Nutrition level 2

Characteristics of anorexia

Methods of weight loss can have severe life-threatening medical consequences Most are comorbid (present with) other psychological disorders Majority white female, middle / upper middle class, average intelligence Likely to come from competitive environments Usually develops around age 13 or early adolescence More chronic & resistant to treatment than bulimia, - thin & keeps getting thinner (losing 15% medically ideal body weight), continues to diet & restrict foods even when not overweight, has distorted body image feeling fat no matter how thin, preoccupied with everything food (cooking, nutrition, calorie counting...), & can lose hair, stop menstruating, and always feeling cold.

Two active forms of Vitamin C

(Ascorbic acid) - Active forms: Ascorbic acid & dehyrdoascorbic acid

Toxicity Vitamin A

(In excess) Highly toxic, mainly from supplements -Birth defects, spontaneous abortion -Symptoms: fatigue, loss of appetite, blurred vision, hair loss, skin disorders, bone and joint pain, abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, and damage to the liver and nervous system -Plant foods contain Vit A as provitamins A (beta-carotene) & cannot convert quickly enough to create a toxic condition - If lots of beta-carotene rich foods are eaten this is stored in fat cells under the skin giving a yellowish tinge (carotenia)

Two forms of Niacin

(Vitamin B3) - nicotinic acid (niacin) & nicotinamide (niacinamide) - both perform functions in the body associated w/ niacin (2) coenzymes - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) & nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+) - both readily absorbed from the stomach & intestine via active transport & passive diffusion so nearly all niacin consumed absorbed Niacin transported from liver to all tissues where converted to coenzyme forms NAD & NADP+, which function in either

Thiamin sources

(a) B Vitamin; part of coenzyme TPP (thiamin pyrophosphate) which assists in energy metabolism (conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA & TCA cycle); occupies site on membranes of nerve cells, important for nerve activity and muscle activity (b) men = 1.2 mg/day; women = 1.1 mg/day (c) malnourished and alcoholics at risk; beriberi (d) No adverse effects; no UL (e) -pork = richest source -enriched grains typically make greatest contribution to day's intake -prolonged cooking destroys thiamin, leaches into water when boiling or blanching foods -cooking methods that conserve thiamin include steaming and microwaving

provitamin A

(fat soluble) a beta coratene not biologically active. Has no storage of vitamin A used for other purposes such as vision. Found in leafy green vegetable(spinach, beets, kale) and deep orange / yellow fruits (cantalope), cream and butter

List key nutrients that may be at risk in the older adult

*Energy/protein - inactive, poor appetite, frail elderly, insitutionalised post-trauma - poor gen nutritional intake - all nutrients low, weight loss, low plasma albumin, poor wound healing, depressed immune status, high risk of mortality *B Vit (folate, B6, B12, thiamin & riboflavin- cases atrophic gastritis, heavy drinkers, poor diet, especially low intake milk, green veg - raised levels of homocysteine (amino acid- building block protein), link w/ cardiovascular disease & Alzheimer's disease, impaired cognitive function, megaloblastic anaemia * Vit D - Housebound, insitutionalised - consequences for bone health, immune system & muscle strength, increased risk of bone fracture and loss independence * Iron - where poor dentition & low meat intake, insitutionalised - poor iron status * Vit C - lower socioeconomic groups, insitutionalised - less resistance infection, poor wound healing *Potassium - low fruit & veg intake - associated poor dentition - low status linked salt intakes contribute hypertension - poor muscle strength * Zinc - low food intake, especially little meat - Depressed immune function, increased susceptibility to infection, poor wound healing, reduced taste acuity

Typical characteristics of bulimia nervosa

*Secretive binge eating; generally not overeating in front of others *eating when depressed or under-stressed *bingeing on large amounts of food, followed by fasting, laxative or diuretic abuse, self-induced vomiting, or excessive exercise *shame, embarrassment, deceit, and depression; low self-esteem and guilt *Fluctuating weight (+ or - 10lb) from alternate bingeing and fasting *loss of control; fear unable to stop eating * Perfectionism, "people pleaser"; food as only comfort/escape in otherwise carefully controlled and regulated life *Erosion of teeth; swollen glands

What is the consequence of low iron status in adolescence

- Anaemia characterised by pallor (pale), tiredness, apathy, breathlessness & poor appetite, poor growth - Effects on cognitive development, poor attention span & lack of interest in learning, limited achievement in school

Describe nutritional needs of older adult

- Energy needs: likely to be lower, due to reduction in metabolic rate, & reduced physical activity - however energy cost activities like walking may be higher than younger adults - Protein needs: Similar or slightly higher than those of younger adults - Requirements Vits & minerals may be increased or be at least same as in younger adults - due to less efficient absorption & metabolism

Therapeutic uses of Vitamin K

- Foods w/ vit K may be beneficial to those prone to haemorrhage, ionising radiation to combat leukemia etc, or abnormal blood clotting - indicated in osteoporosis to help sustain bone mass - used to prevent haemorrhaging in newborns - foods w/ vit K may help menorrhagia (prolonged menstruation) - may be used post operatively to decrease risk of excess bleeding - imrove bowel flora

Forming active form of Vitamin D

- Formed from precursors of Vit D when irradiated with ultraviolet light - equally effective in human nutrition but D3 is the one that is formed in humans from cholesterol in the skin D2 - formed in plants. - further metabolised yielding active forms of Vit D: 1,25-dihyroxyvitamin D3 (calcitriol) and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D2 (1,25 (OH)2 D2)

3 keys to effective weight loss and management

- Set realistic goals - Gain support from family and friends - a group leader or gym instructor etc. - Anticipate barriers to progress i.e triggers to eating like stress, boredom etc. - establish self belief for success

Metabolic disorders in infants

- Some infants born metabolic disorders = Inborn errors of metabolism (congenital - from birth) - Cause by mutation in genes - variation in seriousness of each disease - Some cause death early age, others minimised resuming normal life w/ adjustments in diet - Common danger of all to Central nervous system (CNS) - causing mental & growth retardation - Early diagnosis & diet therapy can increase chances of preventing retardation - Hospitals test newborn infants for some diseases as procedure & w/ family history of genetic disorder - genetic screening completed - Some abnormalities detected by amniocentesis (testing baby in-utero)e.g Phenylketonuria -PKU & Galactosaemia

Theraputic use Vitamin A

- Vit A + carotenoids aid prevention & treatment of age-related macular degeneration (medical condition results loss of vision in center of the visual field) & vision problems - Vit A has succes in helping acne, dermatitis, psoriasis and wound healing - Vit A useful in respiratory related disorders like hay fever or bronchial asthma - Vit A useful healing mucous membranes of digestive tract in case of ulcers and inflammatory bowel disease (IBS) - Aids protect against infections and aids comprimised immune systems - Teeth & gums benefit from Vit A as its required for uptake of phosphates & sulphates into bone mass

Obtaining safe drinking water

- Water filtration = means by which water is made pure, clean, uncontaminated & better tasting - Nature: filters via running water via streams - water passes over rocks in stream & bacteria leaches onto rock & is replaced by minerals like calcium & magnesium - Water distillation: uses heat source to vaporize water and separate it from contaminants and other undesirable elements commonly found in ground and surface water. Distillation heats raw (untreated) water until water reaches boiling point and begins to vaporize. The heat is then kept at a constant temperature to maintain water vaporization while prohibiting other undesirable elements from vaporizing. Once water vaporized, vapor led to condenser, where, upon cooling, water reverts to liquid form and runs into a receiving container. - Granular activated carbon: uses solid absorbent material that picks up waters organic contaminants as water passes through it - reduces chlorine taste - Reverse osmosis: purification process forces water, under pressure, against a fine semi-permeable membrane to strain minute particles of contaminants - no filter can prevent bacteria or viruses from passing through

Factors that inhibit absorption of vitamin B12

- absorption can be inhibited by insufficient intrinsic factor, gastric atrophy, malabsorption problems & pancreatic disease

Energy requirements for lactation

- additional 1.9-2.4MJ (450-570kcal)/day depending on stage of lactation

Nutrients for lactation

- additional 1.9-2.4MJ (450-570kcal)/day depending on stage of lactation - increase nutrients related to energy intake i.e protein & B vitamins - Increase nutrients secreted in substanital amount in milk: calcium, phosphorus, magnesium & zinc, folate, Vit A & C - driven by milk output and milk composition

Therapeutic use of Thiamine

- alcoholism - fatigue, chronic fatigue, stress, muscular weakness & low energy conditions, poor concentration & poor memory - poor circulation & numbness in extremities

Therapeutic use of pantothenic acid

- chronic or to fatigue/ low energy state or to improve stress response - alcoholism, insomnia, burning feet, cramping, depression & poor immunity - may help prevention of premature aging, wrinkles, hair loss & grey of hair

Describe functions of water in the body

- component all body tissues - major component of blood plasma - water solvent (liquid part of solution) for nutrients/waste products & helps transport both to & from body cells by way of blood - necessary hyrolysis of nutrients in cells - essential for metabolism - functions as lubricant in joints & digestion - cools body via perspiration - depending on source may provide minerals & elements

What are the categories for prolonged nutritional health for adults

- difficult set standard of 'normality' - to assess individuals: therefore more effective to adopt combination of screening tools including: - assessing of current health status - social & physiological factors - food intake & anthropometric (human body) measurements - haematological (study of blood) measurements - biochemical (study of chemical processes in living organisms / matter) ,measurements

Why would a child fail to thrive

- don't receive or are unable to take in, retain, or utilize the calories needed to gain weight and grow as expected (poor height grown) - child may not be eating enough, feeding long enough or often enough, or trouble weaning onto solid foods. Also be caused by: -Minor illness. Babies lose appetite when unwell, j -Heartburn, or reflux, & vomiting, which can make your child reluctant to feed or eat. - Infection in mouth / throat makes sucking painful. -Excessive vomiting/ diarrhoea, caused by illness. -Problems with mealtimes - unable to adjust.

Symptoms anorexia nervosa

- emaciation - hypotension (orthostatic) (dizzy spells) - bradycardia (heart beats too slow) - hyperthermia - skin dry - lanugo (downy body hair on trunk/extremities) - salivary gland hypertrophy (increased volume of organ) - dental enamel erosion - amenorrhea (absence of period) - delayed menarche (first menstrual bleeding)

Therapeutic use of sodium

- indicated in excess perspiration, vomiting, diarrhoea, diuretic use, strict vegetarianism

Therapeutic uses of zinc

- indicated in genetic disorder, acrodermatitis eteropathica (rare inherited form of zinc deficiency, characterized by periorificial and acral dermatitis, alopecia, and diarrhoea) -benefiical in growth periods in childhoodl, preadolesence, and pregnancy - beneficial in skin conditions - acne, dermatitis, scarring, burns, wounds - indicated in poor immunity, alopecia & improved sense of taste - may be usd alcoholics, vegans, athletes, & improving behavioural disorders

Therapeutic use of potassium

- indicated in periods of growth & pregnancy, muscular weakness & cramping, stress, low blood sugar, alcoholism & prolonged diarrohoea - also indicate

Therapeutic use of calcium and phosphorus

- indicated in pregnancy & lactation for formation of strong, rigid bones and teeth - phosphorus - important metabolism carbohydrates, fats, & proteins & involved energy production, constitutent all body cel membranes & RNA/DNA, necessary requirement for proper acid-base balance of blood, essential effective action of several B vits eg. lecithin made from choline & phosphorus, stored bones & absorption increased in presence Vit D.

Process of absorption of in vitamin B12

- it must be joined w/ a form of protein called intrinsic factor - intrinsic factor is secreted by stomach mucosa, which caries Vit B12 to small intestine for absorption

Functions of Niacin

- serves as coenzymes (NAD & NADP) in energy metabolism & consequently is essential to every body cell - essential for the metabolism of fats, protein & carbohydrates - niacin has a role in improving circulation & reducing cholesterhol - essential for prevention pellagra - 4'ds dementia, dermatitis, diarrhoea and potentially death

Use of sulfur therapeutically, Functions and dietary sources of sulfur

- sulfur needs met w/ sufficient protein intake - non-metalic element - keeps hair glossy & smooth & complexion youthful - detoxification role ie. pollution expulsion & liver detox, supplementary to athritis treatment - needed for collagen synthesis & maintenance of skin nails & hair - best source eggs, legumes, meat, fish, cheese & milk

Therapeutic use of B6

- used successfully w/ some women for symptoms of PMS like fluid retention & dysmenorrhoea & also w/ the nausea of pregnancy - May benefit anxiety & stress, poor memory, carpal tunnel syndrome & athletic performance - indicated in poor immunity & low energy states

Evaluate use of magnesium therapeutically

- useful conditions of cramping or muscular dysfunction like leg cramps, constipation or dysmenorrhoea (pain during menstruation), role in Parkinsons disease & epilepsy

Functions of magnesium, dietary sources, deficiency symptoms

- vital hard & soft body tissue - stored bone & part bone & muscle structure - coenzyme many metabolic processes & forms part of active ATP - important formation of cyclic AMP (functions as a "second messenger" to relay extracellular signals to intracellular effectors), role in neuromuscular activity - acts as relaxer in normal muscle contraction - may inhibit athersclerosis by maintaining heart muscle & vasodilation of blood vessels - Green vegetables like spinach as center of the chlorophyll molecule (which gives green vegetables their color) contains magnesium. Some beans, peas, nuts, seeds, and whole, unrefined grains - deficiency rare - may develop w/ alcoholism, protein malnutrition, kidney disorders & prolonged vomiting or diarrhoea - also those using diuretics - severe deficiency causes tetany - a syndrome of sharp flexion of the wrist and ankle joints (carpopedal spasm), muscle twitching, cramps, and convulsions - impair CNS activity possibly responsible for hallucinations during alcohol withdrawal

Nutrients that work closely with vitamin B6

- works closely with zinc & magnesium

Signs and symptoms of alcoholism

--Signs of alcohol abuse You have problems at work/ school because of drinking i.e being late or not going at all. You drink in risky situations i.e before/ while driving a car. After drinking, you can't remember what happened while you drank (blackouts). You have legal problems because of drinking, like being arrested for harming someone or driving while drunk (intoxicated). You get hurt or you hurt someone when drinking. You keep drinking even though you have health problems that are caused or made worse by alcohol use like liver disease (cirrhosis). Your friends or family members are worried about your drinking. --Signs of alcohol dependence or addiction You cannot quit drinking/ control amount you drink. You need to drink more to get the same effect. You have withdrawal symptoms when you stop drinking. Including feeling sick to your stomach, sweating, shakiness, and anxiety. You spend a lot of time drinking and recovering. You have given up other activities to drink. You keep drinking even though it harms your relationships and causes health problems. --Other signs: You drink in the morning, are often drunk for long periods of time, or drink alone. You change what you drink like switching from beer to wine because you think this will help you drink less or keep you from getting drunk. You feel guilty after drinking. You make excuses for drinking or do things to hide drinking like buying alcohol at diff stores. You worry you won't get enough alcohol for an evening or weekend. You have physical signs of alcohol dependence like weight loss, a sore or upset stomach (gastritis), or redness of the nose and cheeks. Signs of alcohol problems in children and teens can be different than the ones for adults.

Dietary sources calcium

-Dairy (while dairy contains high levels of calcium, it is not as well absorbed as calcium from green leafy vegetables) -Beans, especially soy, Nuts, especially almonds, Rhubarb, Spinach, fortified cereals, , dairy (300 mg/cup), beans, broccoli, dried fruits, tofu (with calcium added), molasses (135 mg/Tbsp), fortified foods & juice

functions magnesium

-Part of complex that stabilizes ATP ==necessary for activities in the body such as protein synthesis, cell growth, muscle and nerve function -Vitamin D and hormone (PTH) regulation -Maintain healthy bones ==50% in bones -May help lower blood pressure

Diagnostic criteria bulimia nervosa

-Recurrent episodes binge eating defined as lack of control over discrete periods excessive eating -Recurrent, inappropriate compensatory behavior in order to prevent weight gain (vomiting, use of laxatives, fasting, excessive exercising) -Binge eating & inappropriate compensatory behaviors both occur, on average, at least twice a week for three months -Self-evaluation is unduly influenced by body shape & weight -Disturbance does not occur exclusively during episodes of anorexia nervosa (purging type) -Individuals are often obsessed with their appearance & attractiveness to the opposite sex - Likely sexually active & maintain normal weight

Diagnostic criteria anorexia nervosa

-Refusal to maintain body weight at or above healthy BMI, or failure to make expected weight gain during period of growth leading to body weight less than 85% of expected -Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, even though underweight -Disturbance in the way in which one's body weight or shape is experienced -Undue influence body weight or shape on self-evaluation -Denial of seriousness of current low body weight even when hospitalized or gravely ill -In postmenarchical females, amenorrhea, the absence of 3+- consecutive menstrual cycles -Anorexia may or may not include binge eating/purging behavior -Individuals often exhibit obsessive/compulsive behavior, depression, anxiety, rigidity, perfectionism, and poor sexual adjustment

Functions of Vitamin D

-Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption in the gut and maintains adequate serum calcium and phosphate concentrations in the blood enabling normal mineralization of bone and to prevent hypocalcemic tetany (involuntary muscle movement) -occuring w/ too little calcium in the blood= hypocalcaemia). It is also needed for bone growth and bone remodeling by osteoblasts and osteoclasts - mobilising calcium around bone = normal calcification in bone matrix & cartilage - preventing bone disease (osteoporosis) - excess stored liver & adipsose fat

Therapeutic use of Niacin

-adjunct /supplementary treatment for high cholesterol atherosclerosis (hardening arteries) & poor circulation -may benefit chilblains, migraines, acne, alcoholism, mental illness & arthritis - Meniere's syndrome (centre hearing & balance affected), dizziness, premature senility or dementia may also benefit from niacin supplementation

Nutritional needs of infants

-birth to 1 yr: breast milk or formula -4 to 6 mos: iron-fortified cereal -6 to 8 mos: yellow veggies, fruits -8 to 10 mos: meats Intake at 12 months: - cereal foods - four portions - Fruit and vegetables - four portions - Dairy - two portions, +350 mL milk or equivalent - Meat or alternatives - two portions 105 to 130 kcal/kg/day -need more than avg protein, iron, calcium & phosphorus should gain 15 to 20 g/kg/day

Functions of fluoride

-bone and tooth mineralization -prevents dental caries -ligament/tendon strength

Factors affecting iron absorption

-iron status: low iron status means increased absorption (people with major blood loss) -amount of iron consumed: low iron diet increases absorption, intestinal cells replace themselves every 3-5 days, lose iron as result -type of iron: heme vs. non-heme -stomach acidity: breaks non-heme iron off plant proteins & converts non-heme iron to Fe2+ -other dietary factors: vitamin C helps conversion of Fe3+ to Fe2+, meat fish and poultry factor--> protein enhances iron absorption -cook in cast iron pans -phylates, polyphenols, and calcium absorption compete with iron absorption

functions potassium

-major electrolyte -nerve impulse transmission -muscle contraction -blood pressure regulation -counteracts effects of sodium on blood pressure

Functions of manganese

-normal bone structure -reproduction -normal functioning of cells, and CNS involved in CHO, lipid, and amino acid metabolism

Physiological changes associated with aging

-reduced mobility - musculoskeletal neurological circulatory, respiratory, excess weigh - cognitive function - impairment and dementia - physiological illnesses - including depression (also reactive depression following bereavement), mental illness, alcoholism *Reduced lean body mass associated w/ culturally determined sedentary lifestyle = low BMR, small energy needs, poorer nutrient intake *Loss of sensory acuity- taste, smell, hearing, vision = Less confidence preparing food may limit quality/quantity *Quality dentition: dry mouth: reduced saliva flow = Lack of teeth, poor fit dentures, effect quality/quantity food intake, some food grps excluded (hard to chew etc.), poor oral hygiene causes sores & ulcers - eating painful *Kidney function reduced: Affects ability concentrate urine or deal w/ low fluid intake, risk of dehydration & subsequent confusional state, including disregarding food intake *Gastrointestinal tract changes including secretion of hormones, enzymes & acid reduced motility - prolonged satiety caused by slow movement along GI tract, raised level hormones (CCK) reduce appetite, reduced acid secretion may affect absorption of minerals from food, slow motility may result constipation, affecting appetite & tendency to use laxatives, which may reduce nutrient absorption *Immune system less efficient, fewer T-lymphocyte produced, may be stressed by chronic disease states - adequate nutritional intake of wide range of nutrients needed to sustain immune system, poor immune status increases risk of infection w/ consequent poor food intake

Symptoms Vitamin C toxicity

-relatively nontoxic -kidney stones (builds up if kidneys can't filter it out) -nausea and diarrhea -decreases absorption of other vitamins and minerals (calcium)

Behaviour factors associated with anorexia

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List behavioral factors associated with bulimia nervosa

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Dietary sources of chloride

..., (fruits) dates, bananas, (dairy) cheese, milk, (veggies) canned veggies, soup, spinach, celery, olives, rye, (meat, fish, poultry) eggs, crabs, fish, turkey, table salt, process foods

Factors that negatively affect foetus & mother and outcome of pregnancy

1. Maternal nutrition - Foetus gets nourishment from maternal blood via placenta, so mother's diet should contain necessary nutrients i.e protein for tissue building & repair & fat forming tissue 2. Mental health - Substances that harmfully affect pre-natal development are called tetrarogens, which may cause physical or mental abnormalities. Some diseases, if contracted by mother believed to be tetratogens. Disease causing virus can be transmitted from mom blood to baby's if small enough to pass placenta screen. 3. Bacterial infections - May cross placental screen, i.e toxoplasmosis, which causes congenial brain damage and blindness. 4. Drugs - Drugs can filter through placenta into blood stream of foetus. The risk is greater during early stages of pregnancy, when development is progressing more rapidly. 5. Smoking - nicotine thought to contract blood vessels in uterus & placenta. This interferes w/ delivery of oxygen & nutrients to the foetus. 6. Alcohol - When consumed mod amounts has no ill effects. But if mother drinks excessively, babys growth & motor development retarded. 7. Emotional state of mother - Emotions can temporarily affect child. Activity level of foetus increased when mother emotionally upset. Difficult labour & delivery also related to mother's level tension during preceding months. 8. Maternal age - woman <21, hav chance of miscarriage, still birth & foetal malformation as reproductive organs of female not fully mature.

List functions calcium

1. Transmission of nerve impulses 2. Myocardial contractions 3. Blood clotting 4. Formation of teeth/bone 5. Muscle contractions

Deficiency and toxicity symptoms phosphorus

1. poor bone formation and growth 2. impaired bone mineralization that causes rickets in children (softening of bones that results skeletal problems like knock-knees, bowed legs, spinal curvature, narrowed chest, and soft skull bones) 3. osteomalacia (adult rickets) that causes bones to be soft and prone to fractures, and symptomized by deformities in the spine and limbs, and rheumatic or arthritic-like pain 4. numbness and tingling of the extremities 5. difficulty walking 6. increased susceptibility to infection 7.fatigue or muscle weakness 8.anemia 9.loss of appetite and changes to weight

Functions of choline

1. structural component of tissues 2. prevents accumulation of liver fat 3. some reports in increase in feed efficiency and rate of gain in feedlot cattle 4. some reports have found an increase in milk fat percentage in dairy cows.

Sources of Vitamin K

1/2 vit K in body from food in form phylloquinone (plant) 1/2 synthesized by bacteria in intestines: menaquinones Best food source = green leafy veg (beets, greens, spinach, turnip greens, cabbage or kale Alfalfa fruits, cereals, dairy products & meats provide some - but animal source poorest form Fermented foods like miso & acidophilus bifidus supplements enhance bowel bacteria which in turn promotes synthesis Vit K

Recommended weight gain in kg for pregnancy based on BMI

11-16kg during pregnancy - 0.4kg weekly for normal weight women - 0.3kg weekly for overweight women - 0.5kg weekly for underweight women

Protein requirements for pregnancy

14 grams a day added protein to diet mature pregnancy and 30 grams a day for adolescent pregnancy

Carbohydrate requirements for pregnancy

175 grams per day or 45 to 65 % of total calories during pregnancy

Three forms of Vitamin B6 and coactive enzyme it forms

3 forms Vit B6: pyridoxine, pyridoxal & pyrdoxamine - converted to active form pyridoxal phosphate (PLP), which is made in the liver -absorbed by passive means & is transported to liver via portal blood - essential for protein metabolism & affects conversion of tryptophan to niacin - stored muscle tissue

Pathways for converting ethanol to acetaldehyde

3 main pathways - 1 - Metabolism of alcohol involves zinc-containing enzyme alcohol dehyrogenase (ADH) found in liver cytoplasm & similar to gastric- alcohol converted to energy by coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD). NAD also used to convert glucose you get from other Chos to energy; while NAD is being used for alcohol, glucose conversion grinds to a halt.- main rate-limiting step - accumulating acetaldehyde leads to headaches & cutaneous (skin) flushing 2 - microsomal ethanol - oxidising system (MEOS) in liver - normally metabolises up to 20% ingested alcohol, more active in chronic alcoholics - alcohol stimulates development microsomal membranes where cytochrome P450 (vit C requiring factor) is induced 3. Relatively insignificant - involves enzyme catalase found in many cells of body (liver & gastric mucosa)

Energy requirements for pregnancy

300 more calories added to the diet for energy

Absorption of zinc

40% of zinc from an animal source is absorbed if body's needs are great • Presence of phytic acid decrease absorption • Calcium supplement decrease zinc absorption • Competes with copper and iron absorption

Function of Thiamine

= Vitamin B1 - partially destroyed by heat & alkalis & lost in cooking water - Absorbed mainly SI by carrier-mediated system - transported to blood in this way OR in coenzyme form by red blood cells - storage poor so excess promply excreted in urine Functions as coenzyme thiamin pyrophosphate (TTP) in metabolism of carbohydrates & branched-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine & valine) - specifically participates decarboxylation of alpha keto acids & in action of enzyme transketolase. - Adequate intake results in healthy nerve functioning and normal appetite and digestion - Requirements: milligrams - RDR av. adult 0.5mg per 1000 kcal- 0.9-1.1mg men & 0.7-0.8mg women

Treatment of anorexia nervosa

> 20% body weight=hospitalization, >30% body weight= psych hospital for 2-6 mo; meds+ therapy, 1. medication - antidepressants or antipsychotics 2. family therapy - use Maudsley model (3 phases, refeeding stage then negotiations then termination phase) 3. CBT - changing behavior and maladaptive thinking for 1-2 years. Modify distorted beliefs about food and our relationship to it

Myoglobin

A globular protein found in muscle tissue that has the ability to bind oxygen. Myoglobin helps to store oxygen in the muscle for use in aerobic respiration (it does not move, just stays there). Muscles that participate in endurance activities (including cardiac muscle) have abundant supplies of myoglobin.

treatment for underweight conditions

A healthy diet for a healthy weight If you're underweight, aim to gain weight gradually until your BMI is in a healthy range It's crucial you gain weight the right way, not by eating chocolate, cakes & high-calorie junk foods with saturated fat & sugar, which can increase your body fat instead of lean body mass. Aim for three meals & three snacks daily & base your diet on healthy eating principles = Make meals w/ starchy Cho like wholemeal pasta, brown rice, potatoes or lentils, as a base. Eat five portions of fruit & vegetables i.e 5 A DAY. Choose lean protein meat, fish, beans & pulses. Get 3 portions of calcium daily. 1 portion is glass (190ml or 1/3 pint) of milk, a yoghurt or matchbox-size piece of cheese. Cut down saturated fat, found in processed meats, pies, cakes and biscuits. Cut down sugary foods & drinks i.e choc, cakes & biscuits & sugar-rich soft drinks. Be informed. If you don't eat meat consume alternative proteins in combination for best effect as on their own vegetarian proteins do not contain all essential amino acids - combinations examples are: Beans & rice, Peanut butter sandwich (grains), Tofu with rice, Hummus / pita bread, Chickpeas & rice

Haemochromatosis

A hereditary disorder of the SI leading to over-adsorption of Fe from food. Can result in liver disease, heart disease and diabetes.

Signs anorexia nervosa

A refusal to keep one's body weight at or above a normal weight for age and height; typically defined as weight that is at least 85% of what is expected given age and height. An intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat even though one is clearly underweight. Disturbed body image; a faulty self-evaluation of one's actual weight and body shape.In postpubescent girls or women, amenorrhea (absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles). Subtypes of anorexia nervosa: Restricting subtype: does not regularly engage in binge eating or purging. Binge eating/purging subtype: regularly engages in binge eating or purging (e.g., self-induced vomiting; misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas). \

Fat soluble vitamins

A, D, E and K. Stored in the fatty compartments of the body/ binding to lipids and absorbed with their digestion products. With the exception of vitamin D, these vitamins are provided through dietary intake. - A, D, E, K -insoluble in water, more stable, require bile for digestion, absorbed into lymph, stored in liver & adipose tissue, needed in periodic doses, more likely to be toxic, absorption enhanced by fat

List acid forming foods and alkaline forming foods

ALKALIZING VEGETABLES Alfalfa, Barley Grass Beet Greens Beets Broccoli Cabbage Carrot Cauliflower Celery Chard Greens, Chlorella, Collard Greens, Cucumber Dandelions, Dulce, Edible Flowers, Eggplant Fermented Veggies, Garlic, Green Beans, Green Peas, Kale, Kohlrabi, Lettuce, Mushrooms Mustard Greens, Nightshade Veggies, Onions Parsnips (high glycemic), Peas, Peppers Pumpkin, Radishes Rutabaga Sea Veggies Spinach, green Spirulina Sprouts Sweet Potatoes Tomatoes Watercress Wheat Grass Wild Greens ALKALIZING FRUITS :Apple Apricot Avocado Banana (high glycemic) Berries Blackberries Cantaloupe Cherries, sour Coconut, fresh Currants Dates, dried Figs, dried Grapes Grapefruit Honeydew Melon Lemon Lime Muskmelons Nectarine Orange Peach Pear Pineapple Raisins Raspberries Rhubarb Strawberries Tangerine Tomato Tropical Fruits Umeboshi Plums Watermelon ALKALIZING PROTEIN: Almonds Chestnuts Millet Tempeh (fermented) Tofu (fermented) Whey Protein Powder ALKALIZING SPICES & SEASONINGS: Chili Pepper Cinnamon Curry Ginger Herbs (all) Miso Mustard Sea Salt Tamari ALKALIZING MINERALS: Calcium: pH 12 Cesium: pH 14 Magnesium: pH 9 Potassium: pH 14 Sodium: pH 14 ACIDIFYING VEGETABLES: Corn Lentils Olives Winter Squash ACIDIFYING FRUITS: Blueberries Canned or Glazed Fruits Cranberries Currants Plums** Prunes** ACIDIFYING GRAINS, GRAIN PRODUCTS Amaranth Barley Bran, oat Bran, wheat Bread Corn Cornstarch Crackers, soda Flour, wheat Flour, white Hemp Seed Flour Kamut Macaroni Noodles Oatmeal Oats (rolled) Quinoa rice (all) Rice Cakes Rye Spaghetti Spelt Wheat Germ Wheat ACIDIFYING BEANS & LEGUMES Almond Milk Black Beans Chick Peas Green Peas Kidney Beans Lentils Pinto Beans Red Beans Rice Milk Soy Beans Soy Milk White Beans ACIDIFYING DAIRY Butter Cheese Cheese, Processed Ice Cream Ice Milk ACIDIFYING NUTS & BUTTERS Cashews Legumes Peanut Butter Peanuts Pecans Tahini Walnuts ACIDIFYING ANIMAL PROTEIN Bacon Beef Carp Clams Cod Corned Beef Fish Haddock Lamb Lobster Mussels Organ Meats Oyster Pike Pork Rabbit Salmon Sardines Sausage Scallops Shellfish Shrimp Tuna Turkey Veal Venison ACIDIFYING FATS & OILS Avacado Oil Butter Canola Oil Corn Oil Flax Oil Hemp Seed Oil Lard Olive Oil Safflower Oil Sesame Oil Sunflower Oil ACIDIFYING ALCOHOL Beer Hard Liquor Spirits Wine

Toxicity symptoms copper

Abdominal symptoms, muscle pain, ultimately liver damage - Wilsons disease is genetic condition that has tendency to absorb excess copper leading to accumulated deposits in body

Three reasons for possible biotin deficiency

Absorption is inhibited by avidin found in raw egg white. - antibiotics can kill bowel bacteria so can interfere w/ production of biotin - lack intestinal biotinidase (usually detected in infacy) can lead to deficiency symptoms, which include dermatitis, dry skin, alopecia/hair loss/colour, fatigue, depression, anorexia & greying of skin

Fate of acetaldehyde

Acetaldehyde is attacked by enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) & glutathione, which contains high quantities of cysteine (amino acid attracted to aldehyde). Together aldehyde dehydrogenase & glutathione form nontoxic acetate - acetic acid (like vinegar). This works well leaving aldehyde short time to do damage if only few drinks consumed. Unfortunately liver's stores of glutathione quickly run out when large amounts of alcohol enter the system. This causes aldehyde to build up in body while liver creates more glutathione, leaving toxin in body for long periods of time - This acetic acid combines with Coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA. The acetyl-CoA then enters the Krebs Cycle, which is the basic powerhouse of the human body. Inside the Krebs Cycle (or TCA - tricarboxylic acid cycle as starting from Acetyl CoA) is broken down to carbon dioxide & water.

Function of vitamin B12

Activates folate, production of DNA, promotes blood formation, promotes normal functions of cells especially nervous system - Maintains myelin; Cellular respiration use of fatty acid; Conversion of Homocysteine; Red blood cell formation; Reactivates Folate

Enzyme needed for alcohol metabolism

Alcohol dehydroxgenase (ADH)

Haemosiderosis

An overload of iron in the body resulting from repeated blood transfusions. Hemosiderosis occurs most often in patients with thalassemia. , abnormal deposit of hemosiderin

Symptoms of pure Riboflavin deficiency

Ariboflavinosis- inflammation of tongue (glossitis), cracking of tissue around corners of the mouth (cheilosis), seborrheic dermatitis (sebaceous glands of skin), inflammation of the mouth (stomatitis) & throat, various eye & nervous system disorders & confusion. - consequences of riboflavin deficiency uknown but may cause tiredness more quickly during physical activity (not conclusive evidence) Severe dificiency symptoms: inflammation mouth & tongue (takes 2 months to present)

Need of protein for exercise

Athletes need protein primarily to repair and rebuild muscle that is broken down during exercise and help optimize Cho storage in form of glycogen. Protein isn't ideal source of fuel for exercise, but can be used when diet lacks adequate Cho. This is detrimental, though, as if used for fuel, there isn't enough available to repair and rebuild body tissues, including muscle.

Approach to fluid replacement for athelets

Athletes need to drink extra fluids to replace body water lost exercising. Water cools body as working muscles generate heat & raises temp of body. Sweat created & evaporated cools body. If athletes don't replace sweat by drinking fluids, body's water balance upset & body may overheat. All athletes must drink water before, during and after exercise. Dehydration can start when an athlete loses as little as 1 percent of body weight. Before : 2 cups cold h2O- 1-2 hrs before activity During exercise: ½ cup cold h2O every 15 mins After: 2 cups cold h2O for every pound weight loss Plain cold water best, economical fluid. Body absorbs cold fluids faster than warm & drinking water easiest way to replace body fluids. Athletes can use sports drinks especially during activities lasting more than 90 minutes. These should contain no more than 15 -18 g of Chos per cup. Fruit juice may only be used as fluid replacement if diluted at least 1 cup water for every 1 cup of juice. Carbonated beverages, high-sugar drinks and undiluted fruit juice too high in Chos & may cause stomach cramps, nausea & diarrhea. Caffeinated beverages, like tea, coffee & cola beverages, will dehydrate body even more. Athletes can replace body fluids w/ water containing foods like oranges, watermelon, apples, grapes, lettuce, & tomatoes, along w/ water. These foods provide water & Chos & are good for replacing water & energy after exercise.

What are symptoms of alcohol withdrawal

Autonomic overactivity (sweating, tachycardia, HTN, insomnia, elevated temp, tremor). Gastrointestinal (anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea). Cognitive & perceptual changes (anxiety, vivid dreams, hallucinations, delirium). Seizures occur in about 5% of people. They occur 7-24 hours after last drink. Delirium tremens is most severe form of alcohol withdrawal syndrome, and medical emergency. It usually develops 2-5 days after stopping or significantly reducing. Only in around 1% of cases.

Disadvantage of blanket health guidelines for certain individuals

Because diversity of this age group - info about nutritional requirements remains speculative & is often extrapolated from data of younger adults

Vitamin A requirements

Best obtained well-balanced diet rather than supplementation - listed as retinol equivalents - recommended most food and nutritional authorities i.e. National Health & Research council in Australia set RDI at 750 micrograms retional equivalents (RE) daily for men and woment RE = 1ug retinol and 6ug beta-carotene RE = 3.33 IU (international units) retinol & 10 IU beta-carotene

Dietary sources vitamin D

Best source is sunshine - changing provitamin to Vit D3 in humans "sunshine vitamin" Dietary doesnt even supply 5-10% here in australia. - fish/fatty fish - meat: liver, egg yolk - fortified foods - mainly milk

Dietary sources of vitamin B12

Best sources B12 are animal foods, especially liver, kidney, meat, seafood, eggs, & dairy products - spirulina contains Vit B12 - debatable to availability - proposed sea vegetables & fermented soy products have some Vitamin B12 level - Vegans shouldnt rely on this & seek Vit B12 supplementation

Dietary sources of folate

Best sources of folate are green leafy veg, liver, fruit & yeast. - also found in beans, oranges, rice & asparagus in good quantities

Function of biotin

Biotin - B7; - participates as coenzyme in metabolism of fats, carbohydrates & proteins - functions carrier for carboxylases needed for gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis & for energy production - functions of biotin linked to roles of folic acid, patothentic acid & B12

What is the body composition of infants

Birth weight is composite of skeletal size & soft tissue. Also gender - Males tend to be longer & heavier than females, females have more subcutaneous fat. Other factors influencing body composition include parity and maternal BMI which have stronger associations w/ measures of fat at birth than measures skeletal size, maternal & paternal height which more associated w/ skeletal size. Various methods of obtaining measures of body composition in utero and at birth. DEXA scan, ultransonography & total body electrical conductivity all used

How do we control food intake

Body is in continual state of hunger, intermittently relieved by eating. This perpetual drive to eat periodically suppressed by inhibitory impulses generated by presence of food in gastrointestinal tract, flow of nutrients to blood etc. After such "satiety factors" dissipated, desire to eat returns. - Role of the central nervous system - hypothalamus w/ hunger & satiety center Pregastric factors - smell, taste, look, odour etc. Gastrointestinal and postabsorptive factors - full stomach/intestine providing satiety Long-term controls - integration hormonal, metabolic and neural signals.

What factors influence basal metabolism Basal metabolic rate)

Body size: Metabolic rate increases as weight, height, and surface area increase. Body composition: Fat tissue has lower metabolic activity than muscle tissue. As lean muscle mass increases, metabolic rate increases. Gender: BMR averages 5-10% lower in women than men. Women possess more body fat & less muscle mass than men of similar size. Age: A decrease in lean muscle mass with age decreases BMR after 30 can be largely avoided by strength training throughout adulthood. Climate and body temp: BMR of ppl in tropical climates is 5-20% higher than those in cooler regions as it takes energy to keep body cool, takes energy to keep body warm if you work or exercise in very cold weather. Hormonal levels: Thyroxine (T4), key hormone released by thyroid glands has significant effect upon metabolic rate. Hypothyroidism relatively common, especially in women near or after menopause. Everyone with a weight problem should have thyroid function checked by Dr & treated appropriately it's low. Health: Fever, illness, or injury may increase resting metabolic rate two-fold.

Those at risk of vitamin B12 deficiency

Breast-fed infants of mothers with a Vit B12 deficiency are at risk for severe developmental abnormalities and irreversible neurological damage. Vegans (people who don't eat any meat, dairy, or eggs) most at risk developing a B12 deficiency because, aside from fortified breakfast cereals, the only reliable dietary sources of vitamin B12 are animal-derived products. But even vegetarians who eat eggs and dairy products consume, on average, less than half the adult Recommended Dietary Allowance of 2.4 mcg of B12 Some older people are also at high risk for developing B12 deficiency. Up to 30% of people ages 50 and over suffer from atrophic gastritis, a thinning of the stomach lining. This condition reduces the amount of B12 absorbed by the small intestine. Certain other digestive conditions and surgeries also can interfere with B12 absorption.

State the extra daily calorie requirements during lactation

Breastfeeding mother requires extra 300 to 400 calories above pre-pregnancy needs for first 12 months of breastfeeding.

Difference between anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa

Bulimia nervosa turns too food in stressful situations while Anorexia nervosa pushes away from food. - Anorexia- are underweight, lose menstrual periods. Bulimia-usually normal weight, have out of control binges.

Drinks to avoid during lactation

Caffeine, citrus beverages, peppermint tea - limit soy, dairy

Minerals needed for pregnancy

Calcium (1,000 - 1,300 mg) - Creates strong bones & teeth, helps prevent blood clots & muscle & nerve function - Yogurt, milk, cheddar cheese, calcium-fortified food: soy, juice, breads, cereals, dark green leafy veg, canned fish w/ bones Iron (27 mg) - Helps in production of hemoglobin; prevents anemia, low birth weight, premature delivery - Beef, pork, dried beans, spinach, dried fruit, wheat germ, oatmeal/grains fortified with iron Protein (71 mg) - Helps production amino acids; repairs cells - Most animal foods, meat, poultry, eggs, dairy, veggie burgers, beans, legumes, nuts Zinc (11-12 mg) - Helps produce insulin & enzymes - Red meats, poultry, beans, nuts, whole grains, fortified cereals, oysters, dairy products

What is carbohydrate-loading

Carb loading is recommended for events lasting longer than 90 minutes. It is a technique used to maximize glycogen stores for long endurance competitions (marathons). This is defined as a regimen of moderate exercise followed by the consumption of a high carb diet that enables muscles to store glycogen beyond their normal capacites. Athletes eat a high carb diet during the 3 days just prior to the event. They must eat high carb foods are a short (3 mins) but very intense bout of exercise. Benefits athlete who must keep going from 90 mins or longer

Foods best before athletic event

Carbohydrates - Complex Cho's contain glucose, your body's key energy source for muscles during exercise & sports. Complex Cho's like whole-grain breads, wheat pasta & brown rice give your body the endurance to complete your athletic event. High-fiber Cho's, like beans & broc, cause gas & indigestion (contain fructans) should be avoided before sports.-bananas fav for athletes Protein - not body's main supplier of energy, does help you feel full & keep muscles ready to perform at peak. Pre-competition snacks w/ protein are low-fat cheese, milk, yogurt & peanut butter. A smoothie w/ low-fat yogurt, banana & other fruit excellent mix of simple Chos and protein.

Difference between carnitine and taurine

Carnitine, often referred to as L-Carnitine, is an amino acid. Invaluable in metabolizing fat within the body, & preventing buildup of fat deposits in the heart. -essential element in breaking down fat within the body, carnitine plays important role in helping transport fatty acids through system, where acids converted into energy Taurine, or 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid, is a compound that is produced naturally in the human body. Found in high levels in the skeletal and heart muscles, & white blood cells & central nervous system. It's essential component in bile & aids in digestion of fats and the absorption of vitamins that are fat-soluble. 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid is also found in seaweed, fungi and bacteria -compound in bile that allow fats & oils to be absorbed - essential development central nervous system & retina

Casuses signs, symptoms iron deficiency anaemia

Cause: Bone marrow needs iron to make red blood cells & important in structure of hemoglobin molecule. If iron intake limited/ inadequate due to poor dietary intake iron deficiency anemia may occur - can also occur when there are stomach ulcers or other sources of slow, chronic bleeding (colon cancer, uterine cancer, intestinal polyps, hemorrhoids, etc) causing iron to be lost from body with blood loss Symptoms: fatigue; lack energy; weakness; shortness of breath; lightheadedness; heart palpitations, looking pale. Symptoms severe anemia, chest pain, angina, heart attack; dizziness; fainting/ passing out; and rapid heart rate Signs: Change stool color, (black & tarry -sticky, foul smelling), maroon/ bloody stools if anemia from blood loss via gastrointestinal tract; rapid heart rate; low blood pressure; rapid breathing; pale or cold skin; yellow skin (jaundice) if anemia from red blood cell breakdown; heart murmur; enlargement spleen

List internal factors that influence satiety and hunger

Central nervous system - hypothalamus w/ hunger & satiety center Pregastric factors - smell, taste, look, odour etc. Gastrointestinal and postabsorptive factors - full stomach/intestine providing satiety Psychological state - mood, personality, self image/culturally defined image genetics, vulnerable periods (pregnancy, menstrual period)

functions sodium

Chief cation of extracellular fluid (electrolytes like +K and -Cl) Regulates normal osmotic pressure and water balance Important for moving substances into and out of cells

Dietary sources of chloride

Chloride is found in table salt or sea salt as sodium chloride. Its also found in many vegetables. Foods with higher amounts of chloride include seaweed, rye, tomatoes, lettuce, celery, and olives. Chloride, together with potassium, is also found in most foods and is usually the main ingredient of salt substitutes. Most Americans probably consume more chloride than needed, in the form of table salt and salt in prepared foods.

Use of carbohydrates, vitamins minerals by athletes

Cho stored as glycogen is easily accessible source of energy for exercise. How long this energy supply lasts depends on length & intensity of exercise ranging from 30-90 mins +. To avoid running out of energy during exercise, start with full glycogen stores, replenish them during exercise and refill them after exercise to be ready for the next workout. - B-vitamins include thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B-6, B-12 and folate. These micronutrients are necessary during the body's process for converting proteins and sugars into energy, and are used during the production and repair of cells, including red blood cells, Vit C & E for antioxidant requirements, Vit D for bone density, Vit C respiratory health Major Minerals: Calcium Bone and tooth formation, muscle and nerve function, blood clotting Milk, yogurt, cheese, tofu, leafy greens, salmon and sardines (with bones), fortified cereals Phosphorus Bone formation, maintenance of acid-base balance, synthesis of genetic material, energy transfer Milk, yogurt, cheese, nuts and seeds, oatmeal, fish Magnesium Cofactor for many enzymes Nuts, seeds, leafy greens, legumes, tomatoes Sodium Maintains fluid volume outside of cells, and thus normal cell function Snacks with added salt, such as chips, crackers, pretzels, and nuts; cured meats; processed cheese; packaged foods; salt Potassium Maintains fluid volume inside/outside of cells, and thus normal cell function. Helps control blood pressure Oranges, bananas, tomatoes, salmon, flounder, potatoes, beans, salt substitute, raisins, dates Chloride With sodium, maintains fluid volume outside of cells, and thus normal cell function. Similar to foods with high sodium levels, because salt is sodium chloride Trace Minerals: Iron Component of hemoglobin in red blood cells and many enzymes Red meat, clams, oysters, eggs, salmon, tofu, raisins, whole grains Zinc Component of multiple enzymes and proteins. Involved in the regulation of gene expression Red meat, oysters, dark-meat poultry, fish, wheat germ, fortified cereals Copper Component of enzymes in iron metabolism Red meat, fish, soy products, mushrooms, sweet potatoes Selenium Antioxidant, regulation of thyroid hormone Fish, meat, poultry, cereals, grains, mushrooms, asparagus Iodine Component of thyroid hormones Eggs, milk, strawberries, mozzarella cheese, cantaloupe, iodized salt Fluoride Inhibits formation of cavities in teeth and stimulates new bone formation Fluoridated water, fish, tea Chromium Helps to maintain normal blood glucose levels Broccoli, potatoes, grape juice, orange juice, turkey, ham, waffles, beef Manganese Bone formation and enzymes involved in carbohydrate, amino acid, and cholesterol metabolism Liver, kidneys, wheat germ, beans, nuts, black tea Molybdenum Enzyme cofactor for reactions involving amino acids and genetic material Peas, leafy greens, cauliflower

Mineral common to Vitamin B12 structure

Cobalt - only known role in body is to be part of Vitamin B12

Vitamin A

Consists 2 basic dietary forms: Preformed Vit A, retinol and provitamin A, carotene - Major functions: (3) Vision, growth and differentiation of epithelial tissue, bone tissue and other tissue, immunity - Essntial in maintaining healthy eyes, skin, teeth, & bone growth - prevents infections by maintaining healthy mucous membranes (gums, skin, mouth, intestional tract, lungs etc)- direct function via cell-mediated and antibody-mediated responses

Health problems of obesity

Coronary heart disease Type 2 diabetes Cancers (endometrial, breast, and colon) Hypertension (high blood pressure) Dyslipidemia (e.g high total cholesterol / high levels of triglycerides) Stroke Liver and Gallbladder disease Sleep apnea and respiratory problems Osteoarthritis (degeneration of cartilage & underlying bone within a joint) Gynecological problems (abnormal menses, infertility) *Overweight is defined as BMI 25+, Obesity defined as BMI 30+

functions chloride

Coupled with sodium in the extracellular fluid to maintain fluid balance, assists the immune system, and part of HCl in stomach aiding in digestion. , volume maintenance, acid-base balance, gastric acid

Deficiency and toxicity of chloride

Deficiency or blood levels of chloride too low = hypochloremia. Rare, as chloride part of table salt present in most foods. People prone to consuming more chloride than needed w/ salt-laden diets. 1.loss of appetite 2. muscle weakness 3.lethargy 4.dehydration 5.deficiency leads to alkalosis, condition where body fluids have excess base (alkali), that can result in dangerously high blood pH and excessive loss of potassium in urine (which in turn causes hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis w/ symptoms like loss of control of muscle function which might lead breathing & swallowing difficulties) Hyperchloremia normally not concern as excess chloride is excreted by the body. Very high intakes 15g a day + usually in form of salt, may lead acid-base (pH) imbalance, fluid retention and high blood pressure. (Although problems can be attributed to excessive sodium rather than chloride.) Hyperchloremia possibly due to: excessively high intake sodium chloride (table salt) or potassium chloride reducing urinary excretion - can cause cancer, gastritis & kidney disease, dehydration, intake of certain drugs

Methods to prevent child failing to thrive

Diagnosis is key by health care professional They may watch you breastfeed or bottlefeed, Perhaps baby is simply not taking in enough milk. The treatment may be breastfeeding baby more often to increase milk supply, or improving the way your baby latches onto your breast via lactation specialist Occasionally, failure to thrive can be caused by intestinal problems, or by an allergy to milk. Social factors - such as socio-economic position, restriction by parents of child calorie intake Conditions w/ gastrointestinal system. Including gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), chronic diarrhea, cystic fibrosis, chronic liver disease, and celiac disease. Infections Metabolic disorders - limiting body's capacity to make the most of calories consumed.

causes of underweight conditions

Eating disorders : eating disorder characterized by abnormal eating habits may involve insufficient excessive food intake to detriment of individual's physical and emotional health. Causes complex & not yet fully understood. Malnutrition: Lack of proper nutrition, caused by not having enough to eat, not eating enough right things, or unable to use food that one does eat Anorexia nervosaAn eating disorder characterized by extremely low body weight, distorted body image and an obsessive fear of gaining weight. Hyperthyroidism: Overactivity thyroid gland, resulting in rapid heartbeat & increased rate of metabolism

Main nutritional needs of adolescents

Energy - synthesis new tissue, needs greater in boys than girls, linked larger overall size Protein - synthesis new tissue, Intake generally high - restricted diet intake may be inadequate Fats - Unsaturated fatty acids needed for membranes, Diets containing large amounts fast food may not contain enough unsat fats, Cholesterol synthesis increases for synthesis sex hormones B Vitamins - Cofactors for metabolic & synthetic reactions, Needs increase in line /w energy (for thiamin & niacin) & protein (pyridoxine-Vit B6) Iron, copper, folate & Vit B12 - Required expansion of blood cell mass to support extra tissue. In girls onset of menstruation increases iron requirements - poor iron status may result impairment cognitive function Calcium & Vit D-Additional nutrients also required for skeleton include Vit A,C,K & phosphorus, magnesium potassium & Zinc for absorption

Macronutrient composition of human milk compared with whey-dominated formula

Energy kcal: Human milk: 2.95 (700), Formula 2.8(670) Protein g: Human milk: 11-13. Formula 15 Fat (g): Human milk: 42-45, Formula 36 Carbohydrate g: Human milk: 70, Formula: 72

Function Vitamin K

Essential for forming prothrombin which permits proper clotting of blood - can be given newborn babies immediately after birth as supply naturally inadequate for few days following birth - can be given patients suffering faulty fat absorption, after extensive antibiotic therapy, as antidote for overdose of anticoagulant (blood thinning agent) or treat case of haemorrhage - role bone formation

How are energy requirements measured

Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) is average dietary energy intake predicted to maintain energy balance in healthy, normal weight individuals of defined age, gender, weight, height, & level of physical activity consistent with good health. In children and pregnant / lactating women, EER includes needs associated with growth or secretion of milk at rates consistent with good health. .

Chemical name of alcohol

Ethanol

How do you prevent obesisty

Exercise regularly. Eat healthy meals and snacks. Focus on low-calorie, nutrient-dense foods, such as fruits, vegetables and whole grains. Avoid saturated fat and limit sweets and alcohol. Monitor your weight regularly. People who weigh themselves at least once a week are more successful in keeping off excess pounds. Be consistent. Sticking to your healthy-weight plan during the week, on the weekends, and amidst vacation and holidays as much as possible increases your chances of long-term success.

Need of fat for exercise

Fat provides highest concentration of energy of all nutrients. 1 g of fat = 9 cals. This calorie density w/ unlimited storage capacity for fat, makes fat largest reserve of energy. 1 pound of stored fat provides approx 3,600 cals of energy. While these calories are less accessible to athletes performing quick, intense efforts like sprinting or weight lifting, fat is essential for longer, slower lower intensity & endurance exercise like easy cycling & walking. Fat provides main fuel source for long duration, low to mod intensity exercise (endurance sports like marathons). Even during high intensity exercise, where Chos is main fuel source, fat is needed to help access stored Cho (glycogen). Using fat for fuel for exercise is dependent upon: Fat is slow to digest and be converted into a usable form of energy (up to 6 hours). The body needs to breakdown fat and transport to muscles before it can be used as energy. Converting stored body fat into energy takes lots of oxygen, so exercise intensity must decrease for this process to occur. So athletes need to carefully time when they eat fat, how much they eat & type of fat eaten. Don't eat fat immediately before / during intense exercise.

Function of Vitamin E

Fat soluble vitamin: 1.Protects lipids in cell membranes from oxidation 2.Protects vitamin A, C and unsaturated fatty acids from oxidation 3.Prevents hemolysis of red blood cells 4.Improves immune response 5.Inhibits conversion of nitrites (cured foods) to cancer- causing nitrosamines (nitrites + free radicals = nitrosamines) 6. Used as antioxidant in commerical food products to retard spoilage 7. Enhances stamina and muscle strength 8. Role in fertility and immunity

Difference in composition between human milk and formula

Fats Breast milk - Rich in brain-building omega 3s, namely DHA and AA -Automatically adjusts to infant's needs; levels decline as baby gets older -Rich in cholesterol -Nearly completely absorbed -Contains fat-digesting enzyme, lipase Formula- -No DHA -Doesn't adjust to infant's needs -No cholesterol -Not completely absorbed -No lipase Comment -Fat most important nutrient in breast milk; absence of cholesterol & DHA, vital nutrients for growing brains & bodies may predispose child to adult heart & CNS diseases. Leftover, unabsorbed fat accounts for unpleasant smelling stools in formula-fed babies. Protein Breast Milk -Soft, easily-digestible whey -More completely absorbed; higher breast milk of mothers who deliver preterm -Lactoferrin for intestinal health -Lysozyme, an antimicrobial -Rich in brain-&-body- building protein -Rich in growth factors -Contains sleep-inducing proteins Formula -Harder-to-digest casein curds -Not completely absorbed, more waste, harder on kidneys -No lactoferrin, or only a trace -No lysozyme -Deficient/ low some brain-& body-building proteins -Deficient in growth factors -Does not contain as many sleep-inducing proteins. Infants aren't allergic human milk protein. Carbohdrates Breast Milk -Rich in lactose -Rich oligosaccharides, promote intestinal health -No lactose in some formulas Formula -Deficient in oligosaccharides - Lactose considered important Cho for brain development. Level lactose in milk of species correlates with size of brain of species. Immune Boosters Breast Milk -Rich living white blood cells, millions per feeding -Rich in immunoglobulins Formula -No live white blood cells-or any other cells. Dead food has less immunological benefit. -Few immunoglobulins &most wrong kind Comment - When mother exposed to germ, she makes antibodies to germ & gives these antibodies to infant via her milk. Vitamins and Minerals Breast Milk -Better absorbed, especially iron, zinc, and calcium -Iron is 50 to 75 % absorbed. -Contains more selenium (an antioxidant) Formula -Not absorbed as well -Iron is 5 to 10 % absorbed -Contains less selenium (an antioxidant) Comment - Vits & minerals in breast milk enjoy a higher bioavailability i.e greater % absorbed. To compensate, more added to formula, which makes it harder to digest. Enzymes and Hormones Breast Milk -Rich digestive enzymes like lipase and amylase -Rich in many hormones: thyroid, prolactin, oxytocin, and more than fifteen others -Varies with mother's diet -Processing kills digestive enzymes Formula -Processing kills hormones, which are not human to begin with -Always tastes the same Comment - Digestive enzymes promote intestinal health. Hormones contribute overall biochemical balance and well- being of baby. By taking on the flavor of mother's diet, breast milk shapes tastes of child to family foods.

What minerals and vitamins are compromised in alcoholism

Folate is water-soluble B vit that occurs naturally in foods like fruits, grains and vegetables. helps produce & maintain new cells. Excess alcohol decreases absorption of folate in intestines by altering cells in lining. This further impairs absorption of water and other nutrients. Alcoholics typically don't have enough folate in their diets. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) aids CNS. Your body uses process fats, carbs & proteins. An alcoholic's body is unable to properly absorb Thiamine leading to deficiency. Deficiency can lead to Beriberi - causes lesions of nerves, general debility & painful rigidity. Probably worse result of thiamine deficiency is brain disorder known as Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome or Korsakoff psychosis, tends to develop as Wernicke's symptoms go away - causes brain damage in lower parts of brain (thalamus & hypothalamus). Korsakoff psychosis results from damage to areas of the brain involved with memory." Vit B2 (riboflavin) is necessary for production of red blood cells & for maintenance of your hair, nails & skin. It's also important for cell growth. Alcohol inhibits absorption of B2 into your system. Deficiency in B2 can play a role in the onset of anemia, carpal tunnel syndrome, migraines and cataracts. Vit B6 is required for proper functioning of nervous & immune systems. It's found in fruits, vegetables, grains, fish, and poultry. Alcohol promotes the loss of B6. Vit B12 is required for proper red blood cell formation, neurological function & DNA synthesis according to National Institutes of Health. Moderate & heavy alcohol consumption affects levels of B12. Deficiencies can cause megaloblastic anemia, fatigue, weakness, constipation, loss of appetite, and weight loss. Vit A is found in fruits, veg & some animals. It regulates the immune system, helps bone growth, reproduction, cell division & vision. Excess alcohol can deplete stores of vit A in body. Also, alcoholics rarely get required amounts of Vitamin A in their diets, causing a further depletion. Vit D occurs in very few foods. It's produced endogenously when UV rays from sunlight strike the skin & trigger vit D synthesis." It helps to strengthen the bones. Alcoholics become deficient in Vit D as alcohol inhibits fat absorption & vit is often absorbed through fats in the diet. Vit E is an antioxidant that helps maintain cells. Some scientists think Vitamin E may help prevent development of cardiovascular disease & cancer. It may also protect against dangerous free radicals in cigarette smoke, air pollution, and the sun's ultraviolet radiation. Fat metabolism - in liver becomes abnormal - large amounts of NADH & NADPH produced by metabolism stimulate fat synthesis, which leads to high levels of circulating VLDL - in heavy drinkers liver increases in size due to accumulation of excess fat - eventually leading to chronic inflammation - control of blood glucose levels less effective - alcohol induces breakdown active forms of Vit D - Zinc is cofactor for alcohol deoxydrogenase - levels reduced, which comprises alcohol metabolism - decrease wound healing - dull sense of taste & reduce immune function - Iron status varies - spirits provide no iron but some wines & beers do - blood loss from intestinal mucosal irritation - may lead iron depletion

Therapeutic use of folate

Folate supplementation is recommended prior to pregnancy & during pregnancy to reduce risk of neural tube defects - indicated for megaloblastic or macrocytic anaemia - can be used in fatigue, tiredness, atherosclerosis, memory loss, stress, acne, alcoholism & cancer

Why is folate important for pregnancy

Folic acid (vit B9 or folate, (naturally occurring name) important in pregnancy: Folic acid helps prevent neural tube defects (NTDs) - serious birth defects of spinal cord (i.e spina bifida) & brain (anencephaly). Neural tube defects occur at very early stage development, before women know they're pregnant. They affect about 3,000 pregnancies a year in US. Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC) reports women taking RNI folic acid starting 1 month before conceiving & during 1st trimester reduce baby's risk neural tube defects 50-70 %. Some research suggests folic acid may help lower baby's risk other defects like cleft lip/palate, and certain types of heart defects. Body needs folate to make normal red blood cells and prevent anemia. Folate essential for production, repair & functioning of DNA, our genetic map & basic building block of cells. Folic acid important for rapid cell growth of placenta & developing baby. Some research says taking multivitamin + folic acid may reduce risk preeclampsia /toxaemia (high blood pressure, swelling/oedema, weight gain fluid retention, protein in urine = baby doesn't get enough 02 or nutrients), disorder affecting health & your baby's.

Common names of folate

Folic acid, folacin

Define how we receive energy from food

Food energy comes from calories. 1st law thermodynamics = energy cannot be created, but must be transferred /converted from one form to another. Cell breakdown nutrients like glucose, amino acids and fatty acids (Cho, fats & proteins) from food by cellular respiration, beginning in cytoplasm - ending in mitochondria. Process changes energy in bonds of food molecules to energy in ATP molecules.

What is the value of vitamin supplementation in children

Foods best source of nutrients. Regular meals & snacks can provide nutrients preschoolers need. Many children are picky eaters, that doesn't mean that they have nutritional deficiencies. Common foods i.e breakfast cereal, milk & OJ fortified with important nutrient like B vits, vit D, calcium & iron. Multivitamins aren't without some risk. Mega doses of vits & minerals can be toxic. Some vits & minerals can interact w/ medications your child may take. Talk w/ a doctor if concerned about child's level of vits & minerals. A multivitamin might be helpful for your child if he or she: Has failure to thrive Has certain chronic diseases or food allergies Has a restrictive diet, such as a strict vegan diet

Dietary sources of pantothenic acid

Found extensively in food - especially animal foods Best sources : meats, poultry, fish & eggs Brewers yeast, sunflower seeds, peanuts & mushrooms are also good sources of B5

Dietary sources of Niacin

Found in food as niacin or tryptophan, which is converted to niacin by the body - 25% preformed niacin North American diets from poultry & mixed dishes w/ meat, fish & poultry - 11% from bread & bread products - US - milled grain products fortified w/ niacin Overall no. milligrams niacin supplied diet estimated by dividing protein intake (grams) by 6. eg. consume 90g protein - body synthesise 15mg niacin - Coffee & tea contribute a little niacin to diet - heat stable, little lost in cooking - Niacin may be small supply but foods will contain tryptophan i.e. eggs & milk

Forms of Vitamin K

Found naturally 2 forms: Vit K1 (phylloquinone) in plants & K2 (menaquionones) in bacteria, animals & humans - resistant heat & air exposure but destroyed by light, alkalis & strong acids , - Phylloquinone (natural source in plant foods, largest food source) -Menaquinone (synthesized by GI tract bracteria ..1/2 vitamin k in body) -Meadione (synthetic)

Dietary sources of Thiamine

Found wide variety foods - in small amounts - major sources: white bread & rolls, crackers, pork, hot dogs, luncheon meats, ready-to-eat cereals, & OJ - White bread, bakery products & cereals usually enriched w/ thiamin - Rich in Thiamin: pork products, sunflower seeds, legumes, wheat germ, & watermelon, whole grains & enriched grains, green beans, asparagus, organ meats (like liver) peanuts, & other seeds & mushrooms good sources - Reliable way to obtain thiamine is food guide pyramid

Dietary sources of sulfur and function

Function: Part many proteins: (Keratin of skin and hair, Insulin, Amino acids: (Methionine, Cysteine) Carbohydrate: (Heparin, Chondroitin sulfate) Vitamins: (Thiamin, Biotin) Dietary sources: protein rich foods, unprocessed animal foods & seafood & lots in raw egg yolks.

Function, dietary sources, deficiency symptoms & toxicity symptoms of Zinc

Function: needed for enzymes metabolizing cho, fat, protein needed to create Hb to fight oxidation activate vit A in eye make DNA cell division & growth sexual maturity of men immune system function Dietary sources: protein-containing foods ie. meats, fish, poultry, grains, nuts, dairy & veg Deficiency symptoms: Skin rash, diarrhea, decreased appetite & sense of taste -hair loss, poor growth & development -Poor wound healing, poor immunity Toxicity symptoms: Occurs 50 mg, loss appetite, low immunity, low HDL, copper & iron deficiencies, nausea/ vomiting, diarrhea, anemia, poor coordination, Atherosclerosis, degenerates heart muscle.

Function, dietary sources, deficiency symptoms & toxicity symptoms of iodide

Function: part thyroid hormones (regulation body temp, metabolic rate - energy burnt at rest, blood cell production, & nerve and muscle function) Dietary sources: Iodized salt (see supermarket), white bread, saltwater fish, dairy products. Deficiency symptoms: goiter (enlarged thyroid gland/neck), mental retardation, poor growth infancy when mother deficient during pregnancy Toxicity symptoms: Hyper/hypothyroid, goiter (even during pregnancy, infant can develop goiter)

Function, dietary sources, deficiency symptoms & toxicity symptoms of selenium

Functions: Antioxidant: part of glutathione peroxidase enzyme system, decreasing free radicals, sparing vitamin E & production of thyroxine- thyroid hormone. RI: 55mg/day men & women; UL is 400mg/day. Deficiency symptoms: predisposed heart disease characterized by cardiac muscle becoming fibrous (Keshan disease), muscle pain, weakness Toxicity symptoms: Vomiting, diarrhea, hair loss, skin, and nervous system damage

Function, dietary sources, deficiency symptoms & toxicity symptoms of copper

Functions: Connective tissue synthesis, Hgb synthesis, Essential for iron metabolism, Protection cells: oxidation, Melanin production, Maintains myelin sheath, Metabolism of catecholamines - neurotransmitter created during exercise (adrenalin) Dietary sources: beans, seeds, nuts, organ meat, water (if copper pipes), seafood, choc, nuts, seeds & whole grain foods Deficiency symptoms: anemia, low white blood cell count, poor growth, bone abnormalities Toxicity symptoms:10 mg; Vomitting, diarrhea, and liver damage

What are strategies to help teenagers make better food choices

Get them involved--If you involve kids in planning meals, going grocery shopping, and preparing food, they will become invested in the process and more likely to eat healthy options. Even toddlers can help you make choices (pears or nectarines? cheddar or swiss?. Simple, no-cook recipes like frozen yogurt popsicles or fruit parfaits are excellent way to get young chefs interested in healthy cooking and eating. Go to the source--Teach kids where their food comes from. Rather than limiting yourself to the weekly supermarket run, take your family to a local farmer's market (or grow your own). Picking berries from a vine can help nurture a lifelong love of good eating and environmental health. Visiting a dairy farm can teach children where milk comes from, planting in the garden may tempt a child to try the fruits of their labor. Make healthy snacks available-- If you stock the kitchen exclusively with healthy treats, children will eat them. As your children grow, stock good snacks in cabinets and shelves that they can reach without your help. Some kids eat more in the car than at the table because active play isn't a viable alternative. Make sure you're prepared with nutritious snacks i.e. sliced apples, carrot sticks, whole grain crackers, light popcorn, raisins and water bottles. Give them freedom of choice-- Kids want to have it their way. But stand firm- Offer suitable base meal, like rice and beans, whole wheat tortillas or lean ground taco meat. Then let kids (and adults) dress it up with chopped tomatoes, lettuce, cabbage, cheese, salsa, jicama, parsley, peppers and other toppings. You might also try pasta bar with a variety of healthy sauces. This approach works especially well when serving young guests whose food preferences you may have trouble predicting. Kids like choices at snack time pack insulated lunch bag full of good snacks so they can make their own smart choices Drink to that--Remember your child doesn't have to eat five servings of fruits and vegetables a day he can also drink them. Smoothies and mixed fruit drinks like watermelon slush and mango lassi can be a fun way to introduce new fruits. Be a role model - young children's food tastes are significantly related to foods mother liked and disliked. Letting your child see you order a fresh salad rather than a burger and fries at the drive-through may encourage her to do the same. Don't give up-Studies show most children need multiple exposures (between 5 and 10) to try new foods. Teach healthy eating habits early-Use meal and snack times as teachable moments to make wise food choices.

Difference between heme iron and non-heme iron

Heme iron found in foods that contained hemoglobin - animal foods including red meats, fish and poultry. Non-heme iron is form of iron found in all other, non-meat based foods. ie. veg, grains, iron-fortified breakfast cereal, lentils and beans.

What in breast milk facilitates digestion and absorption

High lactose content: Promotes calcium absorption, supplies galactose for brain development High whey protein content: more readily digested than casein Non-protein nitrogen: Includes taurine, urea & growth factors may be used in colon Lipid profile: Contains lipase & bile salts to facilitate fat digestion Specific binding proteins for vits & minerals: facilitate absorption, prevent use by microorganisms

Vegetarian diets and Vitamin A

If your body is able to effectively convert carotenoids into retinoids, you don't have to eat animal foods in order to obtain retinoid forms of vitamin A that are essential for health. If your body is unable to do this conversion effectively, you'll either need to include animal foods in your meal plan or obtain retinoid forms of vitamin A through dietary supplements.

Need of glucose for exercise

In exercise, your body responds to activity by releasing hormones that cause your body to increase blood glucose levels. This occurs through process called gluconeogenesis or glycogenesis that happens in the liver. Glucose that has been previously converted & stored in the liver as glycogen is converted back to glucose and sent to muscles. In muscles, glucose broken down to yield ATP, which is the fuel source for muscles

What factors influence nutritional intakes of adolescence

Independence: Own food choices, linked to availability of money, rejection of parental influences Growth: Large variation appetite, growth rate vary Illness & infection: Exposure other kids in school leads to infections & loss appetite during illness Activity: May become sedentary in adolescence Peer pressure: Can cause significant changes in eating habits, may start smoking (increase needs antioxidants), drinking alcohol (may displace nutrient-dense foods & affect absorption folate, thiamin, Vit C & calcium) Advertising: Fatty & sugary - fast foods promoted

Dietary sources of B6

Info on Vit B6 content of food is limited - best sources: fish, poultry, meats, whole grain cereals & vegetables - Brewers yeast, sunflower seeds & wheat germ are also good sources B6

Deficiency symptoms of Vitamin D

Inhibits absorption of calcium & phosphorus in intestine & results poor bone & tooth formation - Young children: suffering Vit D deficiency may develop rickets (skeletal deformities) & teeth may be poorly formed, late appearing & subject to decay - Adults: may develop osteomalacia (softening of bones because of loss of calcium) - lack Vit D may contribute osteoporosis (characterised by brittle, porous bones - common ppl over 50 yrs predominantly women) - adequate diet & exercise reduces disease risk - other deficiency symptoms: gum problems, tetany (involuntary muscle movement) & cramping - caused due to lack of sun exposure, low fat diets, strict vegetarianism, & kidney or liver disease/damage

Functions of inositol

Inositol is essential for the transportation of fat in the body. It has been found important in providing nourishment to the brain cells. In combination with fatty acids and phosphorus, it stimulates the formation of lecithin , an important constituent of nerve cells in the body. It helps lower cholesterol levels. It goes directly into the brain cells to produce a chemical that aids memory. Inositol also promotes the growth of healthy hair and helps to prevent its falling. It helps in preventing eczema.

What toxic minerals have no value in human nutrition

Lead, Mercury, Arsenic, Cadmium, Aluminium, Radon

Hypervitaminosis of Vitamin K

Little Vit K stored in the body - important that excess be avoided as hypervitaminosis K causes liver & kidney damage

Health benefits from exercise

Longevity. People who are physically active live longer. According to a 20 year follow-up study, regular exercise reduces the risk of dying prematurely. New brain cell development, improved cognition and memory. Exercise stimulates formation of new brain cells. Researchers found areas of brain that are stimulated through exercise are responsible for memory and learning. i.e older adults engaging in regular physical activity have better performances in tests implying decision-making process, memory and problem solving. Improved sexual function / sex life. Regular exercise maintains / improves sex life. Physical improvements in muscle strength & tone, endurance, body composition & cardiovascular function can all enhance sexual functioning in men & women. Researchers revealed men who exercise regularly less likely to have erectile dysfunction & impotence than men not exercising Exercise powerful antidepressant. Study shows exercise promotes mental health & reduces symptoms of depression. The antidepressant effect of regular physical exercise comparable to potent antidepressants like Zoloft. At least 30 mins of exercise daily for 3-5 days a wk to significantly improve symptoms of depression. Cardiovascular health. Lack of physical activity is major risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. Regular exercising makes heart muscle stronger. Stronger heart pumps more blood with less effort. Cholesterol lowering effect. Exercise itself does not burn off cholesterol like it does with fat, however, exercise favorably influences blood cholesterol levels by decreasing LDL (bad) cholesterol, triglycerides and total cholesterol and increasing HDL (good) cholesterol. Prevention and control of diabetes. There's strong evidence that moderate physical activity combined w/ weight loss & balanced diet can confer a 50-60% reduction in risk of developing diabetes. Blood pressure lowering. unclear why, but exercise seem effective reducing blood pressure. Aerobic exercise appears to have slightly greater effect on blood pressure in hypertensive individuals than individuals without hypertension. Reduced risk stroke. Research indicates mod & high levels of physical activity may reduce risk of total, ischemic & hemorrhagic strokes. Weight control. Regular exercise helps to reach & maintain healthy weight. If you take in more calories than needed in a day, exercise offsets a caloric overload controlling body weight. It speeds the rate of energy use, resulting in increased metabolism. When metabolism increases via exercise, you'll maintain faster rate for longer periods of a day. Muscle strength. Health studies repeatedly show strength training increases muscle strength, mass and decreases fat tissue. Bone strength. active lifestyle benefits bone density. Regular weight-bearing exercise promotes bone formation, delays bone loss and may protect against osteoporosis - form of bone loss associated with aging. Better night sleep. natural dip in body temp of 5-6 hrs after exercise may help to fall asleep.

What are special nutritional needs for vegetarian children

Lower nutrient density, need to eat larger volumes of food to reach energy needs, problem in children w/ small appetites --plan nutrient-rich snacks throughout the day Avoidance of meat w/ no planned substitutes- ie. risk of low energy & absence of iron, zinc, B vits, vit D-- ensure meat alternatives ie. pulses, meats replacements -soy/quorn - include cereal grains & starchy foods to meet energy & nutrient needs Low intakes of essential fatty acids --Include some green veg & seed oils in diet Exclusion of dairy products reduces calcium intake --Use calcium-fortified soya products--ensure alternative sources of calcium included Low nutrient & soft drinks provide nutrient-poor energy -- avoid those in favour or more nutrient dense snacks e.g dried fruit & nuts

How does body use energy

Macronutrients i.e Cho, protein & fat are broken down in body, carbs are stored as blood sugar & glycogen in liver & muscles, this glycogen is converted to pyruvic acid, tha's broken down into ATP, (Adenosine Tirphosphate) ATP is used as energy. Other macronutrients have own path to pyruvic acid but Cho is the simplest - Metabolism is divided into 2 basic reaction types: anabolic: reactions involving synthesis or construction of compounds e.g building protein from amino acids & catabolic: reactions concerned with breakdown of compounds e.g oxidizing glucose forming CO2, H2O & energy

Reasons leading to magnesium toxicity

Magnesium toxicity results when your body absorbs more magnesium than it can use or excrete Rare / can be fatal - upper level for magnesium only applies to non-food supplements or mangesium salts Magnesium supports bone mineralisation/heart function - symptoms include a fall in blood pressure, confusion, abnormal cardiac rhythm and deterioration of kidney function. Individuals can also experience muscle weakness and difficulty breathing

Use of magnesium therapeutically

Magnesium useful to treat cramping or muscular dysfunction ie. leg cramps, constipation or dysmenorrhoea (pain during menstruation) - potential use in parkinsons & epilepsy - potentially useful cardiovascular system for hypertension, irregular heartbeat, prevention atherosclerosis & heart attacks -benefit general malabsorption syndromes & alcoholism - relaxant effect potential use in insomnia & stress, anxiety & hyperactivity - role to play prevention osteoporosis & strengthening teeth & bones

Functions of ultra trace mineral arsenic

Maintains reproductive performance and weight gain. Has antibiotic and anti-coccidial properties

Factors contributing to onset of eating disorders

Major life transitions - Anorexics particularly, prefer things are predictable, orderly and familiar. Consequently, transitions like onset of puberty, entering high school or college, or major illness or death of someone close to them can overwhelm these individuals causing feeling of loss of control. Family patterns & problems - e.g poor boundaries , parents who diet frequently, Social problems - painfully low self-esteem, being bullied Failure at school work or competitive events - Eating disorder patients can be perfectionists with very high achievement expectations. If self-esteem disproportionately tied to success, any failure can produce devastating feelings of shame, guilt or self-worthlessness A traumatic event- evidence shows btwn one- third and two-thirds of patients go to treatment centers for eating disorders have histories of sexual or physical abuse Major illness/injury- causing vulnerability & lack control Other psychiatric ilness - Btwn one-third & one-half of patients report strugging w/ significant depression or anxiety before eating disorder began. One-third of eating disorder patients report having had obsessive-compulsive symptoms before they developed their eating disorder.

Differentiate between a major mineral & a trace mineral

Major mineral: Na, K, Cl, Mg, Ca, Mb Trace: Fe, Zn, I, Se, S, Cu, Mn, Cr, Mb, Co Others Boron, nickel, silicon, vanadium, sulfate, a mineral that the body requires in the amount of 100mg/day or more in order to maintain healthy Trace mineral: minerals required in trace amounts expressed as mg/kg diet or ppm, Need in amounts less than 100 mgs. Include iron, zinc, selenium, iron, copper, iodine, fluorine, chromium, and fluoride.

Therapeutic use of biotin

May be beneficial in acne, dermatitis & other skin conditions - indicated in thinning hair, alopecia & loss of hair colour - may be used in alcoholism or biotinidase deficiency

Dietary sources of iron

Meat (beef, chicken, pork, liver) Green leafy vegetables Legumes, dried fruits, whole grains, peanut butter, bean dip, whole-wheat fortified breads and cereals (fortified is better than enriched) 1-2 mg of iron absorbed daily

Two forms of selenium that enter body through diet

Methionine and cysteine

What age do growth spurts occur in teenage boys

Most boys start developing sexually between the ages of 10 and 13, and continue to grow until they're around 16.

What age do growth spurts occur in teenage girls

Most girls start their sexual development between the ages of 8 and 13, and have a growth spurt between the ages of 10 and 14.

potassium storage and excretion

Most of the body's potassium located inside cells. Potassium necessary for normal functioning of cells, nerves, and muscles. body must maintain potassium level in blood within narrow range. potassium level that's too high or too low can have serious consequences, like abnormal heart rhythm or even stopping of the heart (cardiac arrest). The body can use the potassium stored within cells to help maintain a constant level of potassium in blood. K+ being the most abundant cation in the cells form of "storage," but it does'nt just stay there as a reserve, it works 24 hours a day trying to keep its balance with sodium. The body maintains the right level of potassium by matching the amount of potassium consumed with the amount lost. Potassium is consumed in food and drinks that contain electrolytes (including potassium) and lost primarily in urine. Some potassium is also lost through the digestive tract and in sweat. Healthy kidneys can adjust the excretion of potassium to match changes in consumption. Some drugs and certain conditions affect the movement of potassium into and out of cells, which greatly influences the potassium level in blood. Hypokalemia: the level of potassium in blood is too low. In hyperkalemia, the level of potassium in blood is too high

sodium absorption

Mostly in the jejunum. Contransported with glucose and countertransported with H (NHE-aldosterone sensitive). Electrochemical gradient maintained by Na/K pump. Proximal colon has Na-H counter transporter coupled with a HCO3/Cl countertransporter. In distal colon, there is a electrogenic Na channel that is activated by aldosterone

Forms of Vitamin E

Naturally occurring vitamin E exists in eight chemical forms (alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherol and alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocotrienol) that have varying levels of biological activity. Alpha- (or α-) tocopherol is the only form that is recognized to meet human requirements - Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant that stops production of Reaction Oxygen Species formed when fat undergoes oxidation (Antioxidants protect cells from the damaging effects of free radicals -molecules that contain an unshared electron -free radicals damage cells and might contribute to development cardiovascular disease and cancer) - Supplements use synthetic nature identical to alpha tocopherol w/ natural Vit E 36% more beneficial in activity then synthetic - If product label states d-alpha-tocopherol has 'd' indicates Vit E is natural

Functions of folate

Necessary for protein metabolism, RNA/DNA synthesis & the formation of haemoglobin - essential for maturation of red & white blood cells - essential for formation of neurotransmitters - important in methionine synthesis & is important in conversion of amino glycine & histidine - W/ B6 & B12 - folate helps keep homocysteine levels under control - Folate is needed for normal differentiation of embryonic nervous tissue - Vit B12 is needed for folate metabolism

Three nutrients needed for synthesis of Niacin in the body

Niacin can be synthesised in the body from tryptophan w/ riboflavin and vitamin B6. - sufficient in western diets to meet needs of niacin - dietary source of niacin becomes essential only in low-protein diets

Deficiency symptoms of Niacin

Niacin needs: adult men RDA 16mg/day, adult women 14mg/day = niacin equivalent (NE) -primary criterion determine RDA =urinary excretion of N-methyl nicotinamide, a niacin metabolite - Daily value used on food & supplement labels is 20 mg Deficiency: Almost every metabolic pathway uses either NAD or NADP+, deficiency therefore causes widespread damage in the body Pellagra : 3 D's -dementia, diarrhoea & dermatitis (if not successfully treated - death) - characterised by sores/rough skin, diarrhoea, swollen tongue, decreased gastric secretions, dementia (poor memory/concentration), headaches, insomnia - present if also deficiency in riboflavin - weakness, anorexia, indigestion, anxiety & irritability - clinical evidence states pellagra develops 50 to 60 days after instituting a niacin-deficient diet - early symptoms: diminished appetite, weight loss & weakness.

Requirements Vitamin D

Not established Australia as yet - most adults met by average exposure (not overexposure) to sunlight - those seldom outdoors should use supplemements. Measured Micrograms - US- 5-10 micrograms/day 1.03 mg ergocalciferol = 40 IU vit D

Hypervitaminosis A

Noted in adults ingesting over 50000 IU (15000 RE) a day from months to few yrs. - Symptoms can include anorexia (loss appetite), hair loss, dry skin, irritabilty, headaches, enlarged spleen & liver, bone and joint pain, & jaundice - generally disappear when excess intake stopped Vitamin C aids to protect against Vit A toxicity - Beta-carotene has same results Vit A with no side effects - 180mg beta carotene per day stimulates T-lymphocytes vital for gurading against disease (av. carrot gives 1000 RE (retinol equivalent) of beta-carotene

Therapeutic uses of Vitamin E

Of benefit to those w/ high exposure to pollutants & emotional or physical stress - useful cardiovascular illnesses, circulatory disorders, ageing & premature aging (vit E cream) - Used for cancer, diabetes, infection & muscular cramping - Reduce scarring & maintain skin condition in certain skin diseases, injury & burns - maybe useful improving fertility & premenstrual tension & decreasing in the risk of miscarriage

Vitamin D

One of the fat-soluble vitamins. The active form functions as a hormone, acting in concert with parathyroid hormone in bone and promoting the uptake of calcium from food within the intestines. - Exists in 2 forms pro-vitamin forms: D2 (ergocalciferol) and D3 (cholocalciferol) - produced endogenously when ultraviolet rays from sunlight strike the skin and trigger vitamin D synthesis

Deficiency of Vitamin K

Only deficiency symptom found animals - characterised by defective blood coagulation - causing increase in clotting time making patient prone to haemorrhage ie. nose bleeds - human deficiency caused by faulty fat metabolism or extensive antibiotic therapy interferring w/ bacterial synthesis of Vit K

Electrolyte and water balance

Optimum health = homeostasis = water balance - water lost via excretion, perspiration, respiratory tract - must be replaced in volume & electrolyte content - Water uses osmosis flowing from lesser amount of solute to greater concentration - Electrolytes = sodium, chloride & potassium are solutes maintaining balance btwn intracellular & extracellular fluid Potassium=principal electrolyte in ICF & sodium in ECF- when electrolytes in ECF increased ICF moves to ECF to equalise concentration on both sides of cell membrane - reducing amount water in cells - Hypothalamus regulates appetite & thirst - becomes dehydrated (+tongue & mouth) & hypothalamus alerts pituitary gland to excrete ADH causing kidney to conserve fluid) Thirst makes us drink to replace water & electrolytes needed by cell - sodium in ECF reduced, water flows from ECF into cells causing swelling & cellular oedema - so adrenal glands secrete aldosterone triggering kidneys to increase amount of sodium reabsorbed - so water drawn from ECF moves back to ECF oedema relieved - if not reduced blood pressure occurs

List factors required to classify a substance as a vitamin

Organic substances required by the body in small amounts for normal functioning - very important to life for specific regulatory functions & maintenance of life & normal growth. All vitamins contain carbon, hydrogen & oxygen but some contain nitrogen & some sulfur & cobalt. Vitamins measured in micrograms equivalent to one millionth (1/1,000,000) of gram or milligrams equivalent to one thousandth (1/1,000) of a gram.

What childhood feeding problems exist and how do parents correct them

Overweight & obesity - increase physical activity including family activities, increase nutritious snacks, balanced diets & regular timing of both (specified meal times), more home cooked/fresh meals, reduce energy intake(include foods high satiety value), reduce or eliminate snacks/drinks w/ empty calories, involve child in food preparation & selection of healthy meals Iron status - iron deficiency anaemia - consult medical professional in case of need for supplementation Vegetarianism - well balanced - a vegetarian diet can provide necessary nutrients for growth & development - planning & balance must be obtained Dieting & eating disorders - Teenage girls often experience dissatisfaction w/ body image & address by dieting - more drastic measures i.e vomiting, diuretics, laxatives may be employed - or develop anorexia nervosa/bulimia nervosa - parents should watch for warning signs and address immediately w/ medical professional - & always encourage balanced eating

Phenylketonuria

PKU- inherited rare condition in which baby born without ability to properly break down an amino acid called phenylalanine -a genetic disorder of metabolism -lack of the enzyme needed to turn phenylalanine into tyrosine results in an accumulation of phenylalanine in the body fluids which causes various degrees of mental deficiency - odour in urine Mental retardation, failure to walk talk, microcephaly, failure to grow

Deficiency and toxicity of potassium

POTASSIUM DEFICIENCY acne, arrhythmia, cognitive impairment constipation, depression, ECG changes edema, fatigue, glucose intolerance growth retardation, hypercholesterolemia hyperreflexia, hypotension, insomnia muscle weakness, nervousness, palpitations polydipsia, proteinuria, respiratory distress "salt" retention, tachycardia (rapid heart rate) xerosis, POTASSIUM TOXICITY cardiac arrest, cognitive impairment, dysarthria, dysphasia, weakness

Describe the role of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin on blood calcium levels

Parathyroid gland controls calcium levels in the blood & bones Calcitonin-a hormone from the parathyroid which lowers the calcium-level of the blood

Functions of iron

Part of hemoglobin in red blood cells: transports oxygen to tissues and picks up carbon dioxide waste from cells; Helps enzymes that make neurotransmitters in brain: Send messages to rest of body

functions of sulfur

Part of many proteins: (Keratin of skin and hair, Insulin_ Amino acids: (Methionine, Cysteine) Carbohydrate: (Heparin, Chondroitin sulfate) Vitamins: (Thiamin, Biotin)

Describe pernicious anaemia and symptoms

Pernicious anemia is a disease in which red blood cells/hemoglobin are abnormally formed, due to an inability to absorb vitamin B12. True pernicious anemia refers specifically to disorder of atrophied parietal cells leading to absent intrinsic factor, resulting in an inability to absorb B12. - inability to absorb vitamin B-12 (also known as cobalamin or Cbl) from gastrointestinal tract. Humans get vitamin B-12 from animal products; both meat & dairy products are dietary sources of vitamin B-12. The body is able to store vitamin B-12 for a long time, so inadequate dietary intake must persist for years before true deficiency vitamin B-12 reached -Some people do not have symptoms. Symptoms may be mild including: Diarrhea or constipation Fatigue, lack of energy, or light-headedness when standing up or with exertion Loss of appetite Pale skin Problems concentrating Shortness of breath, mostly during exercise Swollen, red tongue or bleeding gums If you have low vitamin B12 levels for a long time, you can have nervous system damage. Symptoms can include: Confusion Depression Loss of balance Numbness and tingling in the hands and feet

Evaluate use of phosphorus therapeutically

Phosphorus readily available to the body via dietary intake - so supplementary & therapeutic intake unnecessary

Mineral bioavailability

Physiological need for the mineral at the time of consumption (iron stores low, absorb more iron from diet) Mineral-mineral interactions (large amount of calcium interfere with iron absorption, zinc decreases copper) Vitamin-mineral interactions (vitamin C enhance the absorption of iron, vitamin D improves calcium absorption) Interactions between some plant compounds and minerals (Excessively high fibre diets can decrease the absorption of iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and other minerals

Foods to avoid during lactation

Potential harmful substances like alcohol, drugs, coffee, choc & caffeine stimulants may pass through milk & should be avoided. Limit citrus, which can irritate immature GI tract of baby limit broccoli & other fructans that can promote gas, spicy food, garlic due to odour. Limit allergens - -peanut/tree nuts, wheat, dairy, corn, shellfish, eggs, soy, fish, peppermint & parsley may reduce milk supply

Evaluate use of sulphur therapeutically

Readily available via dietary intake so not generally used therapeutically - however sulphur containing amino acids & celloids may be used in skin conditions, liver detoxification, nail and hair condition - used adjunct to arthritis treatment

Why is food introduced to infants no earlier than four months old

Reason 1. baby's digestive system too immature for solid foods before 4 months. Limited saliva to help digest food. Until 3-4 months, system lacks certain digestive enzymes i.e amylase, needed for digesting cereals (starches or complex carbohydrates). His body has trouble digesting some fats before 6 months. Some foods will pass through undigested . Some high protein foods, like eggs, meat, & cow's milk, given too early may cause problems with baby's immature kidneys. Reason 2. Baby not developmentally ready to eat solid foods. Throat muscles not developed enough to swallow solid foods until 4 months & unable to use tongue to transfer food from front to back of mouth. Instead thrusts out - extrusion reflex or tongue-thrust reflex doesn't disappear until 16-18 weeks. Reason 3. baby must have way of communicating satiation. Needs to be able to turn his head to refuse food, which occurs around 4 or 5 months, As with adults, baby should eat only when hungry. Reason 4. Begin solid foods too early associated with problems later in life like obesity, respiratory problems like bronchial asthma & food allergies. Reason 5. If breastfeeding & give baby solid foods too early, milk production may decrease.

foods best after an athletic event

Recovery foods important for after events & training when emptied glycogen stores, fluids & potassium lost through sweat replaced. Chos & fluid repletion should begin immediately, within 30 mins after exercise, to promote quick recovery. I.e sports drinks. Include the following essentials in your meal later: Plenty of fluids: water, fruit juice, sports drinks, soups, and watery fruits and veggies (watermelon, grapes, oranges, tomatoes, lettuce, and cucumbers). A lot of Cho-rich foods: pasta, potatoes, rice, breads, fruits, yogurts Adequate lean protein. Potassium-rich foods like potatoes, bananas, orange/ juice & raisins. Don't replenish lost sodium by smothering your food in salt or by popping dangerous salt tablets. A typical meal, moderately salted, supplies enough sodium to replace that lost through sweat.

Hypervitaminosis Vitamin E

Relatively non-toxic lacking toxicity symptoms - avoid longterm megadoses - can initally raise blood pressure & can impair bone mineralisation and prolong blood coagulation - clotting

Cause of low iron status in adolescence

Reserves present at birth depleted by 4-6 months, iron must be supplied in weaning diet - in 1st year, diets that exclude meat & fortified cereals or formula milk may lead poor iron status - Fussy eaters are vulnerable - carers may need advice on enhancing iron absorption - Needs remain high throughout growth to form haemoglobin iron-containing enzymes & for menstruation from puberty

What factors are associated with people at risk of alcoholism

Social factors: - men drink twice as much as women - single men drink more than married men - consumption is highest in young adult age group, in form of teenage binge drinking - in general, less affluent people drink more than better-off people, although latter drink more reg. - consumption declines with age Family history, Depression & health problems, Mixing medication & alcohol

Benefits of lighter alcohol consumption

Social stimulant because it causes inhibition -In moderate amounts, can decrease incidence of coronary heart disease & ischemic stroke (type of stroke not caused by high blood pressure) -Both wine and beer reduce heart attack risk in some populations (lower LDL) -Red wine contains antioxidants

Dietary sources of sodium

Sodium occurs naturally in most foods. most common form of sodium is sodium chloride (table salt) Milk, beets, and celery, some drinking water Sodium also added to various food products in forms monosodium glutamate, sodium nitrite, sodium saccharin, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), and sodium benzoate. These are ingredients in condiments and seasonings such as Worcestershire sauce, soy sauce, onion salt, garlic salt, and bouillon cubes. Processed meats like bacon, sausage, and ham, canned soups and vegetables all contain added sodium. Fast foods generally very high in sodium.

Dietary sources of sodium

Sodium occurs naturally in most foods. most common form of sodium is sodium chloride, which is table salt. Milk, beets, and celery also naturally contain sodium, as does drinking water, although the amount varies depending on the source. Sodium is also added to various food products. Some of these added forms are monosodium glutamate, sodium nitrite, sodium saccharin, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), and sodium benzoate. These are ingredients in condiments and seasonings such as Worcestershire sauce, soy sauce, onion salt, garlic salt, and bouillon cubes. Processed meats, such as bacon, sausage, and ham, and canned soups and vegetables are all examples of foods that contain added sodium. Fast foods are generally very high in sodium.

Briefly explain the absorption, storage and excretion of sodium, potassium and chloride

Sodium:1.Absorption- Sodium is completely absorbed after ingestion,

3 Methods of treating alcoholism

Stop drinking entirely - there is no half-way with alcoholism such as slowing down or limiting - you must stop drinking entirely Detoxification - abuser must be treated medically for damage that excessive alcohol intake caused. Long term treatment - Alcohol abuse damages mind & emotions & the body. It's imperative that the mind is treated as well. Alcohol abuser must be taught & shown how to feel fulfilled in life apart from alcohol. Normal life may not feel satisfying immediately upon release from treatment center. Needs to be follow up & support offered to prevent relapse of alcoholism in alcoholic

Therapeutic uses of iron

Supplementation only needed for few condidtions or periods of life: pregnancy, iron deficiency anaemia, some periods of growth & possible heavy menstrual losses - Iron rich foods can be used for fatigue, dizziness, poor immunity, weakness, brittle nails, learning deficts, and poor cognitive behaviour

Risk groups in pregnancy

Teenagers - Own needs of growth still high, may deny pregnancy, reluctant adjust diet/behaviour - Ensure high dietary quality, focus weight gain, calcium,iron, folate inatakes Overweight/obese - Increased risk complications, include preterm delivery, hypertension, gestational diabetes (GDM) - Keep gain recommended levels, ensure dietary quality & advise exercise, use slow absorbed Chos & regular meals to manage GDM, Vegetarian/vegan - Potential lower nutrient intake - Ensure balanced/varied diet provide range micronutrients, Long-chain PUFAs (needed for brain & retina development: oily fish -some synthesize alpha-linolenic acid oils (soya, rapeseed), green veg & grass fed meet),iron, zinc, calcium & vitamin D may be issues Low income - Poor reserves at start pregnancy, lower micronutrient intakes, less weight gain, high risk low birth weight - advise cheap source nutrient-rich foods: fortified cereals, bread, tin pulses, fruit & veg, some meat, tinned fish

What nutrient/s are required to transport vitamin A into the body

The transport and utilization of vitamin A is dependent upon several vitamin A binding proteins. Because a sufficient dietary intake of protein is required for the manufacture of these binding proteins, inadequate protein intake may result in vitamin A deficiency. In addition, adequate intake of dietary fat and zinc is necessary for the absorption and utilization of vitamin A.

Define thiamin pyrophosphate

Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) is a vitamin B1 derivative that operates as the active form of the nutrient thiamine. It works as a coenzyme in the proper respiration of tissues, cell metabolism, and glucose oxidation. Coenzymes, sometimes called cofactors, are chemical composites from non-protein sources that are bound to a protein for the healthy operation of that protein's biological actions. Also known by the name of thiamine diphosphate (ThDP), thiamine pyrophosphate is often prescribed for the treatment of thiamine deficiency (Beriberi)

Specify reasons that could lead to magnesium toxicity

Through non-food sources like supplements or magnesium salts

Hypervitaminosis D

Too much Vit D; Vit D is lipid soluble and not rapidly excreted when in excess;- Leads to hypercalcemia, soft tissue calficiation and kidney stones - Manifests as non-specific symptoms (ex. anorexia, weight loss, polyuria (excessive production of urine), asotaemia (abnormally large amounts of nitrogen in blood), constipation, muscle fatigue, weakness, etc...), kidney, heart and aortic damage

Nutritional related concerns for teenage girls

Under-nutrition neg affects adolescent girls by: Affecting ability to learn & work max productivity; Increasing risk of poor obstetric outcomes for teen mothers; Arresting healthy development of future children; Affecting sexual maturation and growth: and Preventing the attainment of normal bone strength and the development of healthy teeth if a youth doesn't get enough calcium.. .

Evaluate the use of chloride therapeutically

Use after excessive vomiting, sweating or diarrhoea, in metabolic alkalosis (ph of tissue elevated above norm level bc loss hydrogen) & low gastric hydrochloric acid

Evaluate the use of sodium therapeutically

Use in excess perspiration, vomiting, diarrhoea, diuretic use, strict vegetarianism

Evaluate the use of potassium therapeutically

Use in periods of growth & pregnancy, muscular weakness & cramping, stress, low blood sugar, alcoholism, & prolonged diarrhoea, diabetic acidosis (lack insulin leads to high blood sugar levels, presence ketones in urine & blood, certain acids (known as ketoacids) in blood requiring hospitalisation), heart disease, hypertension, & prolonged diuretic use - high animal protein, sodium, sugar diets all increase need for potassium

Therapeutic use of vitamin B12

Vegans & strict vegetarians need to supplement w/ B12 - Note: adequate intakes of folate can mask B12 deficiency - B12 injections aid sufferers of pernicious anaemia - may benefit alcoholism & malabsorption conditions like colitis (inflammation Large Intestine) - beneficial to insomnia, memory loss, fatigue, stress, attention deficit, mood swings & nervous irritability - may help those w/ degenerative joint disease

What are the daily servings of each food category to meet nutritional needs of teenagers

Vegetables 3-5 servings daily. 1 cup raw leafy veg, 3/4 cup veg juice, or 1/2 cup other veg, raw or cooked. Fruits 2-4 servings daily. 1/2 cup of sliced fruit, 3/4 cup of fruit juice, or medium-size whole fruit i.e apple, banana or pear. Whole Grains 6-11 servings daily. Each serving = 1 slice bread, 1/2 cup of rice or 1 ounce of cereal. Protein 2-3 servings of 2-3 ounces of cooked lean meat, poultry, or fish daily. May consist 1/2 cup cooked dry beans, 1 egg, or 2 tablespoons of peanut butter for each ounce of lean meat. Dairy products 2-3 servings (cups) daily of low-fat milk or yogurt, or natural cheese (1.5 ounces=one serving). Zinc Studies indicate zinc may improve memory & school performance, especially in boys. Good sources of zinc = oysters, beef, pork, liver, dried beans & peas, whole grains, fortified cereals, nuts, milk, cocoa, and poultry. Calories Due to all growth & activity, adolescent boys need 2,500-2,800 daily, girls need 2,200 daily. Best to get these calories from lean protein, low-fat dairy, whole grains, and fruits and veggies. Calcium Many teens do not get sufficient amounts of calcium, leading to weak bones and osteoporosis later in life. Encourage teens to cut back on soda and other overly-sugary foods, which suck calcium from bones. The 1,200 mg of calcium needed per day should come from dairy, calcium-fortified juice and cereal, and other calcium-rich foods such as sesame seeds and leafy greens like spinach. Iron Iron deficiency can lead to anemia, fatigue, & weakness. Boys need 12 mg each day & teen girls, who often lose iron during menstruation, need 15 mg. Iron-rich foods include red meat, chicken, beans, nuts, enriched whole grains, and leafy greens like spinach and kale.

Effects of high doses of Vitamin A in pregnancy

Vit A likely safe pregnant /breast-feeding women when taken recommend amounts <10,000 units daily. Larger amounts possibly unsafe as Vit A can cause birth defects & liver toxicity. Especially important for pregnant women to monitor Vit A from all sources during 1st 3 months pregnancy. Forms Vit A found food:animal products, primarily liver, some fortified breakfast cereal & dietary supplements - check ingredients in supplements so don't double up receiving too much 1 nutrient.

Additional supplementation required by pregnant vegetarian / vegan mothers

Vit B12 - not readily available vegetarian food sources, supplement essential for pregnant vegetarians. Vegans, who don't consume dairy or eggs, are even more at risk of a deficiency. B12 deficiency can lead to birth defects &increase risk of miscarriages and premature birth. Iron - multivits + those for pregnant women, are iron-free. Vegetarians may need supplementation w/ iron to avoid developing anemia. Low iron intake during pregnancy can lead low birth weight & premature delivery. Iron from animal sources i.e beef, chicken & oysters, more easily absorbed by body than non-heme/ vegetarian iron. Thus supplement may be needed for vegetarians. Folic Acid - Best sources fruits & veg, which vegetarians naturally eat. But dietary sources not enough during pregnancy, as body needs more folic acid than normal to prevent birth defects. A problem w/ pregnant vegetarians is they may skip folic acid supplementation as they feel confident veggie-rich diet enough - folic acid supplements may be needed till 12th week pregnancy. Vitamin D and Calcium - Vit D works w/ calcium to help bone development. W/out adequate sun exposure, baby at risk for poor bone growth in uterus. Vegetarians eating dairy are likely getting enough calcium, but strict vegetarians need amend diet or supplement. Few hrs wk sun exposure helps body get enough vit D. Vit C - aids in calcium absorption

Use of Vitamin D theurapeutically

Vit D may assist in prevention and treatment of rickets, osteomalacia, osteoporosis and bone fracture - is indicated in use for pregnancy growth, post menopausal & for elderly - used for topical treatment of psoriasis - may be used in adjunct to treatment some forms arthritis - may have some value in treatment of some cancers like skin, bone, colon, prostate & breast cancer - can be used for muscle spasm /weakness

Vitamins needed for pregnancy

Vitamin A & Beta Carotene (770 mcg) -Helps bones & teeth grow - Liver, milk, eggs, carrots, spinach, green & yellow veg, broccoli, potatoes, pumpkin, yellow fruits, cantaloupe Vitamin D (5 mcg) - Helps body use calcium and phosphorus; promotes strong teeth & bones- Milk, fatty fish, sunshine Vitamin E (15 mg) - Helps body form & use red blood cells & muscles - Veg oil, wheat germ, nuts, spinach, fortified cereals Vitamin C (80 - 85 mg) - antioxidant that protects tissues from damage helps body absorb iron; builds immune system - Citrus fruits, bell peppers, green beans, strawberries, papaya, potatoes, broccoli, tomatoes B VITAMINS : Thiamin/B1 (1.4 mg) - Raise energy level regulates nervous system - Whole grain, fortified cereals, wheat germ, organ meats, eggs, rice, pasta, berries, nuts, legumes, pork Riboflavin/B2 (1.4 mg) - Maintains energy, good eyesight, healthy skin - Meats, poultry, fish, dairy products, fortified cereals, eggs Niacin/B3 (18 mg) - Promotes healthy skin, nerves & digestion - High-protein foods, fortified cereals & bread, meats, fish, milk, eggs, peanuts Pyridoxine/B6 (1.9 mg) - Helps form red blood cells; helps morning sickness - Chicken, fish, liver, pork, eggs, soybeans, carrots, cabbage, cantaloupe, peas, spinach, wheat germ, sunflower seeds, bananas, beans, broccoli, brown rice, oats, bran, peanuts,walnuts Folic Acid/Folate (600 mcg) - Helps support the placenta, & prevents spina bifida & other neural tube defects - Oranges/ juice, strawberries, green leafy veg, spinach, beets, broccoli, cauliflower, fortified cereals, peas, pasta, beans, nuts

Vitamin required for folate metabolism

Vitamin B12 needed for folate metabolism

Function of Riboflavin

Vitamin B2 - sensitive to light & unstable in alkalis- contains 3 linked 6-membered rings w/ sugar alcohol attached to middle ring- name from yellow colour Component of 2 coenzymes: flavin mononucleotide (FMN) & flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) - Essential for carbohydrate, fat & protein metabolism & also supports antioxidant function - necessary for tissue maintenance - especially skin around mouth, eye tissues & mucous membranes - needed to activate folate - essential for normal growth & reproduction

Nutrient required for B6 activation

Vitamin B2 is required to convert B6 into its active form

Deficiency symptoms of B6

Vitamin B2 is required to convert B6 into its active form - deficiency Vit B2 can affect functions B6. - leads to decrease in PLP (pyridoxal phosphate) leading to dermatological & neurological complaints - relatively rare precipitated by medicated like L-DOPA - result depression, confusion, convulsions, general irritability, weakness, impaired immunity, cheilosis, glossitis, insomnia & poor coordination

Function of pantothenic acid

Vitamin B5 - adequate intake(acceptable intake established by Food & nutrition Board where insufficient data avail to set RDA's): 5mg/day - set as amount needed to replace urinary excretion - daily value used on food & supplement labels is 10mg - Vit B5/pantothenic acid converted to coenzyme A, which is essential in metabolism & needed for synthesis of acetylcholine - necessary for transmission of impulses - forms acyl carrier protein needed for fatty acid metabolism - B5 also involved in production of antibodies for immune function & helps in stress response

B-Vitamins that function with Riboflavin

Vitamin B6, niacin, thiamin & folate in numerous metabolic pathways

Formation of active form of Vitamin D

Vitamin D, as either D3 or D2, does not have significant biological activity. Must be metabolized within body to hormonally-active form known -1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol.

Dietary sources of potassium

White Beans Potassium in 100g 1 cup cooked (179g) 561mg (16% DV) 1004mg (29% DV) Other Beans High in Potassium (%DV per cup): Adzuki (35%), Soy (28%), Lima (28%), Kidney (20%), Great Northern (20%), Pinto (18%) and others at an average of 15% DV per cup cooked. #2: Dark Leafy Greens (Spinach) Potassium 100g (Raw) 1 Cup (Raw - 30g) 1 Cup (Cooked - 180g) 558mg (16% DV) 167mg (5% DV) 839mg (24% DV) Other Greens High in Potassium (%DV per cup cooked): Swiss Chard (27% DV), Kale (8% DV), and Collards (6% DV). #3: Baked Potatoes (With Skin) Potassium 100g Average Potato (173g) 535mg (15% DV) 926mg (26% DV) Warning: Potatoes are high in simple carbohydrates and not recommended for people with diabetes. Sweet potatoes are actually better for regulation blood sugar, an average baked sweet potato with skin (114g) provides 542mg (15% DV) of potassium. . #4: Dried Apricots Potassium 100g 1/2 cup (65g) 1162mg (33% DV) 755mg (22% DV) Warning: Dried Apricots are high in sugar. . #5: Baked Acorn Squash Potassium 100g 1 cup cubed (205g) 437mg (12% DV) 899mg (26% DV) Other Squash High in Potassium (%DV per cup baked): Hubbard (21%), Butternut (17% DV), Zucchini (14% DV), Average Winter Squash (10% DV). #6: Yogurt (Plain, Skim/Non-Fat) Potassium 100g 1 cup (245g) 255mg (7% DV) 625mg (18% DV) Other Yogurt High in Potassium (%DV per cup): Whole-Fat (11% DV), Chocolate Yogurt (24% DV). . #7: Fish (Salmon) Potassium 100g 1 3oz fillet (85g) 628mg (18% DV) 534mg (15% DV) Other Fish High in Potassium (%DV per 3oz fillet (85g)): Pompano (15% DV), Lingcod (14% DV), Halibut (13% DV), Yellowfin Tuna (13% DV), Anchovies (12% DV), Mackerel (10% DV), Herring (10% DV) and most other fish at an average of 10% DV. #8: Avocados Potassium 100g Average Avocado (201g) 1/2 Cup Pureed (115) 485mg (14% DV) 975mg (28% DV) 558mg (16% DV) #9: Mushrooms (White) Potassium 100g 1 cup sliced (108g) 396mg (11% DV) 428mg (12% DV) Other mushrooms high in potassium (%DV per cup sliced): Portabella (9% DV), Brown or Crimini (9% DV), Enoki (7% DV), Shiitake (5% DV), Maitake (4% DV). #10: Bananas Potassium 100g Average Banana(118g) 1 Cup Mashed (225) 358mg (10% DV) 422mg (12% DV) 806mg (23% DV)

Dietary sources Vitamin E

Widely distributed in foods - wheat germ & veg & seed oils best sources best = safflower oil w/ most alpha-tocopherol - Also leafy veg, legumes, peanuts, almonds, eggs, unrefined grains - animal foods poor source vit E

Evaluate use of calcium therapeutically

Widely used therapeutically - indicated in pregnancy & lactation, muscular spasm, weakness or cramping, tetany, teeth conditions & menopause or osteoporosis

Who are at risk for binge drinking

Young adult age group - high school group

Nutrient needed for enzyme that metabolises alcohol

Zinc

Haemoglobin

a hemoprotein composed of globin and heme that gives red blood cells their characteristic color -Ex. function primarily to transport oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues, A conjugated protein, found in red cells, effective at carrying oxygen from regions of high partial pressure (e.g. lungs) to regions of low partial pressure o oxygen (e.g. respiring tissues)

BMI

a person's weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters 705(weight in ibs)/height^2 inches 18.5 to 24.9 (normal) 25 to 29.9 (overweight) 30 to 39 obese (60% of USA) +40 horribly obese

Transferrin

a plasma protein that transports iron ions in the bloodstream

Ferritin

a protein containing 20% iron that is found in the intestines and liver and spleen

Signs and symptoms of alcohol poisoning

a. Confusion, stupor b. Vomiting c. Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) d. Severe dehydration e. Seizures f. Slow or irregular breathing and heartbeat g. Blue-tinged or pale skin h. Low Body temperature (hypothermia) i. Unconsciousness

What is basal metabolism

amount of energy required to maintain the body at rest (equat. (weight/kg)x 24) the minimum metabolic activity required to sustain life in resting but awake person.

Galactosaemia

an inherited autosomal recessive disorder in which an affected individual fails to produce the enzyme galactase and is unable to digest the sugar galactose - treated w/ lactose free diet

Functions of chromium

associated with insulin and required for the release of energy from glucose

Functions of bioflavonoids

bioflavonoids are helpful in absorption of vitamin C and protect the multifunctional vitamin C molecule from oxidation, thereby improving and prolonging its functioning. Therefore involved in maintaining health of collagen indirectly that holds the cells together by forming basement membranes of cells, tissues, and cartilage. Main function bioflavonoids is increase strength of capillaries and to regulate their permeability. capillaries link the arteries to the veins. They deliver oxygen and nutrients to the organs, tissues, and cells and pick up carbon dioxide and waste and carry them through the veins and back to the heart. By its support of capillaries, vitamin P helps prevent hemorrhage and rupture of these tiny vessels, which could lead to easy bruising. Also, capillary strength may help protect us from infection, particularly viral problems. Bioflavonoids also can reduce amount of histamine released from cells

Process of alcohol fermentation

biological process in which sugars like glucose, fructose & sucrose converted into cellular energy thereby producing ethanol & carbon dioxide as metabolic waste products. Because yeasts perform this conversion in absence of oxygen, alcoholic fermentation is an anaerobic process. - Fermentation is process where yeast breaks down sugar into alcohol & carbon dioxide. Yeast are tiny single-celled fungi that contain special enzymes responsible for this reaction. The word equation for this process is: Glucose + yeast alcohol + carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide gas bubbles out of fermenting solution into air leaving mixture of ethanol & water. It's important no air present or yeast will produce ethanoic acid - the chemical found in vinegar.

sodium storage and excretion

body continually regulates sodium. When a person eats too much or too little sodium, intestines and kidneys respond to adjust concentrations to normal. During the course of a day, intestines absorbs dietary sodium while kidneys excrete nearly equal amount of sodium into theurine. The concentration of sodium in the blood depends on total amount of sodium and water in arteries, veins, and capillaries (the circulatory system). Thebody regulates sodium and water in different ways, but uses both to help correct blood pressure when it is too high or low If body has too little sodium (called hyponatremia), body can eitherincrease sodium levels or decrease water in the body. Too high a concentration of sodium (hypernatremia), can be corrected either by decreasing sodium orby increasing body water.

Haemosiderin

brown granular pigment derived from haemoglobin, which is the form of stored iron. Iron stains blue with Prussian blue stain

Deficiency symptoms of folate

can occur due to certain medications like methotrexate, barbiturates &contraceptive pill - long term use of antibiotics & chemotherapy can cause deficiency symptoms if intake of folate is not increased - alcoholics & elderly may be at risk of deficiency due to poor diet - common in pregnancy & low veg diet Result in: glossitis, gastrointestinal disturbances, & megaloblastic anaemia - condition wherein red blood cells are large & immature & cannot carry oxygen properly - other symptoms: include irritability, grey hair, fatigue, forgetfulness & skin disorders - Folate is essentially non toxic but excess amounts can mask B12 deficiency

Therapeutic use of Vitamin C

cancer, immune stimulant, colds/flu, CV dz and atherosclerosis, free radical protection, glaucoma, allergies, asthma, DM, gout, connective tissue weakness

Functions of molybdenum

catalyst cofactor metabolism of amino acids Aids in action of some enzymes

process of dehydration

caused inadequate intake or abnormal loss (i.e. diarrhoea, vomiting, haemorrhage, burns, excessiver perspiration or urinating -blood pressure falls (plasma shift) and decreased GRF (kidney conserves water) Symptoms of dehydration •Dry lips, skin, tongue •Decreased excretion of urine and its color •Confusion •Raised body temperature •Flushed skin •Lack of energy

Dietary sources phosphorus

cheese; dried beans; eggs; fish; milk products; nuts; seeds; organ meats; poultry; whole grains -Main food sources are protein foods of meat & milk. Meal plan providing adequate calcium & protein,provides adequate phosphorus. Whole-grain breads/cereals contain more phosphorus than refined flour cereals/breads, but this is storage form phosphorus (phytin), not absorbed by humans. Fruits & veg contain small amounts phosphorus.

dietary sources of magnesium

chocolate; dry beans and peas; green leafy vegetables; meats; nuts; seafood; whole grains; bananas; oranges

Function of B6

coenzyme involved in amino acid and fatty acid metabolism - assist in making red blood cells stored in muscle cells, amino acid/protein metabolism; neurotransmitter synthesis (serotonin; epinephrine; histamine); hemoglobin synthesis; glycogenolysis: release of glucose from liver

Functions of ultra trace mineral silicon

collagen formation and bone mineralization strengthen collagen and elastin collagen/bone/cartilage formation

Vitamins

compounds that help regulate many vital body processes, including the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of other nutrients - nutrients that don't provide energy or build body tissue, but help regulate these and other body processes

Deficiency and toxicity symptoms calcium

deficiency: stunted growth in children, bone loss in adults (related to osteoporosis) Toxicity: constipation, increased risk of urinary stone formation and kidney disfunction

Deficiency and toxicity of sodium

deficiency= hyponitremia, nausea/vomiting, dizzy, cramps, high intake= high blood pressure, kidney stones, anorexia, ataxia confusion, depression, dermatosis dizziness, fatigue, flatulence, hallucinations headaches, hypotension, illusions, infections lethargy, memory loss, muscular weakness seizures, taste loss, weight loss SODIUM TOXICITY anorexia, cognitive dysfunction, congestive heart failure, edema (especially low protein diets), hyperactivity, hypertension, hypertonia irritability, polydipsia, polyuria, renal failure seizures/tremors, weight gain

Problems associated with excess alcohol consumption including gastrointestinal damage, liver damage, brain damage, cardiovascular problems, cancer & toxicity of foetus

depresses production of immune system proteins -depresses the secretion of antidiuretic hormone,increasing urination and water loss -reduces use of fat in the liver, resulting in a high LDL and triglyceride blood level Encourages accumulation of body fat especially in the central abdominal area ('beer belly') because fat metabolism is disrupted - Gastrointestinal function: Gastritis (inflamed / swollen stomach lining), Pancreatitis (inflammation), Reduced villae, Reduced enzyme production, nutrient digestion & absorption - Liver function: Fatty liver, reduced function & vitamin status - alcoholic hepatitis, cirrhosis (liver tissues accumulate so much fat that they burst and are replaced by connective scar tissue), liver - Coronary heart disease: Reduced blood lipids VLDL's , pancreatic damage - reduced insulin release - type 2 diabetes, increase risk CHD, -- moderate alcohol consumption - reduced HDL, reduced platelet aggregation, increased antioxidant status may reduce LDL oxidation --beneficial effects of alcohol - reduced CHD -Nervous system: Thiamin deficiency - peripheral neuropathy - nerves don't work properly, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, Dementia, Cerebellar damage affecting balance Fetal alcohol syndrome: raised acetaldehye levels in utero: - impaired fetal DNA production - growth retardation - increased risk of childhood learning difficulties Drinking alcohol during pregnancy threatens the fetus with: Irreversible brain damage, Growth retardation, Mental retardation, Facial abnormalities, Vision abnormalities

Signs bulimia nervosa

evidence of binge eating, purging, trips to bathroom after eating, use of laxatives/diuretics, follow of excessive rigid exercise regimens, normal weight but obsessed with food/weight, cuts or calluses on back of hands/knuckles, discolored teeth, damaged esophagus, bruises easily (Anemic), puffy cheeks/chipmunk cheeks from purging

state deficiency symptoms of magnesium

hyperexcitability, dizziness, muscle cramps/ weakness & fatigue.Severe deficiency can cause hypocalcemia, low serum potassium levels (hypokalemia), retention sodium, low circulating levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH), neurological & muscular symptoms (tremor, muscle spasms, tetany), loss appetite, nausea, vomiting, personality changes & death from heart failure. Magnesium plays important role in carbohydrate metabolism & deficiency may worsen insulin resistance,often preceding diabetes, or possible insulin resistance. Deficiency can cause irregular heart beat.

Dietary sources of potassium

meats; fish; potatoes; tomatoes; carrots; bananas; apricots; canaloupe; dried fruit; nuts; seeds; chocolate; milk products, citrus fruits & watermelon Leafy vegetables Grape, cranberry, apple, fowl, coffee, tea, cola beverages

Thiamin deficiency symptoms

men: 1.2 mg/day; women: 1.1 mg/day - food labels & supplements state 1.5mg Activity of transketolase in red blood cells used to set RDA , Beri Beri - disease - first seen in india where rice was polished (germ and bran removed) BeriBeri:severe, chronic deficiency characterized by ataxia (muscle weakness and loss of coordination), pain, mental disorientation, and tachycardia (rapid beating of heart), enlarged heart, cardiac failure, apathy, short term memory loss, irritability, anorexia, weight loss. Wernicke-korsakoff syndrome: acute neurological condition cause by severe thiamine deficiency usually due to heavy alcohol consumption symptoms: unsteady gait, mental confusion, inability to transfer memory from short to long term, client unresponsive to environment; treated as emergency with immediate thiamine injection Ocular symptoms: double vision, cross eyes, rapid eye movements - alcohol diminshes thiamin absorption & excretion (assumed genetic pedisposition)

Schofield equation

method of estimating BMR in calories of adult men & women - commonly used by dieticians as means of estimating total calorie intake required to maintain current body mass. This figure can be used to design dietary regime placing subject in calorie deficit or surplus, depending on whether weight loss or gain is intended clinical outcome.

Vitamin K requirements

micrograms-EDR 2 micrograms (ug) per kg body weight 1/2 from diet & 1/2 synthesised in intestine by bacteria - requirements increased w/ IBS, diarrhoea & excess antibiotic / laxative use- needs increase w/ age

Vitamin requirements infants

most important vits minerals Energy: 0-6months: 650 kcal/day; 6-12months: 850 kcal/day, ~100kcal per kg Fat: 0 - 6 months - 31g/day 7 - 12 months - 30g/day Vitamin & minerals: Vitamin A -Breast milk natural, excellent source vitamin A. Promoting breastfeeding is the best way to protect babies from Vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A deficiency is rare in breastfed babies Vitamin B1 (thiamine) - If mom is getting enough thiamine, then milk has enough for baby and supplements are not needed. If mom is thiamine-deficient, then adding additional thiamine to mom's diet should increase the amount of thiamine in her milk (since this vitamin is water-soluble) to necessary levels. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) - Supplements are not recommended for breastfed babies, as riboflavin deficiency rare developed countries. Levels of riboflavin in human milk quite constant & usually affected only by large maternal supplements (3x the maternal RDA). Vitamin B6 - If mom gets adequate amounts of vitamin B6, additional supplements not necessary. If mom is not getting enough vit B6, adding additional vitamin B6 to mom's diet will increase levels in milk to required levels for baby. Vitamin B12- Infants of well-nourished mothers with adequate vit B12 intake don't need vit B12 supplements. It's recommended mothers who do not eat animal protein or those at risk for vit B12 deficiency get adequate amounts of vit B12 during pregnancy & lactation via supplements or fortified foods. Vitamin C - Breastfed babies shouldn't be routinely supplemented w/ vit C except in cases of obvious scurvy (vit C deficiency). FDA requirements for nursing mothers for vitamin C = 100 mg/day. Supplements of vit C for mother do not alter the amounts in breastmilk, as they remain fairly constant no matter what mother's intake levels (assuming no scurvy) Calcium- Breastfed babies don't need additional calcium over that which they get from breastmilk & (in second 6 months) complementary foods. Excess calcium not found to have a benefit. Vitamin D - babies rarely need vit D supplements. Babies only require supplements if baby has very little exposure to sunlight, both mother and baby have darker skin / pigmentation & require more sun exposure to generate an adequate amount of vitamin D, Mother is deficient in vitamin D Vitamin E - Vitamin E supplements for mothers and their breastfed babies are not indicated. Fluoride - Currently there is no conclusive evidence indicating that fluoride supplements in infancy improve a breastfed baby's dental health. Adequate fluoride in human milk Folic acid (folate) - deficiency not reported in breastfed, full-term infants, and supplements are not recommended. Iron- required to be supplemented after 6 months Vitamin K - Baby's vit K stores at birth are very low. Vit K is needed for proper blood clotting & deficiency causes a syndrome: hemorrhagic disease of newborn. Increasing mom's vit K intake increases amount of vit K in her milk or via injection at birth Niacin - Niacin deficiency in breastfed infants in developed countries is extremely rare, and no supplementation is recommended. Zinc - Healthy full-term breastfed babies don't need additional zinc past breast milk intake & (after 6-8 months) from complementary foods. Good sources of zinc include meat (especially red meat) and yogurt. Signs of mild zinc deficiency include: lessened appetite, lowered immune function, limited activity, growth faltering. Low birth weight, small for gestational age and premature infants are at risk for zinc deficiency.

Deficiency symptoms of Vitamin A

night blindness, xeropthalmia, poor growth, reproductive failures, reduced egg production, corneal dying, triangular gray spots on eye, cornea softening, corneal degeneration and blindness,impaired immunity, hair follicles plugged with keratin forming white lumps

Symptoms bulimia nervosa

normal, high or low body weight (but sees self as overweight) recurrent episodes of binge eating (rapid consumption of excessive amounts of food in a relatively short period of time; often secretive), coupled with fearful feelings of not being able to stop eating during the bingeing episodes self-induced vomiting (usually secretive) excessive exercise or fasting after eating peculiar eating habits or rituals inappropriate use of laxatives, diuretics or other cathartics irregular or absence of menstruation anxiety discouraged feelings related to dissatisfaction with themselves and their bodily appearance depression preoccupation with food, weight and body shape scarring on the back of the fingers from the process of self-induced vomiting Other signs you may notice include: dehydration swollen face sore throat tooth decay or cavities dry, flaky skin constant upset stomach heartburn constipation weight fluctuations

Functions of boron

promoting bone metabolism, brain health, and immunity

Preformed vitamin A

ready for body to use and only found in animal foods: liver, eggs yolk, fortified or whole milk, cheese - also low fat fortified milk products, margarine and cereals fortified with vit A - a family of substances called retinoids that are in a form that your body readily uses

Health problems from bulimia nervosa

serious electrolyte problems irregular menstrual periods dehydration swollen face sore throat tooth decay dry, flaky skin constant upset stomach heartburn constipation depression weight fluctuations

List external factors that influence satiety and hunger

smell, taste, look, odour, pre-learned behaviours, likes / dislikes, social or religious requirements/ restrictions, greater choice, food on sale 24/7, improved preservation methods of food, foods requiring little prep, snacking /grazing, peer effects, ethnicity,

Typical behviours of bulimic person

unexplained weight fluctuations dizziness fainting fatigue irritability or moodiness going to the bathroom often, especially after meals food disappearance from the kitchen

Therapeutic uses of copper

used supplementary treatment of iron deficiency anaemia, - beneficial in high pollution intake, lowered immune states, arthritis, & high cholesterol

List functions phosphorus

• Assists in the formation of bones and teeth. It works with calcium to harden bones and teeth. • Assists in the release and storage of energy. • Is a structural part of cell membranes. • Is a structural part of genetic material (DNA and RNA) -Transfer and release energy as ATP 2. Component of phospholipids, DNA and RNA 3. Metabolism of fats, carbs and proteins

Early warning signs of anorexia nervosa

• Falling off the growth curve (losing weight needlessly) • No longer eating with the family • Saying things like "I hate my body" or "I feel fat." • Being very anxious or depressed but guarded about why. • Going on a diet needlessly. - cuts food very small pieces - Drinks lots of water and/or diet soda - Eliminates certain foods or food groups - Wont eat out with friends and family - May exercise compulsively become irritable and hostile distant form friends and family