat eaten

With regard to improving the LDL/HDL ratio, what type of macronutrient is the best substitution for dietary saturated fat?

unsaturated fats (olive oil)

What are good sources of alpha-linolenic acid?

walnuts, flaxseeds, and flaxseed or canola oil

Name the three 20-carbon precursors to eicosanoids. Which are omega-3 fatty acids and which are omega-6?

● Omega 6 ○ DGLA = dihomogammalinoleic acid (20:3 n6) ○ AA = arachodonic acid (20:4 n6) ● Omega 3 ○ EPA = eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5 n3)