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Oceanography

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* Affects regional sea level. * Can change direction of rivers on long timescales. * Allows huge thickness (10-20 km) of sediment in the ocean despite average depth of 4 km. Pink circles = lots of sediment - all big rivers flowing down here (dropping eroded sediment off). Blue circle = 20 km sediment, average depth of ocean = only 4 km. 20 km was able to get deposited because sediment deposited on top. * Land is gradually rising out of the ocean. People here are safe from getting swamped away by sea level rise because land is bumping up (less vulnerable).

* An iron-rich sphere at center of the Earth - Mainly of iron, some nickel and some sulfur. * Inner core: solid iron-nickel-sulfur - Composed, enough pressure it stays solid. * Outer core: liquid iron-nickel-sulfur - Constantly moving.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe/explain how our atmosphere and oceans formed and why they have changed in composition over time. Formation of Earth's Moon: * Describe the process that led to the formation of Earth's moon: - When did it happen? - What happened? * How did the moon form from this? * What did this result in?

1. Soon, after formation of Earth (4.53 billion years ago), a Mars-sized planetoid collides with Earth. 2. Moon forms from the resulting ring of debris. Remnants of collision -> moon. 3. Collision likely re-melts much of the upper layers of Earth and blasts off any early atmosphere (along with solar wind). Collision pretty much completely remelted all of Earth, and blasted off into space any gases that might have made an atmosphere at that point.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Be able to describe the evidence for continental drift and why the theory was not accepted at the time. Continental drift - an old idea: * Who proposed the hypothesis of Continental Drift? * Explain how the hypothesis of Continental Drift came to be proposed.

1596: Dutch map maker Abraham Ortelius Thesaurus Geographicus: "Americas were 'torn away from Europe and Africa ... by earthquakes and floods' ... "The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves, if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts of the three [continents]." 1858: maps by geographer Antonio Snider-Pellegrini. 1914: Alfred Wegener proposed "Continental Drift". As soon as people were traveling around the world, trying to make maps, they saw it looked like continents should fit together. Over time, maps got better and better -> the fit got better and better -> hypothesis of continental drift was proposed.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Practice Problem: If the half-life is 60 million years and 12.5% of the radioactive element remains, how old is the rock? a. 20 myo b. 30 myo c. 60 myo d. 180 myo e. 240 myo

180 million years old

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Practice Problem We've mapped the surface of Mars and Venus at a resolution of about 100m. How much of the ocean floor have we mapped at that resolution? Know how. a. 25% b. 40% c. 70% d. 95%

25% Not much compliments to what we know about the surface of other planets. Water on earth makes it much more difficult to map out. We're still trying to understand what it is at the bottom of oceans.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Practice Problem: Using the geomagnetic timescale, on the right of the diagram, when did the continents start splitting apart? a. 10 Myrs b. 30 Myrs c. 40 Myrs d. 50 Myrs

30 Myrs TIP: "What is the oldest ocean crust you can see?" * Count the # of stripes, starting from the middle.

Review: Plate tectonics * Theory that the Earth's lithosphere (outer rigid shell) is broken into a dozen or so rigid "plates" that move relative to one another on the hotter, more plastic asthenosphere. Plates moving can explain so many things that we couldn't before... -> where mountains are -> where trenches are -> why we get this sort of mid-ocean ridge in the middle of our oceans -> why we get matching rocks in different places -> fossils that shouldn't be able to be existing at the same time. What is happening at boundaries???

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Major reservoirs of the Earth System: * Know the major reservoirs of the Earth System, and what they include. * What moves between these reservoirs? - Describe their movement.

The Earth System is broken up into 4 big components: Major reservoirs of the Earth System: * Atmosphere - mixture of gases (N, O, Ar, CO2, H2O vapor) that surrounds the Earth. * Hydrosphere - all of Earth's water e.g. oceans, lakes, underground water, ice. - Surface water (lakes), fresh water locked away as ice and snow. * Biosphere - all of Earth's organisms + any organic matter which has not decomposed (+ Organisms that have died but not yet decomposed). * Geosphere - solid Earth (rock and regolith) Material and energy moves between these reservoirs. Material and energy move back and forth, between and within different spheres in these reservoirs.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Practice Problem: On the image below, the triangle marks an active volcanic island created by a hotspot. The circle marks older islands that are no longer volcanically active. Which direction is the tectonic plate moving? a. to the southeast b. to the southwest c. to the northeast d. to the northwest

to the southeast TIP: Find the active island and look for which direction the islands are going in.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe/explain how our atmosphere and oceans formed and why they have changed in composition over time. Origin of Earth's Atmosphere and Hydrosphere: Cont. * What happened to the water vapor of our early atmosphere, over time? Where did it go? * What resulted from the high levels of atmospheric CO2 and SO2 of the early atmosphere? Explain. - What is another gas that contributed to this? Describe. Summary: Over time, we have our oceans developing ___ from ___, and today even, we still have ___ that ___.

* As Earth cooled gradually over time, water vapor condensed out of the atmosphere to form clouds and rainfall, and fell into land and ran downhill and accumulated where we have low areas on surface. * By 4 billion years ago, water accumulated in low areas to form oceans. * High levels of atmospheric CO2 and SO2 made rainfall very acidic. - Gases reacted with water droplets in the atmosphere and made rain really acidic in the early atmosphere. * Acid rain fell onto rocks and dissolved surface rocks and carried elements and compounds to the ocean - created ocean salinity. * Volcanic gases such as HCl also dissolved in oceans adding to salinity. Over time, we have our oceans developing salt from dissolved rocks, and today even, we still have organic gases, like HCl, that dissolve and add to salinity.

* Dark blue = older ocean crust. * Red = more recent ocean crust. The further from the mid-ocean ridge, the older the crust gets. There is old ocean crust over on the Pacific, and some on the edges of the Atlantic as well.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to predict and draw the features that occur due to different plate boundaries: - Divergent - Convergent - Transform 2b. Convergent Boundaries - ocean-continent: * When looking at this map, know what exactly you're looking at. * Know when you're looking at OC-OC vs. OC-CC: features they share vs. unique features.

* Dark line = trench - To the N of the trenches, we can see a line of pretty active volcanoes.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Evidence that supports the theory of plate tectonics: - Be able to describe/explain how information about the magnetic field is recorded by rocks and interpret/predict inclination records of "apparent polar wander". Paleomagnetism: * What is the Earth's magnetic field recorded by? * When molten rock cools below ____, some minerals ____. * What is happening at the Curie Point? * If we look at rocks from the past that were erupted from volcanoes, for example, and cooled down, those rocks ____. * We can go back over time and look at different layers of rock to understand how ____, either because ___ or because ____. * What temperature is the Curie Point? * What happens when lava passes the Curie Point? - If Earth's MF is pointing down, where will the atom's dipoles point? * Describe ___ above & below the Curie Point. - Thermal E. - The magnetic poles of atoms.

* Earth's magnetic field is recorded by magnetic minerals in rocks! * When molten rocks cool below a specific temperature (Curie Point) some minerals permanently align with the Earth's magnetic field. - Curie Point: the thermal energy of atoms isn't enough for it to keep moving around -> locks in place the orientation of Earth's magnetic field in that location. If we look at rocks from the past that were erupted from volcanoes (for ex.) and cooled down, those rocks lock in place and record information about the MF at the location where the rock was formed. We can go back over time and look at different layers of rock to understand how the MF of Earth might've changed, either because MF is changing or because continents are moving around. When lava ↑ 580 degrees Celsius Curie Point, molecules in the lava have enough energy so that the magnetic-like poles (dipoles) of atoms point all over the place. * Even if we have Earth's MF pointing down, the atoms don't line up with that. Above 580 degrees Celsius: - Thermal energy of atoms is high. - Magnetic poles of atoms is randomly oriented. Below 580 degrees Celsius: - Thermal energy slows atoms. - Magnetic poles of atoms align with Earth's magnetic field.

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Know how aspects of oceanography are used to explain: - Plate techtonics - Salt in ocean water - Potential energy

* Geology: a lot of evidence of plate tectonics came from the deep exploration of the ocean. * Chemistry: "why's salt there in the ocean? what is its importance?" * Waves and tides: how might they tie into potential energy in the future?

* How we grow new ocean basins and how we close up old ocean basins.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to predict and draw the features that occur due to different plate boundaries: - Divergent - Convergent - Transform 1. Divergent Boundaries: * Iceland volcanic eruption - Iceland is a ___, so we can see ___. - Describe the eruptions here. * What is the ocean's most noticeable feature? Compare this feature to the rest of the sea bed. * Grandavik eruption in Iceland -2023/24: - Where did the eruption occur, specifically? - Before the eruption occurred, what occurred first? - How high was the fountain of lava that erupted out? - Once the eruption stopped, what happened? * What does this tell us about volcanoes on a hotspot?

* Iceland: volcanic eruption. - Iceland is a hotspot, so we can see almost what the mid-ocean ridge would look like, if it was above ground. These volcanic eruptions are not cone-shaped, they're long, thin eruptions. * Mid-ocean ridge: 2 km higher than the rest of the sea bed, most noticeable feature. Grindavik eruption in Iceland: 2023/2024 - Eruption happened along a crack that had opened up. Earthquakes, and then eruption occurred. - The fountain of lava that erupted from the Grandavik eruption was about as tall as this building. Newly opened fissures: the eruption stopped and calmed down, but later, a couple more fissures opened up. * We can't rely on volcanoes being dormant forever. Phases of eruption are probably going to last for decades.

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Importance of oceans to Earth System: * What is the defining feature of our planet? Explain. * What does having this feature make us? * The ocean is a major influence on ___ by ___. * What does the ocean store? * What evolved in the oceans? * What does the ocean support? * What moves energy around in the ocean? * What is found in the oceans?

* Oceans are the defining feature of our planet - 70% of the world's surface and 97% of the water. - Oceans make us unique. * Ocean is a major influence on weather and climate by transporting and storing energy and matter. - Stores a huge amount of energy. - Stores CO2, O2, nutrients. * Life evolved in the oceans 3 billion years before it moved onto land, and today the oceans support a great diversity of life and ecosystems. - THINK: The time it takes to heat up a pot of water -> think about how much energy is stored within the ocean. - Currents move energy around in the ocean. - Much of life's history is in the oceans.

* In the 1950s and 1960s new technology allowed us to investigate: 1. paleomagnetism (the magnetic field of the past) using rocks. * We were able to measure and quantify magnetic fields of the past (old MFs recorded in rock), and at the time -> determined the strength and direction of the MF at a given moment in time. * Reminder: Liquid outer core produces Earth's magnetic field (the moving metal). 2. features of the ocean floor. * Using sonar, we saw the shape of the ocean floor for the 1st time. 3. patterns in the locations of earthquakes. * We developed better and better networks of seismometers -> more accuracy -> worked out where earthquakes were happening on Earth. 1-3 lead to... * Discovery of new evidence which showed that the continents had moved, evidence called apparent polar wander, and then also finding evidence to show HOW they moved later (sea floor spreading). - We didn't discover HOW they moved until later when we explored the deep sea.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to predict and draw the features that occur due to different plate boundaries: - Divergent - Convergent - Transform 2. Convergent Boundaries: Continental-continental * India over time, has ___. As it did that, there was ___. During this process, ___, forming ___. - Is this occurrence unique?

* India over time, has moved North and smashed into Asia. As it did that, there was an ocean in between. You can see remains of little fossils in the Himalayas today. As India moved North, the continental crust joined with the continental crust on the other side, and formed this big range of mountains (the Himalayan mountain range). * This is the only place we have this going on.

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Importance of oceans to people: * What are oceans key to? * Oceans are an important source of ___. What % is provided by the ocean? How does this impact climate change? * What % of the US population is vulnerable to ocean hazards? - Name ocean hazards. * Does the ocean slow/fasten climate change? How does it do this? - Without oceans, where would Earth be in terms of climate change? * What % of goods are transported by oceans? * Explain how warming of the ocean directly leads to natural disasters. * How do oceans impact the economy ($$$) for those living on the coast?

* Key to transportation, recreation, food supplies, new medical resources, energy, and even freshwater supply in some places. * Provide > 15% of dietary protein to 4.3 billion people. - Removes need for as much livestock <- contributor to ongoing climate change. * Around 50% of the US population are vulnerable to ocean hazards - harmful algal blooms, pollution, erosion, hurricane, flooding, tsunamis, and sea level rise. - Those who live close enough to be affected. * Help to slow climate change by absorbing over 30% of the carbon dioxide released by humans and 90% of the extra heat resulting from higher greenhouse gas concentrations. - Without oceans, we'd see much more rapid climate change. * 80% of our goods are transported by oceans. * Hurricanes only form over tropical oceans with hot water. We're heating up oceans so ... a lot of people on the coast will be affected by natural disasters, due to warming of the ocean. * Ocean: important source of protein. * Living on the coast: income is likely dependent on tourism.

* Layer between the crust and the core. * Made up of dense silicate rock. * Around 80% of Earth's volume.

* Linear features at mid-ocean ridges.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to predict and draw the features that occur due to different plate boundaries: - Divergent - Convergent - Transform 2c. Convergent Boundaries: Continental-continental * How was Mount Everest formed? * Describe the growth of Mount Everest.

* Mount Everest Summit: <- result of India-Asia collision - Might be bigger now, actively growing today as collisions occur.

* Much of the evidence for plate tectonics was discovered by accident by studying Earth's magnetic field. - Remember: liquid outer core generates Earth's MF (the moving metal).

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe/explain how our atmosphere and oceans formed and why they have changed in composition over time. Where did Nitrogen and Argon come from? * What released N2 and Ar into our atmosphere? * N2 and Ar are released in small amounts. How did they become two of the most abundant gases in the atmosphere today? * What happened to the CO2 from our early atmosphere?

* N2 released in small amounts by volcanoes and Ar released by radioactive decay of potassium (K) in rocks. * Nitrogen: It is so much of our atmosphere because it is really unreactive and doesn't dissolve in water easily. Once N is in the atmosphere, it is really hard to get it out. Even though N is added in tiny amounts each year, it built up over time to become most of what is in the atmosphere today. * Argon: Once again, Ar is a noble gas, so once it is in the atmosphere, it is really hard to get it out again since it is unreactive and doesn't dissolve. So, for billions of years, these two gases built up and became two of the most important gases in our atmosphere. * Amount of N2 and Ar removed from the atmosphere was small because they are... - Chemically inert (unreactive) - Not soluble in the oceans * Over billions of years, N2 and Ar became two of the most abundant gases in the atmosphere. What happened to CO2? * Photosynthesis: extract CO2 from atmosphere and turn it into O2. - This process was developed on Earth. - Life on Earth (plants, animals) fundamentally forever changed the chemistry on Earth, because all of a sudden, we had photosynthesis: CO2 -> O2 * Dissolved in ocean: very large amounts of CO2 are in the ocean.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Evidence that supports the theory of plate tectonics: - Be able to describe/explain how information about the magnetic field is recorded by rocks and interpret/predict inclination records of "apparent polar wander". Paleomagnetism: * Orientation: magnetic minerals will point ___. - Understand example given. * What is the inclination of paleomagnetism? - Therefore, what all does paleomagnetism tell us? * Earth's magnetic field allows us to look in the ___ direction, instead of just ___. * If you stood at the N pole, how would the MF lines point for you? * What if you stood near the equator? * Paleomagnetism allows you to ___.

* Orientation - magnetic minerals will point towards the pole just like a compass. - Compass: you can find out where N is because the magnetic arrow will line up with where the N pole is, lines up with the MF. * Inclination - angle from the horizontal depends on latitude. Paleomagnetism can therefore tell us the latitude and orientation of rocks at the time they formed. - MF also allows us to look in ↑ - ↓ direction, instead of just → - ←. If you stood at the N pole, how would the MF lines point for you? Straight down, at your feet! What if you stood near the equator? Parallel to ground! Paleomagnetism: allows you to reconstruct where you are - equator vs. poles, in past using record in rocks.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Be able to explain how we identify plate boundaries. Hot Spots: * Define: places where ___ - sites of ___. * Describe the relationship between hot spots and plate boundaries. * Hawaii: - Describe Hawaii's relationship to plate boundaries. - Hawaii happens to be above a place where there has been a _____. * Define this term. - What does this cause? - Compare the movement of the mantle plume to that of the plates. * What does this cause? Describe. * What does this allow us to do?

* Places where there has been continuous volcanism for a long period of time - sites of 'mantle plumes'. * Unrelated to plate boundaries. Hawaii is a hot spot: * Completely unconnected to a plate boundary. Hawaii happens to be above a place where there has been a mantle plume - an area lower down in the mantle that becomes hotter for some reason -> hot material rises until it hits the bottom of the crust, and when it hits the bottom, it melts its way through and forms a volcano on the surface of the crust. That mantle plume stays in the same place, but all those plates on the surface are moving around, over the top of it, over time. ---> You form volcanoes, but then your plate moves, so the volcanoes move over and away from the hot spot, so then, in the now emptied space above the hotspot, you form another volcano, and then that volcano moves (repeat, over and over). ----> we end up with long lines of islands, like the Hawaiian island chain. PIC: here you see Hawaii, where the hotspot is today. You can also see the older islands that used to be on top of the hotspot that have been carried by the plate off the hotspot, over in this direction (<-). Mantle plume does not move, but the tectonic plates do. A chain of extinct volcanoes is created on the overriding plate, as it moves over the top of the plume. Allows us to recreate plate movement back through time.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to predict and draw the features that occur due to different plate boundaries: - Divergent - Convergent - Transform 3. Transform Boundaries - Continent-continent: * What happens at transform boundaries? - What is an example of a transform boundary? - What can transform boundaries cause?

* Plates slide horizontally past each other without production or destruction of lithosphere. * e.g. San Andreas Fault between the Pacific and North American plates. - No volcanoes - Nothing melting or being destroyed - Nothing erupting Plates are just sliding past each other, can make a pretty big earthquake though.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to predict and draw the features that occur due to different plate boundaries: - Divergent - Convergent - Transform 2a. Convergent Boundaries - ocean-ocean: * When looking at this map, know what exactly you're looking at. * What does it mean if an island has more land? Explain. * Know when you're looking at OC-OC vs. OC-CC: features they share vs. unique features.

* Really dark line: really deep trench. * Raised surface lining up with dark line: line of islands. More land just means that land has been there longer, so it's been more volcanic, it's built up islands a little bigger. * This is still OC-OC convergence, with a trench and islands on the other side.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Be able to describe the evidence for continental drift and why the theory was not accepted at the time. Continental Drift - Problems: * What were the arguments shared by people that doubted the hypothesis of Continental Drift? Understand their arguments. * What was the main problem of Wegener's hypothesis that made people doubt him?

* Shorelines are constantly changing and eroding - how good of a fit could we expect? - So is it just chance? Just chance that they look like they'd fit together? * Plant seeds could have travelled by other means (winds, currents). - Could have floated across the ocean or been carried by birds. * Fossil animals could have travelled other ways (land bridges, island hopping). - Were there islands in between that we just don't see today? Main problem: How do you overcome friction and move enormous continents across the globe? * How do you move something the size of a continent? - EX: "Why would North America suddenly decide to move somewhere else?" Wegener could propose no realistic mechanism, even though he turned out to be correct! Wegener had no realistic mechanism to explain why ginormous continents suddenly moved across the globe.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe and explain the process of differentiation. Terrestrial Planets and Differentiation: * Define terrestrial planets. Give examples of these planets. * Terrestrial planets undergo ___. - Define this. * Know why this happens. * Know how it happened. - Energy from ___ results in some ___ which allows ___ to form. -> Know the END RESULT of this process (what specifically formed). * Define radioactive decay: what does it do? - A lot of ___ went into ___. * Denser material ___ to ____, ____ in ____, lighter material ____ to ____. - Understand example.

* Terrestrial planets undergo differentiation (melting and separation into layers). - Terrestrial planets: the closest rocky planets nearest to the sun. -> (Earth, mercury, Venus, mars). - Differentiation: split into layers because planet melted in the past. The energy to melt the planet came from really violent collisions (EX: smashing a huge 1/2-sized planet into another huge 1/2-sized planet -> lots of energy). * Energy from accretion, and radioactive decay of elements within the rocks, results in some melting which allows different layers to form. - Radioactive decay generates heat in center of the really rocky bodies, a lot of this energy went into melting the planet. * Denser material sinks to center and lighter material rises to surface. - EX: Melting yogurt with cookie dough: the denser cookie dough collected in the center of the yogurt, the lighter yogurt floated up to the surface. - The denser material collected in the center, the lighter material floated up to the surface -> core, mantle, and crust layers formed.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Evidence that supports the theory of plate tectonics: - Be able to describe/explain the evidence which allowed the "seafloor spreading hypothesis" to be proposed and how it was confirmed: * Be able to explain patterns of magnetic field reversals in ocean crust and inteprret/predict the patterns from diagrams. * Be able to explain the patterns of deep earthquakes at Benioff zones. Evidence for Plate Techtonics - 2. Seafloor spreading: * What is a reversal? * How many times in history has Earth experienced a reversal? * What is happening during a reversal? * How can we use what we know to produce the history of reversals on Earth?

* The North and South magnetic poles have reversed many times in Earth's history. * Every now and then, the magnetic field flips - instead of the field lines coming out from the S and going in at the N, they will come out from the N and go in at the S. * Geologically, this change happens very quickly: over 100s-1000s of years. Geologically, it is almost instantaneous that it flips backward and forward. * If these flips happened today, it would cause chaos because we would get weaker fields, navigation would get difficult, and satellites would get knocked out by solar wind. In general, by using the magnetic fields locked in rocks, and by dating those rocks, we can produce the history of reversals on Earth. 1. Look at the orientation of rocks. 2. Date rocks. 3. Produce time scale of when reversals occurred.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe/explain how our atmosphere and oceans formed and why they have changed in composition over time. Origin and Evolution of the Biosphere: * Why is the origin of life uncertain? * What likely played an important role in the origin of life? Where, especially? * Define hydrothermal vents: describe how they're formed. - Where are hydrothermal vents found? - Describe the life found at hydrothermal vents. - Compare the life found at hydrothermal vents to the life we're familiar with today. * What is one of the main reasons for the evolution of life we see today. - Evolution of ____ permanently altered the Earth by ___. * What is the earliest known form of life?

* The origin of life is uncertain, but oceans likely played an important role, especially at hydrothermal vents. - Uncertain: because if looking for fossils, it is hard to find something really microscopic and simple in billion-year-old rocks, so it's hard to find good evidence. - Hydrothermal vents: lots of chemical energy is coming out of the hot water from the sea floor, building up chimneys. There are weird forms of life that live around hydrothermal vents. - Hydrothermal vents are found at certain places in the ocean floor. * Earliest known life = primitive bacteria that lived on sea floor about 3.5 billion years ago. - At hydrothermal vents, primitive bacteria and archaea, tube worms, and big crabs were found. * Life has since evolved into diverse and complex forms seen today. - Largely because the build up of O2 allowed respiration to happen. * Evolution of photosynthetic organisms permanently altered the Earth by removing CO2 and releasing O2.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Tectonic Plate Boundary Map: *** PRINT FOR CHEAT SHEET ***

*** PRINT FOR CHEAT SHEET ***

*** Remember the Iceland hotspot *** * It is a hotspot, and it is also on a divergent boundary - these boundaries are usually way underneath the ocean, so we can't really see what they look like. * Because Iceland is also where there is a hotspot, we get an island there, so we get to see a little bit of what that divergent boundary looks like above the ground, where we can see it.

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Practice Problem Tides are caused by: a. The rotation of the Earth every 24 hours. b. The gravitational attraction of the Moon and Sun c. Winds blowing across the surface of the ocean.

1) The gravitational attraction of the Moon and Sun together. There are two combined causes of the tides going in and out... 2) the rotation of the Earth every 24 hours.

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans * Know how the ocean provides benefits to us humans. * How does the way the ocean affects the ecosystem affect the US? * What change do we see in the ocean surface? Why is this a big deal? * What are some things that harm the ocean? Explain. * Why is the study of the ocean important for society?

1. Fish -> food 2. Desalination plant -> as climate changes, this is a good source of fresh water. 3. Tidal energy generator: generates energy. How the ocean affects the ecosystem affects the US by affecting taxes and migration patterns. There is a change in ocean surface pH - this is a big deal in terms of how quickly we might be able to act to protect oceans from things that harm it. * Sunscreen: chemicals are bad for our ecosystem and reefs. * Ocean acidification. * Warming of oceans. The study of the ocean is important for society: - Commercialization of fishing provides huge protein to the world population, but we're doing it in a unsustainable way, causing ... -> Can't rely on fish in future -> Bad for ecosystem

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans The Scientific Method: * Know the steps of the scientific method. * If your hypothesis fails, using the data you collected, what do you do? What if it passes? * Define a theory. * Define a law or principle. * Theory ---promoted----> ____.

1. Recognizing an unsolved question or problem. 2. Formulating a hypothesis - a tentative (or untested) explanation (yes/no answer). 3. Testing the hypothesis by making observations (collecting data). Hypothesis: Fail -> start again, Pass -> find other ways to test hypothesis. * A theory is a scientific idea that has passed numerous tests and failed none (pretty much proven). * A law or principle - theory has been decisively demonstrated. No exceptions observed. - theory ---promoted---> law/principle.

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Practice Problem How many Pacific Bluefin tuna are left today compared to before commercial fishing began? Know why. a. 85% b. 57% c. 23% d. 4%

4% We've overfished lots of species -> trying to ban overfishing, so there's a chance to recover. Overfishing has had a huge impact on the ecosystem.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Practice Problem The gravitational force between 2 objects = F. If I double the mass of both objects the amount of gravitational force they now experience will be: a. 1/2 F b. 1/4 F c. 2 F d. 4 F

4F F = (1)x ((1 x 1)/1²) = 1 F = (1) x ((2 x 2)/ 1²) = 4

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe/explain how our atmosphere and oceans formed and why they have changed in composition over time. Composition of the (dry) atmosphere today: * Know the major components of our atmosphere today.

78.08% Nitrogen (N2) 20.95% Oxygen (O2) 0.93% Argon (Ar) 0.04% all other gases ... + variable constituents: H2O, and aerosols. * Note the energy difference, compared to CO2, SO2, water vapor that made up the early atmosphere. * Water condensed out -> formed oceans.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Practice Problem Which letter shows the location of the oldest ocean crust? Explain. a. A b. B c. C d. D e. E

A * Furthest ocean crust from mid-ocean ridge If you thought E was the answer because you were thinking about suturing and things, "I like your reasoning, but in this case, it's far enough away that it is formed in a different way".

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Theory of Plate Tectonics: * An amazing, unifying theory which can explain:

Amazing, unifying theory which can explain: * Continental drift (evidence that continents have moved) * Where and why volcanoes and earthquakes occur. * How continents and ocean basins form. * Why mountain ranges, ocean trenches, and other geographic features occur where they do. * Pattern of rock types you find in different locations. * Distribution of plant and animal fossils worldwide.

Auroras occur during geomagnetic storms, when the solar wind interacts with the upper atmosphere near the poles. * We have these lights at N and S poles. * These lights are high energy particles from the sun getting deflected into atmosphere by magnetic field. EXPLANATION: Most of the high NRG particles of solar wind get deflected away from Earth by our MF, but some get trapped. In this unstable environment, these trapped particles in our MF are accelerated along MF lines towards Earth's poles. At the poles, they strike the upper atmosphere, interacting with oxygen and nitrogen particles, releasing photons that form the aurora.

Because Earth differentiated during formation, it is made up of different layers. Layers of different composition: 1. Core 2. Mantle 3. Crust Layers of different strength: 1. Mesosphere 2. Asthenosphere 3. Lithosphere (outer, 100-150 km)

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Evidence that supports the theory of plate tectonics: - Be able to describe/explain the evidence which allowed the "seafloor spreading hypothesis" to be proposed and how it was confirmed: * Be able to explain patterns of magnetic field reversals in ocean crust and inteprret/predict the patterns from diagrams. * Be able to explain the patterns of deep earthquakes at Benioff zones. Evidence for Plate Tectonics - 2. Seafloor spreading: * How did we make observations by looking at the deep sea? - Describe each process. * What observations did we make? - What runs through every ocean basin? Describe it. - Where is ocean crust ... * Deepest * Warmest/coldest? * Newer/older? - The thickness of sediment increases in what direction? * Why does this make sense? - Describe the sediment of the ocean floor: thick/thin? * What does this suggest?

By exploring the ocean, we managed to piece together ideas that allowed us to propose the hypothesis, and we found ways to test the hypothesis to prove it. Observations: of deep ocean * Sonar was used to map the ocean bathymetry (depth) - The deepest parts of the ocean occur near the continents. - A mountain range (ridge) runs through every ocean basin with submarine volcanoes. * Mid ocean ridge Using sonar sound waves, boats beamed waves down to the ocean floor, and timed how long it took for the waves to reflect. They would then use this time to reconstruct depth over the floor they were going along. The velocity of the waves is known -> Distance = travel time x velocity. * By deep-sea drilling, we were able to look at sediment that picked up along the top of the ocean floor. - Ocean crust is warmest in the middle, where big mountain ranges are (near the ridge), and coldest near continents. - The thickness of sediment increases towards the continents. * This makes sense - there's a lot of sediment coming from continents. Sediment is like a constant rain coming from the continent surface down to the deep sea. This sediment is thin, suggesting the ocean floor hasn't existed for very long. Newer ocean floor is found in the middle of the ocean, while older ocean floor is found at the edges of continents.

Confirmation 1 - Magnetic stripes on sea floor * Came from paleomagnetism. * 60s: Cold War -> there was a lot of submarines in the ocean. These submarines were made of metal, so there was a lot of surveying of magnetic fields, to track subs. Across the ocean floor, there are parallel stripes where the ocean floor has magnetic minerals within it. One stripe is pointing in one direction to the N, and another stripe is pointing in one direction to the S.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe/explain how our atmosphere and oceans formed and why they have changed in composition over time. Origin and Evolution of the Biosphere: Video * How is life at the hydrothermal vents different from the life we know: what is life at the hydrothermal vents able to live without, that we rely on? - In addition to thriving without this necessity of ours, what environment are they able to thrive in? * Define chemosynthesis.

Hydrothermal vents: * Life found at hydrothermal vents is thriving without sunlight. - Exotic life, resembling triassic-era fossils (9 ft tube worms). - Extremely unusual species, thriving in toxic water. * Bacteria found here is possibly the largest mass of living things on Earth, thriving in toxic water. * Chemosynthesis: other life system on Earth that doesn't go by the book - not living off energy of the sun, but off the energy of the Earth (life thriving without sunlight).

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Evidence that supports the theory of plate tectonics: - Be able to describe/explain the evidence which allowed the "seafloor spreading hypothesis" to be proposed and how it was confirmed: * Be able to explain patterns of magnetic field reversals in ocean crust and inteprret/predict the patterns from diagrams. * Be able to explain the patterns of deep earthquakes at Benioff zones. Evidence for Plate Techtonics - 2. Seafloor spreading: * At MORs, what's happening? * What does new crust record? Describe this. - How does this relate to reversals? * Understand the process of field reversals, starting with the eruption of magma, and ending with a record, each time. * If we know the dates of reversals, what can we discover? * At what stage are field reversals apparent? * What allows us to be able to put a date on reversals?

Confirmation 1 - Magnetic stripes on seafloor * At mid-ocean ridges, two plates are moving apart and new ocean crust is constantly formed. * New crust records magnetic field as it cools, and so over time, it records patterns of magnetic reversals. Figure a) : Magma erupted and formed a new layer of ocean floor in between two continents, pushing them apart. Magma's orientation at this point just happens to point down South. So, magnetic minerals record the MF, pointing S. Figure b) : Magnetic field reversal occurred - now all magma erupting at the ocean floor and solidifying records the MF pointing up N. Figure c) : Another magnetic field reversal occurred - orientation is back to its original, pointing S. Ocean floor solidifies with the field pointing S. * Field reversals are apparent when the molten solidifies, (when new floor has formed). If you know the dates of reversals, you can say how old the seafloor is (count stripes), and you can see when it is getting older as you move away (stripes). You can put a date on reversals because new ocean crust is constantly being formed, so when the reversal happens, you will see it in that new crust (and then you can date it!).

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Evidence that supports the theory of plate tectonics: - Be able to describe/explain the evidence which allowed the "seafloor spreading hypothesis" to be proposed and how it was confirmed: * Be able to explain patterns of magnetic field reversals in ocean crust and inteprret/predict the patterns from diagrams. * Be able to explain the patterns of deep earthquakes at Benioff zones. Evidence for Plate Techtonics - 2. Seafloor spreading: * What is the second confirmation of seafloor spreading? - Define. - What happens here? * Describe this process. * Summary of plate tectonics: - New ocean crust is being ___. - New ocean crust is ____ continents. - There are areas where ocean crust is being destroyed, by being ___.

Confirmation 2 - Benioff zones * Benioff zones: Regions where very deep earthquakes occur, where crust subducts back into the mantle. As crust is forced back into Earth, it is pushing its weight into rock, so you get earthquakes all along the line that the ocean crust forms. If you look around the world, and use networks of seismometers to map out earthquakes, you can see this slice down through Earth. Summary: * New ocean crust is being formed. * New ocean crust is pushing apart continents. * There are areas where ocean crust is being destroyed, by being forced and subducted back into mantle.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to predict how gravitational force changes with mass or distance and explain how it resulted in the creation of the Earth. The Solar System - An Overview: * What does our solar system consist of? * Describe the orbits of the objects in our solar system. - What are these orbits determined by? * What objects orbit around the sun? * What objects orbit around the planets? * In addition to orbiting, what do most of these objects also do? * The way these objects behave is predictable based on ____. * Define asteroids.

Consists of: * 1 sun * 8 planets * A vast # of asteroids * Millions of comets * And over 60 moons All of these objects have smooth regular orbits in the solar system, determined by gravitational forces. Planets, asteroids, and comets orbit around the Sun. Moons orbit around the planets. * Planets, asteroids, and comets orbit the Sun while moons orbit specific planets (EX: Our moon orbits our Earth). The way these objects behave is predictable based on the gravity. - Most rotate/spin. Asteroids: part of the original cloud, or part of previous smaller planets that got broken up.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to describe and explain hotspot activity and be able to interpret/draw maps that show how hotspot chains relate to the speed and direction of tectonic plate movements. Review - Continental vs. Oceanic Crust: * Which crust CAN/CAN'T be subducted back into the mantle? What makes this possible/impossible? * Which crust is generally OLDER/YOUNGER, what process is responsible for this? * If you look at a lot of the rocks on a continent, they tend to be ___, compared to the rocks you'd find in the oceans. This is because, on continents, rocks are ___. This process is ___. Compare the possibility of finding a really old rock on land, vs. in the ocean: which area would most likely have a BILLION vs. two MILLION year old rock? - Explain. * ___ tend to have older rocks.

Continental Crust: * Thicker (up to 10s of km thick) * Less dense materials (granite) * CANNOT be subducted into mantle * Generally older, accrete over time. Oceanic crust: * Thinner (<10 km thick) * More dense materials (basalt) * CAN be subducted into mantle * Generally younger, gets continuously created and destroyed. We CANNOT subduct (push back down) continental crust into the mantle - it's less dense. (EX: Pushing styrofoam down in the pool: it won't sink, shoots back up) Oceanic crust is dense enough that it WILL sink back down, unlike the continents. If you look at a lot of the rocks on a continent, they tend to be much older than the rocks you'd find in the oceans, because they're accreting (gradually adding) over time. This process is really slow today - probably was faster in the past. * On land, maybe you can find a rock that is a BILLION years old! VS. ocean, where it would be more likely to find a 2 MILLION year old rock <- because oceanic crust is constantly created and destroyed by subduction (constantly being recycled). * Continents tend to have older rocks.

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Practice Problem Which of the following does NOT contain ingredients that come from the ocean? a. Sushi b. Table salt c. Peanut butter d. Toothpaste

THEY ALL DO Sushi = fish -> comes from ocean Table salt = salt -> comes from ocean Peanut better = has seaweed extract, to make it spreadable -> comes from ocean Toothpaste = has seaweed extract, to make it spreadable -> comes from ocean.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Evidence that supports the theory of plate tectonics: - Be able to describe/explain how information about the magnetic field is recorded by rocks and interpret/predict inclination records of "apparent polar wander". Evidence for Plate Tectonics - 1. Apparent polar wander: Reconstruction of magnetic poles, from volcanic rocks on one continent, show the pole 'wandering'. But, measurements from a 2nd continent show a different wander pattern. How can we explain this? * What is this an example of? What is REALLY happening? - Upon further evaluation, what do we see? * Although at this point, we still hadn't known how continents were moving, what were we still able to do really well? * What will the future of our continents look like?

EX: * Scientist in NA: under impression NA stayed in the same place - measured the difference in the MF over time, but where is pole going? * Scientist in Eurasia: agrees where pole is today, but their reconstruction shows 300 Myo pole in different spot. The pole can't split in two and go in opposite directions -> apparent pole wandering: it is not the pole moving - continent is what is moving. * Pole isn't wandering - the continents are!!! If we move NA and EA together, we can see their paths match up. -> solid evidence that poles had been in different positions. We don't know how continents are moving, but we're reconstructing very well how they changed. We know the continents moved -> we can reconstruct them accurately over time, but we don't know how they moved. ===> evidence from the ocean came in to help. Future: continents are still moving, over time. Our world will look really different once again in a billion years from now.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe/explain how our atmosphere and oceans formed and why they have changed in composition over time. Evolution of the Earth System: * When we are looking back at the earliest Earth, what characteristic do we see? * Over time as we evolved life, describe what happened to the levels of different gases in our atmosphere. * What happened to the sun as time went on? - What does this theoretically mean for Earth? Why hasn't this happened?

Earliest Earth: * Volcanoes erupting out gases that formed our atmosphere. * Over time as we evolved life, atmosphere CO2 levels decreased and atmosphere O2 levels increased. * The sun started getting brighter -> Earth temperature theoretically should be increasing over time, but this hasn't happened since CO2 levels are decreasing, allowing us to keep remarkably stable temperatures.

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Earth System Science: * Define Earth System Science: the science that studies ___ and focuses on ___. - To study how Earth is ___, as people have ___, and Earth's ___, we need to think about ___. * What is the atmosphere's connection to the ocean? Explain. * To understand any one piece of Earth, what must we see? * Understand example given.

Earth System Science: The science that studies the whole Earth as a system of many interacting parts and focuses on the changes within and between those parts. - To study how earth is changing as people have influenced Earth, and Earth's influence on people, we need to think about all interactions. EX: - Winds drive waves and the mixing of water and nutrients: atmosphere's connection to the ocean. * To understand any one piece of earth, we must see how it fits together. FOR EX: To understand Earth, we must understand geology: why are oceans there? why is there a deep trench somewhere, or mid ocean ridge somewhere else? To understand Earth, we must know the geology under the ocean: how the ocean is moving, how chemical components are leading to the experienced migration of animals.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe the properties of Earth's layers and explain how their properties are relevant in creating and preserving our oceans (and life on Earth!): = By composition (inner core, outer core, mantle, crust) = By strength (asthenosphere, lithosphere) Earth's magnetic field: * Earth's magnetic field is caused by ____. * What can you imagine our outer core doing: what do we end up with in the outer core? * Because of ___, we spin on our axis ____, creating ____. * The way the ___ of the outer core ____ is matching up with the ___, which is why we tend to get ___ lined up with ___, everything aligns with ____.

Earth's magnetic field is caused by movement of iron in the liquid outer core. * PIC: what you can imagine our outer core doing: all the iron. - We end up with little convection currents or rotation happening in the outer core. Because of the way we rotate, we spin on axis once a day, creating days/nights. The way the liquid iron of outer core rotates is matching up with N and S pole, which is why we tend to get magnetic poles lined up with geographic poles, all aligns with axis of rotation.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe the properties of Earth's layers and explain how their properties are relevant in creating and preserving our oceans (and life on Earth!): = By composition (inner core, outer core, mantle, crust) = By strength (asthenosphere, lithosphere) Earth's magnetic field: Northern lights * Earth's MF provides ___, which are both made up of ___. * The Earth's MF turned out incredibly impressive for understanding how ____, it became the basis for our understanding on ____. * What does Earth's MF allow us to keep? Explain how. * What planet in our solar system used to have a MF? - How did this planet lose its MF? - What was the result of this planet losing its MF? * Why doesn't Venus have a MF? Why did we initially think it should?

Earth's magnetic field provides protection from the solar wind and cosmic rays. - Both made up of high energy particles (protons and electrons). Earth's magnetic field turned out incredibly impressive for understanding how we create ocean basins and how we close them -> the basis for our understanding on plate tectonics. Our magnetic field allows us to keep our atmosphere. * Without our magnetic field, we'd have solar wind (high energy particles shot out from sun constantly). Without our MF deflecting these high NRG particles away, they would bump into gases in our atmosphere, gradually stripping away our atmosphere. ↑↑↑ This is what happened on Mars: Mars used to have a MF, but Mars cooled down because it's smaller than Earth. As a result of Mars cooling down, its magnetic field went away, making Mars lose its atmosphere. Venus doesn't have a magnetic field, although it is the same size as Earth, so it should have the same amount of iron. Why doesn't Venus have a magnetic field? ↓ THIS IS AT LEAST WHAT WE THINK: Venus: 243 days on Earth = 1 day on Venus = 1 rotation. Venus doesn't spin enough to create rotation, and a magnetic field.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to predict and draw the features that occur due to different plate boundaries: - Divergent - Convergent - Transform Wilson Cycle - Birth and Death of Oceans: * In summary, what happens between Embryonic ---> Mature stages? - What do these stages help to explain? * What types of boundaries are we dealing with in Decling ---> Terminal stages? - What is notable about the Terminal stage?

Embryonic ---> Mature stages: * How oceans form * How oceans open up * Little linear oceans ---> larger oceans with good ocean ridges in the middle. Declining ---> Terminal stages: * Convergent boundaries. * Terminal stage: when oceans are just about to completely close up.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to explain the Wilson cycle and identify what stage a region is in, given maps or diagrams of the area. Wilson Cycle - Birth and Death of Oceans * Know each stage of the Wilson Cycle. * Know what is happening in each stage. * Know what each stage looks like. * Know the motion that is occurring in each stage. * Know characteristics of each stage (volcanos, dried out ocean, etc.).

Embryonic: starting the birth of our oceans -> the beginning of forming a new ocean basin. Juvenile: managed to split apart continents, got bits of ocean crust here, but it is really narrow still - it is spreading apart (diverging), but really narrow. Mature: Fast-forward a million years from "juvenile" stage, you get mature oceans, where you go from ocean crust-continental crust - it's still spreading apart, still growing. Declining: growing in one place = must be shrinking somewhere else. * Arrows: converging. * Instead of just ocean crust meeting continental crust, you see ocean crust being forced down underneath the continental crust - forced to subduct -> volcano formed. Terminal: when we're almost closing up, we get these really irregular little seas in between some continents. Suturing: when we don't have an ocean anymore - it's closed together, it's done as an ocean.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Practice Problem: From 200 Myrs to today, is this location moving closer to the pole or further away? a. closer to the pole b. further from the pole

Further from the pole This is what early scientists did when looking at records for the first time. Scientists looked at orientation & inclination, and using that information, they could plot where the pole was compared to the continent -> looked like it was moving. 0: rock formed today 200: 200 myo rock. As time goes on, the direction is changing from ↓ to →, so moving closer to the equator.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to describe and explain hotspot activity and be able to interpret/draw maps that show how hotspot chains relate to the speed and direction of tectonic plate movements. Hotspots: * Define: Places where, ____, there are areas that ___. * Hotter material is ___, so it will ___ until it ___. * Hotspots tend to be ___, meaning they don't ___. - Compare this with the plates on top of the mantle plume. * Hawaii: followed by a trace of ____ that extend in the ____ direction (in this ex). - The entire "trace" is caused by ___, from ___.

Hotspots: places where there has been continuous volcanism for a long period of time - sites of 'mantle plumes'. * Unrelated to plate boundaries. * Mantle plume doesn't move, but the tectonic plates do. * A chain of extinct volcanoes is created on the overriding plate as it moves over the top of the plume. * Allows us to recreate plate movement back through time. Hotspots: Places where, deep down, sort of at the boundary between the core and the mantle, there are areas that get more hot than surface areas. * Hotter material is less dense, so (hot air ballon) it will rise through the mantle until it hits the bottom of the crust. * Hotspots tend to be stable - they don't move over time. - The plates on top of the mantle plume ARE moving, all the time. PIC: We see Hawaii, the active volcano, and its trace - chain of volcanoes and underwater mountains (sea mounts) that extend in the NW direction. - The entire "trace" is caused by just one hot spot, from the plate moving across the top.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe/explain how our atmosphere and oceans formed and why they have changed in composition over time. Origin of Earth's Atmosphere and Hydrosphere: * How did we get an atmosphere again? - Compare the composition of the early atmosphere to the composition of our atmosphere today. * Define comets.

How did we get an atmosphere again? * Emissions of water vapor, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide by widespread volcanic activity on early Earth formed our early atmosphere. * Also potential contributions from comets and/or asteroids. * Our atmosphere came from ... - Volcanoes: Volcanoes erupted out gases (CO2, water vapor and sulfur dioxide). - Possibly, collision of comets (frozen balls of ice, gases and liquid water) that can smash into Earth. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide is not the composition of our atmosphere today.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Evidence that supports the theory of plate tectonics: - Be able to describe/explain the evidence which allowed the "seafloor spreading hypothesis" to be proposed and how it was confirmed: * Be able to explain patterns of magnetic field reversals in ocean crust and inteprret/predict the patterns from diagrams. * Be able to explain the patterns of deep earthquakes at Benioff zones. "Sea-floor spreading" hypothesis: 1. What occurs at MOR? * How does this lead to the formation of new crust & moving of continents? 2. Describe movement of crust. * Moving towards & away from? * As it moves, how is it changing? 3. How can we ... * make room for floor that keeps being made, but also floor that we already have? * get rid of some floor to make room? - What happens here? - Where are they found? Did this hypothesis match up? Could we prove it? Explain.

Hypothesis: * Based on new evidence, Harry Hess proposed the "sea-floor spreading" hypothesis in 1960: 1. Rising magma, from deep down in Earth, erupts at the mid-ocean ridges. -> magma cools, forcing new floor to form -> new floor pushes continents apart. -> magma cools, forcing new floor to form -> new floor pushes against old, pushing continents further apart. EX: someone squeezing in between two people, both people on either side of the "squeeze-in point" have to move a little to the side to accommodate the new person. 2. New crust moves away from ridges, gathering sediment. * As the sea floor spreads out, away from the mid-ocean ridge and toward continents, it gathers sediment. This is because the ocean floor is getting closer to continents, so there is more sediment being eroded and thus, piled on top of the crust. * As you move farther away from the eruption point, the crust gets older and older, so it's cooling down, and more sediment is getting piled on top of it . * How can we make room for the new floor that keeps being made, but also the old floor that we already have? * How do we get rid of some of the ocean floor, to make room for the new, constantly being made floor? *** If the floor is continuing to grow over time in one spot, unless the Earth just gets bigger and bigger (it doesn't), we have to destroy floor somewhere else. *** 3. At trenches, the sea-floor dives back into the mantle. * Ocean crust is forced back down into the Earth, where it will melt back into magma and be recycled. * Trenches are found by continents, where the deepest parts of the ocean are found. This hypothesis matched up with our data, but we couldn't prove it to be true since it takes millions of years, so seeing it in action wasn't possible.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe/explain how our atmosphere and oceans formed and why they have changed in composition over time. Formation of Earth's Moon: Video * Describe the collision of the impactor with Earth. - What did the collision start? * Compare this: past vs. present. * Compare our number of days in the year: past vs. present. * What was the product of the impact? - What resulted from these products? * How long did this process take? * What is our moon good at doing? Without our moon, what would we experience? * Describe Earth POST-collision.

Impactor smashes at an angle into Earth, that off-center collision started our rotation. * Our rotation was faster in the past, and it will continue to slow down with time. * We had more days in the year in the past, and we will continue to have less and less days. The impact splits into 2 stuff - 1. Iron in the middle of the impact accreted onto Earth, it gave us a slightly bigger core than we otherwise would've had. 2. Lighter material got flung off and formed our Moon. Steps of collision: 1. Collision 2. Debris formed into two bodies 3. Smaller body formed moon 4. The gravity of Post-Earth propelled body of iron forward, and launched it onto wide and stable orbit (absorbed iron into core). *** This process took 8 hours. *** Our moon is good about stabilizing our rotation. Without our moon, we'd have a much more difficult time having life on Earth. Earth: after collision, everything remelted -> started solidifying again, but any early atmosphere was long gone.

Important for plate tectonics and reason for formation of world oceans. * Lithosphere: outermost layer. - Composition: crust and a portion of the uppermost part of the mantle. - Properties: brittle/rigid so will break. * Asthenosphere - Composition: lower part of mantle. - Properties: plastic so will flow.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Practice Problem: What do you think has happened to the amount of continental crust over time? Explain. a. stayed the same b. decreased c. increased

Increased * Doesn't subduct - so once we've made it through volcanic activity, we can't easily get rid of it again. This is a slow process.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe the properties of Earth's layers and explain how their properties are relevant in creating and preserving our oceans (and life on Earth!): = By composition (inner core, outer core, mantle, crust) = By strength (asthenosphere, lithosphere) Isostasy: * Define Isostasy. * OC/lithosphere is ___ than CC/lithosphere, so it ___ in the asthenosphere. - This creates ____ where ___ - creates ____. * EX: We have a chunk of CC, where 70% of it is floating above water. * If we add in another chunk, one that is thicker but experiences the same pressure as the first one, what % of the thicker continent would we see above water? * What do we see with continents that have mountain ranges: how much continent is above/below? Floating/sinking? * Which crust sits lower/higher in water? What explains this? * The composition difference in CC vs. OC explains what?

Isostasy - lithosphere "floats" on the asthenosphere. * Oceanic crust/lithosphere is thinner and denser than continental crust/lithosphere so floats lower in the asthenosphere. * This creates low areas on Earth's surface where water collects - creates our ocean basins. EX: Thick wooden blocks: continental crust. * 70% floating above water. Thicker block with same pressure: 70% above water. Mountain range = more rocks sticking above water, but also more under water: balance. <- floating in asthenosphere. Oceanic: more dense -> sits lower in water, and thinner: sits lower down. Continental: less dense -> higher above surface, thicker: higher above surface. The composition difference in continental vs. oceanic crust = why we have ocean water above the oceanic crust - because it has created a low area on the Earth surface, where water flows down and collects. This is why we have ocean basins where they are.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Be able to explain how we identify plate boundaries. Locating plate boundaries: * What are the two ways we can locate plate boundaries? * Earthquakes tend to ___. This is the easiest way of knowing ___. - What also tends to do this? * What is the Ring of Fire? * What, specifically, is a mid-ocean ridge: what does it look like? - Where do we find MORs? * Do plate boundaries explain all the volcanism and earthquakes on Earth? * Are volcanoes only found at plate boundaries? - Give an example to back this up.

Locating plate boundaries: Earthquakes * Picture illustrates the location of earthquakes over time. The brighter the color, the bigger the earthquake. * Earthquakes tend to form outlines around plates. This is the easiest way of knowing where the edges of our plates are. Volcanoes also follow outlines of the plates. Locating plate boundaries: Volcanism * Ring of fire: follows around the edge of the Pacific Ocean. * MOR: one long volcano, a linear volcanic area, that runs all the way through our world's oceans. Do plate boundaries explain all the volcanism and earthquakes on Earth? NO! * Are volcanoes only found at plate boundaries? NO! - EX: Hawaii <- in the middle of the Pacific plate

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to describe and explain hotspot activity and be able to interpret/draw maps that show how hotspot chains relate to the speed and direction of tectonic plate movements. Hotspots: VIDEO * Mantle plume: - Where is heat from the plume going? What is it heating? - What does melting produce? Where does this go? Final end product? - If this happens on land, what do you get? In ocean? * The lithosphere is still constantly ___ = plates are ___ -> over time, you get a ___ because the only active ____ are ____. * As those older islands get carried away, there's no more ___ to cause ___ -> they will ___ and eventually become ___ instead. * Know the general steps of this process: 1. Heat ___. 2. Heat hits ___. 3. At ___, rock melts. 4. Erupted lava builds ___ that emerge as ___. 5. Weight of volcanoes cause plate to ____. 6. Plate carries volcanoes ___ the hotspot.

Mantle plume: heat is rising up, heating the bottom of the lithosphere plate, causing melting. That magma rises up and erupts on the surface, forming a volcano. If this happens on land, you get a big mountain and big volcano. If this happens in the ocean, you get an island. The lithosphere is still constantly moving -> those plates are moving -> over time, you get a line of islands because the only active volcanoes are above the hotspot. As those older islands get carried away, there's no more magma or heat to cause the volcanoes to erupt --> volcanoes will erode away and eventually become underwater mountains instead. Steps: 1. Heat rises 2. Heat hits lithosphere plate 3. At low pressure, rock melts 4. Erupted lava builds mountains that emerge as islands 5. Weight of volcanoes bends the plate 6. Plate carries volcanoes away from the hotspot

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Practice Problem The main reason that sea level will rise over the next 100 years is: a. Melting of glaciers and ice sheets b. Warming of ocean water c. More rainfall over land Explain why.

Melting of glaciers and ice sheets Antarctica and greenland are speeding up their rate at which they are melting -> likely to become much bigger parts of sea level rise in the coming centuries.

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Practice Problem Which of the following produces more of the oxygen in our atmosphere? Know why. a. Forests and plants on land b. Reaction of incoming sunlight with gases in the atmosphere c. Microscopic organisms in the ocean

Microscopic organisms in the ocean * Plankton - 70% of Earth is covered by the ocean, and there is no limit to how much plankton there can be, like there is on land (desert: no photosynthesis, not much trees). ↑ Why we should care (every other breath we breathe is from plankton)

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Practice Problem: Unlike the lithosphere, the asthenosphere can flow. Do you think the asthenosphere is mostly liquid or mostly solid? Explain why. a. mostly liquid b. mostly solid

Mostly solid Over long time scales, when rock gets hot enough, it can flow. The rock is solid, but when heated up, it can flow. EX: Plastic, modeling clay, Asthenosphere: don't think about it like liquid water, it is more like modeling clay instead. Over time scales during plate tectonics, it flows really well. Think about the consequences of a rigid solid sitting on top of the layer underneath that can flow ->

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans What are the 3 most common gases in the atmosphere today? a. Carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen. b. Nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen. c. Nitogen, oxygen, argon. d. Oxygen, water vapor, argon.

Nitogen, oxygen, argon.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to describe and explain hotspot activity and be able to interpret/draw maps that show how hotspot chains relate to the speed and direction of tectonic plate movements. Plate Boundaries: * Oceans can ___ over history. * Know the three types of plate boundaries, and what each does. * To which boundary type does the San Andreas fault belong? * Processes (or features you see) at the boundaries depend on what? * When we're thinking about oceans opening up and closing up, we're mainly going to be thinking about ___ boundaries.

Oceans can open up and close up over history. Three Types: 1. Divergent boundaries: * Plates move away from each other, they diverge. 2. Convergent boundaries: * Plates move towards each other. 3. Transform boundaries: (ex: San Andreas) * Plates slide past each other. Processes (or features you see) at the boundaries depend on the type of crust interacting. - Continental or oceanic. When we're thinking about oceans opening up and closing up, we're mainly going to be thinking of divergent and convergent boundaries.

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Oceans under threat: * Oceans are a hugely valuable resource for people, but resources must be ___. Currently, we are ___ and our oceans are ___ from: 1. ___ of ___. 2. ___ by ___. 3. Introduction of ___ to ___ by ___. 4. ___ of oceans due to ____. 5. Ocean ____ due to ____.

Oceans under threat * Oceans are a hugely valuable resource for people, but resources must be used sustainably. Currently we are NOT doing that and our oceans are under threat from: - Overfishing/overexploitation of marine organisms. - Pollution by toxic metals, plastics, oil, pesticides, sewage fertilizers. - Introduction of invasive species to different areas by humans. * Dumping pets. - Warming of oceans due to climate change. - Ocean acidification due to increased carbon dioxide levels.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Understand how we use radiometric dating to produce a timescale of events in Earth and be able to carry out simple calculations and interpret graphs related to half-lives and age. Dating events in Earth history - Radiometric Dating: * What was one of the things we were able to develop in the years after Wegener's death to prove his hypothesis? * Where did we get some of our evidence for CD? How did we obtain this evidence? * Why does radioactive decay happen? What happens during RD? - Describe products of RD: what are products used for? * Decay is ___, meaning ___. * Define half-life. - What is a half-life used for? * Describe the decay of a radioactive atom. * Know how to use a graph for half-life: (% radioactive element remaining) x (# of half-lives/time) * Describe the graph for half-life: describe the curve. - Does the graph change? What changes?

One of the things we were able to develop in the years after Wegener's death was the technology to do a lot of different things that pieced together different ideas to prove that continents could move around. We got part of our evidence for Continental Drift from radioactive dating, using techniques that relied on the ability to assign dates to rocks of a particular age. Radioactive decay occurs because some atomic nuclei are unstable, so every now and then, the atomic nuclei of an element will undergo RD = shoot out some particle/form of energy. - Energy: source of some of the heating of Earth's interior. * Made it molten and allowed differentiation to happen, or different layers to form. This energy still helps to heat the center of our Earth today. Decay is predictable. * Predictable: doesn't matter its temperature or what pressure its under, the chances of undergoing RD are constant. Half-life = a constant, the amount of time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms of a particular element to decay. * Used to help us measure the ages of things. A radioactive atom decays over time. GRAPH: (% radioactive element remaining) x (# of half-lives/time) * Exponential curve - graph never changes, only the 1/2-life changes (for each different element). - # of half-lives/time: how much time has gone by. How can we apply the age we can now put on the things, to the evidence we need to prove plate tectonics?

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Practice Problem: Which part of the core is responsible for creating Earth's magnetic field? Explain why. a. inner core b. outer core

Outer core * The liquid outer core: liquid is more easily able to move. Moving metal, moving e- will generate electric field and magnetic field as well.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe the properties of Earth's layers and explain how their properties are relevant in creating and preserving our oceans (and life on Earth!): = By composition (inner core, outer core, mantle, crust) = By strength (asthenosphere, lithosphere) Isostasy: * Over long time scales, we can get ___ because ___. * When we take mass off Earth surface -> Earth surface ___. * When we put huge amounts of mass on Earth surface -> Earth surface ___. * Adjustment happens because ___, so we can ____, especially ___. 1. When mass is added to the lithosphere, it will ___. How could we add mass over time? Explain. 2. When mass is removed from the lithosphere, it will ___. How would we remove mass over time? Explain. * Mountains present now, in 50 years, will be ___ because ___. * Understand examples given. Define isostatic adjustment.

Over long time scales, we can get movement and adjustments because asthensophere is flowing. EX: Huge cargo ship coming into LA: take cargo off -> boat goes up, put lots of cargo on -> bumps down. - Take mass off crust -> Earth surface bumps up, put huge amount of mass on Earth surface -> Earth surface bumps down. Adjustment happens because asthenosphere underneath is flowing, so we can adjust over time, especially even over long periods. * When mass is added to the lithosphere, it will sink. How could we add mass over time? EX: Add sediment, grow ice. => Rivers carrying lots of sediment down to the ocean over time, adds mass over time -> sink. * Sediment: coming from erosion of mountains. Mountains present now, in 50 years, won't be as tall because they would be eroded, and material would be redistributed. => Water => Ice: ice age, huge amount of ice was piled onto continents, pushed surface down. Ice age: North America sank, Mississippi River flowed in opposite direction because so much ice weighed it down. * When mass is removed from the lithosphere, it will rise. How could we remove mass over time? EX: Erosion, melt ice. => End of ice age: ice melted so Earth surface bumped back up. In many places like Canada, land started to rise because of the melting of ice. * Isostatic adjustment: adjustment happens because of different layers of strength.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Practice Problem: Which tectonic plate are we on in Irvine? a. Nazca plate b. Pacific plate c. North American plate Between us and the ___ plate is: _____, which is a _____. * As the plates move, in what direction will our plate go?

Pacific plate * Between us and the NA plate -----------------------------------------> San Andreas Fault: a plate boundary. * We're on the Pacific plate - we're going to slide N upside of the NA plate as the plates continue to move.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to predict and draw the features that occur due to different plate boundaries: - Divergent - Convergent - Transform 1. Divergent Boundaries: * What is happening in the .... areas? - Pink - Purple - Blue - Yellow - Zig-zag lines * Know features of these areas. * Predict future features of these areas.

Pink = areas that we're starting to form a new ocean. In a few million years, there'll be nice linear seas that come down to the purple. Purple = You can see we have some big lakes. Blue = We're starting to form new oceans where we have rift valleys on land. Orange = Juvenile oceans, really narrow and long - but pretty regular. Zig zag lines = mid-ocean ridge running through the middle of the ocean, and on either side, there's no real trenches or volcanoes, or anything else. It's still just spreading apart.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Plate Tectonics: * Define: the ___ that the Earth's ____ is ____ that ____ on the ___. * Describe the relationship between the plates and the asthenosphere.

Plate tectonics: the theory that the Earth's lithosphere (outer rigid shell) is broken into a dozen or so rigid "plates" that move relative to one another on the hotter, more plastic asthenosphere. * The plates float on the asthenosphere underneath.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to predict and draw the features that occur due to different plate boundaries: - Divergent - Convergent - Transform 3. Transform Boundaries - Ocean-ocean: * Where can transform boundaries be found? * In the picture provided, find the transform boundarie(s) and identify which way the plates are moving, in all locations.

Plates slide horizontally past each other without production or destruction of lithosphere. * E.g. several locations along mid-ocean ridges. One of the best places to look for transform boundaries is the ocean. Where we have our mid-ocean ridges, we need lots of transform boundaries. From the top mid-ocean ridge to the bottom mid-ocean ridge, the new floor produced at the bottom is going (<---) while the new floor produced at the top is going (--->), so plates are sliding past each other -> TRANSFORM BOUNDARY. * The only transform boundary here is between mid-ocean ridges, not to the sides. Top: Everything from the mid-ocean ridge onwards is going in the same direction, plates aren't sliding past each other, they're going in the same direction - locked together in place. Bottom: From the mid-ocean ridge onwards, all the ocean floor being made is going in the same direction.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to predict and draw the features that occur due to different plate boundaries: - Divergent - Convergent - Transform 1. Divergent Boundaries: Know what happens, step by step from Embryonic ----> Mature stages. a. A ___ develops ___, causing ___. Describe. - What is the end product of this step, what features? b. Movement ___ creates a ____. Describe. - What is the end product of this step, what features? c. With increased ____, a ____ is formed. Describe. - What is the end product of this step, what features? d. After millions of years, a ___ is created, ____ that ____. Describe. - What is the end product of this step, what features?

Seafloor spreading: Embryonic ---> Mature A shallow heat source develops under a continent, causing initial upwarping and volcanic activity. a. Embryonic - hot area of material is rising, hitting the crust and spreading out in both directions. This hot material tends to drag the plate with it, starting to lift the plate, and spread it and spread it apart. * We have a volcano and linear features where there's sort of cracks forming in the continental crust. Movement apart creates a rift valley. b. Stretches continental crust. Still pulling it apart and stretching it so it gets thinner -> you start to form those linear valleys in between. If you have a valley and lots of water, it tends to collect water and form those linear lakes as well (rift valleys). With increased spreading, a linear sea is formed. c. If you get even longer, then continents finally split apart and instead, you start forming new oceanic crust in the middle, and so now we have this really narrow linear sea. After millions of years, a full-fledged ocean basin is created, separating continental pieces that were once connected. d. And then, if you finally give it long enough, we have what we call a mature ocean (i.e. Atlantic) -> mid-ocean ridge in the middle, sides of continent, but no volcanoes or subduction going on. It's still spreading apart and growing.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to predict and draw the features that occur due to different plate boundaries: - Divergent - Convergent - Transform 2. Convergent Boundaries: * Can you find 2 similarities & 1 difference b/w these: (a) OC-OC, (b) OC-CC. - Make sure that you understand this well enough that you're able to look at a map and say, "Okay, I know that's OC-OC rather than OC-CC". * Describe mid-ocean ridge diverging, and subduction at trenches: which one is Λ, and which one is V?

Spot two features forming that are the same in both diagrams, and one feature that is different. * So you can look at a map and say "Ok, I know that's OC-OC rather than OC-CC". Similarities: * Both have volcanoes - in both cases, we see OC sinking down. As it does, it melts and that produces volcanoes on the surface. * Both have trenches, where the subduction happens. Difference: * OC-OC: Where the ocean crust is meeting ocean crust, we get volcanoes forming, but on the ocean floor we only see the very tip top of volcanoes. So, we get this island arc - this line of volcanic islands that are all active and that are parallel to the trench. * OC-CC: Continents form volcanoes on the continent, instead of forming islands. So, instead of islands, we get a line of mountains right on the edge of the continent, parallel to the trench. They're active volcanoes. Mid-ocean ridge diverging: Λ Subduction at the trench: V

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Evidence that supports the theory of plate tectonics: - Be able to describe/explain the evidence which allowed the "seafloor spreading hypothesis" to be proposed and how it was confirmed: * Be able to explain patterns of magnetic field reversals in ocean crust and inteprret/predict the patterns from diagrams. * Be able to explain the patterns of deep earthquakes at Benioff zones. "Sea-floor spreading" hypothesis: Summary * What is new ocean floor doing? * What do we have that allows us to avoid reaching a point where there's nowhere for ocean floor to go to make room for new floor? - Describe how this works, starting at MOR. * What are the possible scenarios of seafloor spreading?

Summary: New ocean floor is pushing older floor further and further away, with the continent. EX: Another person squeezes in at the "squeeze-in point". This pushes the people on either side of the point (that have been there longer) outward (<----- x ----->), in order to make room for this new, other person. To avoid reaching a point where there's nowhere for floor to go (dead-end) to make room for new floor, we have trenches. * When the ocean floor gets pushed far enough that it reaches a trench, its density will allow it to fall into the deep trench, returning to the fiery depths of Earth, where it will remelt into magma and be reused again to make more ocean floor in the future (recycling). * There are two possible scenarios that could occur during seafloor spreading: 1. Mid-ocean ridge erupts - no land surrounding the ridge -> new floor is made that isn't pushing a continent. Eventually, the ocean floor reaches a trench where its density will force it to fall back down to Earth. 2. Mid-ocean ridge erupts - has a continent on either side of the ridge -> new floor is made that is pushing a continent on either side of the MOR. Eventually, the continent will reach a trench where its density will allow it to float over the trench as the ocean floor following it has no choice but to dive down into the mantle.

Suturing stage: * Still converging, but now instead of OC-OC/OC-CC, we have CC-CC. Continents can't subduct (not dense enough). When continents crush together, just a thicker & thicker block of continent is made.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to predict how gravitational force changes with mass or distance and explain how it resulted in the creation of the Earth. The Solar System - Origin: * Is our solar system the first to exist in our area of space? How do we know? * What does each planet start out as? - Know components. - Know characteristics. - Gravity pulls particles ____, rotates ____. * Understand example. - Describe the relationship between each particle with another particle, how do they interact? What does this result in? - At the ___ of ___, describe the temperature and pressure. What does this result in? * Explain what is happening here. - What do the remaining particles do? - What leads to the creation of planets? Summary: The remaining cloud ___, so it continued to ___ to form ___ over time.

The Solar System - Origin * Our solar system isn't the first to exist in our area of space, we know because we have rocky planets made up of oxygen, silicon, iron, etc. that must've been created by a previous super nova in our area of the galaxy. We start out as .... a. A cosmic cloud formed from hydrogen, helium, and small amounts of other elements from previous supernovae, gently rotating. b. Gravity pulls particles close together, rotates more quickly. * Someone iceskating: if they spin around and pull their arms in to themselves, they spin faster and faster. This is what happens with the cloud. Particles attract each other and they were brought closer together, and started spinning faster, so rotated more quickly. c. At the center of the cloud, temperature and pressure build up until nuclear fusion reactions begin, about 5 billion years ago. * At the center of the cloud, you start building together huge amounts of material -> temperature went up as particles collided together, pressure went up until we managed to squeeze together elements. Nuclear fusion began -> the Sun was ignited (around 5 billion years ago). d. The remaining particles continue to move closer together and accrete. e. Eventually, the larger particles accrete into the planets. * The remaining cloud circulated around the sun, so it continued to move closer together and accrete to form our planets over time.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics * What does the discovery of plate tectonics explain? - Where did most of the evidence to explain plate tectonics come from?

The discovery of plate tectonics explains why we have continents where they are, why we have mountains, why there are fossils in certain places, why the shape of the sea floor is the way it is -> most evidence to explain plate tectonics came from our oceans.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to predict how gravitational force changes with mass or distance and explain how it resulted in the creation of the Earth. * Know the equation for calculating gravitational force. - Know what each variable of the equation represents. * Compare Fg to other forces. - Give an example that shows this relationship.

The force due to Gravity: F = G(m1m2/R²) G = a constant (gravitational constant) m1 = the mass of one body m2 = the mass of a second body R = the distance between them Compared to other forces, Fg is very weak, but it acts over very long distances. * Fairly strong magnet (magnetic F) will attract paperclip to move across the surface, towards magnet (beats Fg of Earth).

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans What does the ocean affect? (Name 5 things) What is Oceanography? Know each component of oceanography, and what it includes. * Geology * Geography * Biology * Chemistry * Physics *Astronomy Which component of oceanography describes: * How the planets formed? * Why we have oceans? * Why the ocean opens and closes? - What is this opening and closing called? - What is this opening and closing from? * How the ocean moves: why tides come in and out? * Compare water molecules to other molecules of the same size. * What is water vital to? * What supplies the rest of the food chain with nutrients? How does this impact humans? * What makes the climate in Irvine so much more stable than the climate in Vegas? Explain.

The ocean affects the price of goods you buy, climate, weather, things you consume and use, fresh water supply. Oceanography: an interdisciplinary science. * Geology: sea floor tectonics, coastal processes, sediments, hydrologic cycle. - How planets formed, why we have oceans, what causes the ocean to open and close <- natural hazard response or result, from opening up new and closing old ocean basins. * Geography: wind belts, weather, coastal landforms, world climate. * Biology: fisheries, ecological surveys, microbiology, marine adaptations. * Chemistry: dissolved components, temperature dependence, stratification/density, chemical tracers. * Physics: currents, waves, sonar, thermal properties of water. - Physics of how the ocean moves, why tides come in and out. * Astronomy: tidal forces, oceans on other planets, origin of water, origin of life. Water behaves differently than other molecules of same size. Water is vital to the functioning of biology, life, weather, climate. Life in ocean: plankton supply the rest of the food chain with nutrients, like the fish that supply large parts of our population with sushi/seafood. Irvine: Oceans take lots of energy to warm them up and cool them down, this keeps our climate more stable than the climate in Vegas where it gets excrutiatingly hot in the summer time.

Two types of crust: * Continental crust - made of granite. - Dense, silicate rock. - Average density about 2.7 g/cm³ - Average thickness 35 km * Oceanic crust - made of basalt - Average density about 3.0 g/cm³ - Average thickness 8 km Continental: -> Less dense, thicker, paler. Oceanic: -> More dense, thinner, darker.

Lecture 4: Birth and death of oceans Be able to predict and draw the features that occur due to different plate boundaries: - Divergent - Convergent - Transform 1. Divergent Boundaries: vessels rerouting Attacks by Yemen's Houthi militants on ships in the Red Sea are disrupting maritime trade through the Suez Canal, with some vessels rerouting to a much longer East-west route via the southern tip of Africa: Despite being a longer route, why is taking this route a smart idea? How does taking this route allow container ships to escape the Houthi rebels?

Vessels rerouting Attacks by Yemen's Houthi militants on ships in the Red Sea are disrupting maritime trade through the Suez Canal, with some vessels rerouting to a much longer East-west route via the southern tip of Africa. * The US and the UK launched air strikes into Yemen, targeting rebels using drones and boats to attack container ships. * On a boat, do you want to go through the Suez Canal - 26 days, or all the way around Africa - 36 days. - The Suez Canal route is shorter, takes less fuel, leads to less carbon emissions, and is less costly (if this is where goods are coming from for you). - It is not the best idea right now to go through the Suez Canal, because of ships being attacked by these Houthi rebels. The really narrow ocean of the Suez Canal makes it really easy for rebels to attack container ships.

Lecture 1: Introduction To Our Oceans Practice Problem The main reason that sea level has risen over the past 100 years is: a. Melting of glaciers and ice sheets b. Warming of ocean water c. More rainfall over land Explain why.

Warming of ocean water When something is warmed up: it expands Ocean warmed up: Molecules move faster -> ocean expands -> sea levels rise.

Lecture 2: Origin of Earth and Oceans Be able to describe the properties of Earth's layers and explain how their properties are relevant in creating and preserving our oceans (and life on Earth!): = By composition (inner core, outer core, mantle, crust) = By strength (asthenosphere, lithosphere) Earth's magnetic field: MF of a bar magnet vs. MF of the Earth * We have field lines that come out at the ___ Pole, go around the Earth, and back in at the ___ Pole. - Magnetic field lines look like field lines around a ___ for ___. - Where field lines ___, we can get some particles that ____, so will ____ at those locations -> _____ (end product).

We have field lines that come out at the South Pole, go around the Earth, and back in at the North Pole: magnetic field lines look like field lines around a bar magnet for N and S Pole. Field lines go out at the S pole and in at the N pole - where field lines go in, we can get some particles that get channeled towards poles, so will interact with atmosphere at those locations -> Northern lights.

We need to show the ocean crust is being destroyed somewhere. * Being able to look at earthquakes, and to map them out was really important for being able to show this happens.

Lecture 3: Discovery of Plate Tectonics Be able to describe the evidence for continental drift and why the theory was not accepted at the time. Continental Drift - Evidence: * Know Wegener's evidence for Continental Drift, and understand why it IS evidence.

Wegener's evidence: compelling evidence. 1. Continental shorelines seemed to fit together. 2. Matching fossils on land masses far apart. * Found fossil remains of big ancient animals on different continents. EX: Would you expect to find kangaroos from Australia in Africa? No. There's no way of them traveling that far. ----> We wouldn't be able to find matching fossils of the same animal, especially big ones that can't easily travel across oceans, in different continents unless they were together on the same piece of land, before it separated. 3. Matching rocks and structures on the edges of continents. * EX: Structures with mountain ranges that stop at the end of one coastline and continue onto the next continent. 4. Evidence from fossils and rocks showing climate zones did not match current continent positions. * EX: it looks like during this particular time in history, there was ice and snow in this location. But we're in the tropics, so that doesn't make sense! * EX (Reverse situation): we go to the poles and find rocks that suggest that location was hot in the past -> suggests the continent moved.

Oceanography

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