O'Connor - American Government: Roots & Reform (COMPLETE GLOSSARY)

greenhouse gases

gases in the atmosphere that lead to higher global temperatures

entitlement programs

government benefits that all citizens meeting eligibility criteria - such as age, income level, or unemployment - are legally "entitled" to receive

economic regulation

government regulation of business practices, industry rates, routes, or areas serviced by particular industries

reserve requirements

government requirements that a portion of member banks' deposits be retained a s backing for their loans

independent executive agencies

governmental units that closely resemble a Cabinet department but have narrower areas of responsibility and perform services rather than regulatory functions

categorical grant

grant that appropriates federal funds to states for a specific purpose

War Powers Resolution

passed by Congress in 1973; the president is limited in the deployment of troops overseas to a sixty-day period in peacetime (which can be extended for an extra thirty days to permit withdrawal) unless Congress explicitly gives its approval for a longer period

writs of habeas corpus

petition requesting that a judge order authorities to prove that a prisoner is being held lawfully and that allows the prisoner to be freed if the government's case does not persuade the judge. Habeas corpus rights imply that prisoners have a right to know what charges are being made against them

Eighth Amendment

part of the Bill of Rights that states: "excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted"

double jeopardy clause

part of the Fifth Amendment that protects individuals from being tried twice for the same offense in the same jurisdiction

crossover voting

participation in the primary election of a party with which the voter is not affiliated

whip

party leader who keeps close contact with all members of his or her party, takes vote counts on key legislation, prepares summaries of bills, and acts a s communication link within a party

discharge petition

petition that gives a majority of the House of Representatives the authority to bring an issue to the floor in the face of committee inaction

nomination campaign

phase of a political campaign aimed at winning a primary election

general election campaign

phase of a political campaign aimed at winning election to office

Dillon's Rule

a premise articulate by Judge John F. Dillon in 1868 which states that local governments do not have nay inherent sovereignty and instead must be authorized by state governments that can create or abolish them

closed primary

a primary election in which only a party's registered voters are eligible to cast a ballot

open primary

a primary election in which party members, independents, and sometimes members of other parties are allowed to participate

UN Security Council

a principal part of the United Nations, charged with authorizing peacekeeping operations, international sanctions, and military action in order to maintain global peace and security

precedent

a prior judicial decision that serves a s a rule for settling subsequent cases of a similar nature

campaign consultant

a private-sector professional who sells to a candidate the technologies, services, and strategies required to get that candidate elected

hold

a procedure by which a senator asks to be informed before a particular bill or nomination is brought to the floor. This request signals leadership that a member may have objections to the bill (or nomination) and should be consulted before further action is taken

reconciliation

a procedure that allows consideration of controversial issues affecting the budget by limiting debate to twenty hours, thereby ending threat of a filibuster

senatorial courtesy

a process by which presidents generally allow senators from the state in which a judicial vacancy occurs to block a nomination by simply registering their objection

congressional review

a process whereby Congress can nullify agency regulations by a joint resolution of legislative disapproval

bill

a proposed law

get-out-the-vote (GOVT)

a push at the end of a political campaign to encourage supporters to go to the polls

administrative adjudication

a quasi-judicial process in which a bureaucratic agency settles disputes between two parties in a manner similar to the way courts resolve disputes

rule making

a quasi-legislative process resulting in regulations that have the characteristics of a legislative act

Shay's Rebellion

a rebellion in which an army of 1,500 disgruntled and angry farmers led by Daniel Shays marched to Springfield, Massachusetts, and forcibly restrained the state court from foreclosing mortgages on their farms

deregulation

a reduction in market controls (such as price fixing, subsidies, or controls on who can enter the field) in favor of market-based competition

press briefing

a relatively restricted session between a press secretary or aide and the press

writ of certiorari

a request for the Supreme Court to order up the records from a lower court to review the case

inflation

a rise in the general price levels of an economy

runoff primary

a second primary election between the two candidates receiving the greatest number of votes in the first primary

The Federalist Papers

a series of eighty-five political essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Hay in support of ratification of the U.S. Constitution

markup

a session in which committee members offer changes to a bill before it goes to the floor

agenda

a set of issues to be discussed or given attention

economic stability

a situation in which there is economic grown, rising national income, high employment, and steadiness in the general level of prices

national party platform

a statement of the general and specific philosophy and policy goals of a political party, usually promulgated at the national convention

sample

a subset of the whole population selected to be questioned for the purposes of prediction or gauging opinion

merit system

a system of employment based on qualifications, test scores, and ability, rather than party loyalty

direct democracy

a system of government in which members of the policy meet to discuss all policy decisions and then agree to abide by majority rule

indirect democracy

a system of government that gives citizens the opportunity to vote for representatives who work on their behalf

democracy

a system of government that gives power to the people, whether directly or through elected representatives

free trade system

a system of international trade that has limited government interference on the sale of goods and services among countries

poll tax

a tax levied in many southern states and localities that had to be paid before an eligible voter could cast a ballot

protectionism

a trade policy wherein a country takes steps to limit the import of foreign goods through tariffs and subsidies to domestic firms

strategic trade policy

a trade policy wherein governments identify key industries that they wish to see grow and enact policies to support their development and success

bicameral legislature

a two-house legislature

stratified sampling

a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups and weighted based on demographic characteristics of the national population

retrospective judgment

a voter's evaluation of a candidate based on past performance on a particular issue

prospective judgment

a voter's evaluation of a candidate based on what he or she pledges to do about an issue if elected

proportional representation

a voting system that apportions legislative seats according to the percentage of the vote won by a particular political party

separation of powers

a way of dividing the power of government among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, each staffed separately, with equality and independence of each branch ensured by the Constitution

global war on terrorism

an international action, initiated by President George W. Bush after the 9/11 attacks, to weed out terrorist operatives throughout the world

World Trade Organization (WTO)

an international organization that replaced the GATT in 1995 to supervise and expand international trade

incorporation doctrine

an interpretation of the Constitution holding that the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires state and local governments to guarantee the rights stated in the Bill of Rights

European Union

an organization that joins 27 countries in Europe into a union that includes free trade, a central bank, a common currency, ease of immigration, an European Parliament, and other political institutions to govern and administer the organization

public interest group

an organization that seeks a collective good that will not selectively and materially benefit group members

political party

an organized group with shared goals and ideals that joins together to run candidates for office and exercise political and electoral power

press conference

an unrestricted session between an elected official and the press

hate speech

any communication that belittles a person or group on the basis of characteristics

foreign policy

are of policy making that encompasses how one country builds relationships with other countries in order to safeguard its national interest

defense policy

area of policy making that focuses on the strategies that a country uses to protect itself from its enemies

prior restraint

constitutional doctrine that prevents the government from prohibiting speech or publication before the fact; generally held to be in violation of the First Amendment

tracking polls

continuous surveys that enable a campaign or news organization to chart a candidate's daily rise or fall in support

interstate compacts

contracts between states that carry the force of law; generally now used as a tool to address multistate policy concerns

social capital

cooperative relationships that facilitate the resolution of collective problems

trial court

court of original jurisdiction where cases begin

affirmative action

policies designed to give special attention or compensatory treatment to members of a previously disadvantaged group

democratic enlargement

policy implemented during the Clinton administration in which the United States would actively promote the expansion of democracy and free markets throughout the world

Super PACs

political action committees established to make independent expenditures

candidate-centered politics

politics that focus on the candidates, their particular issues, and character rather than party affiliation

exit polls

polls conducted as voters leave selecting polling places on Election Day

push polls

polls taken for the purpose of proving information on an opponent that would lead respondents to vote against that candidate

supremacy clause

portion of Article VI of the Constitution mandating that national law is supreme (that is, supersedes) all other laws passed by states or by any other subdivision of government

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GAAT)

post-World War II economic development treaty designed to help facilitate international trade negotiations and promote free trade

free rider problem

potential members fail to join a group because they can get the benefit, or collective good, sought by the group without contributing to the effort

judicial review

power of the courts to review acts of other branches of government and the states

reserved powers

powers reserved to the states by the Tenth Amendment that lie at the foundation of a state's right to legislate for the public health and welfare of its citizens

inherent powers

powers that belong to the president because they can be inferred from the Constitution

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

the Supreme Court upheld broad congressional power to regulate interstate commerce. The Court's broad interpretation of the Constitution's commerce clause paved the way for later rulings upholding expansive federal powers

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

the Supreme Court upheld the power of the national government and denied the right of a state to tax the federal bank, using the Constitution's supremacy clause. The Court's broad interpretation of the necessary and proper clause paved the way for later rulings upholding expansive federal powers

isolationism

the U.S. policy of avoiding entangling alliances with European powers

administrative discretion

the ability of bureaucrats to make choices concerning the best way to implement congressional or executive intentions

lobbying

the activities of a group or organization that seek to persuade political leader to support the group's position

policy adoption

the approval of a policy proposal by people with the requisite authority, such as a legislature

line-item veto

the authority of a chief executive to delete part of a bill passes by the legislature that involves taxing or spending. Ruled unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court

county

the basic administrative unit of local government

dual federalism

the belief that having separate and equally powerful levels of government is the best arrangement, often referred to as layer-cake federalism

open market operations

the buying and selling of government securities by the Federal Reserve Bank

majority rule

the central premise of direct democracy in which only policies that collectively garner the support of a majority of voters will be made into law

electorate

the citizens eligible to vote

political ideology

the coherent set of values and beliefs about the purpose and scope of government held by groups and individuals

Articles of Confederation

the compact between the thirteen original colonies that created a loose league of friendship, with the national government drawing its powers from the states

policy formation

the crafting of proposed courses of action to resolve public problems

fiscal policy

the deliberate use of the national government's taxing and spending policies to maintain economic stability

gerrymandering

the drawing of congressional districts to produce a particular electoral outcome without regard to the shape of the district

suffrage movement

the drive for voting rights for women that took place in the United States from 1890 to 1920

budget deficit

the economic condition that occurs when expenditures exceed revenues

mass media

the entire array of organizations through which information is collected and disseminated to the general public

population

the entire group of people whose attitudes a researcher wishes to measure

Medicare

the federal program established during the Lyndon B. Johnson administration that provides medical care to elderly Social Security recipients

Great Compromise

the final decision of the Constitutional Convention to create a two-house legislature, with the lower house elected by the people and the powers divided between the two houses. It also made national law supreme

necessary and proper clause

the final paragraph of Article I, section 8 of the Constitution, which gives Congress the authority to pass all laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the enumerated powers specified in the Constitution; also called the elastic clause

Tenth Amendment

the final part of the Bill of Rights that defines the basic principle of American federalism in stating that the powers not delegated to the national government are reserved to the states or to the people

spoils system

the firing of public-office holders of a defeated political party to replace them with loyalists of the newly elected party

establishment clause

the first clause of the First Amendment; it directs the national government not to sanction an official religion

Virginia Plan

the first general plan for the Constitution offered in Philadelphia. Its key points were a bicameral legislature, as well as an executive and a judiciary chosen by the national legislature

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

the first peacetime military treaty joined by the United States; NATO is a collective security pact that includes the United States, Canada, and Western Europe

Bill of Rights

the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which largely guarantee specific rights and liberties

grandfather clause

voter qualification provision in many southern states that allowed only those citizens whose grandfathers had voted before Reconstruction to vote unless they passed a wealth or literacy test

ticket-splitting

voting for candidates of different parties for various offices in the same election

public opinion

what the public thinks about a particular issue or set of issues at any point in time

Political equality

the principle that all citizens are the same in the eyes of the law

World Bank

international governmental organization created to provide loans for large economic development projects

popular consent

the principle that governments must draw their powers from the consent of the governed

voter canvass

the process by which a campaign reaches individual voters, either by door-to-door solicitation or by telephone

implementation

the process by which a law or policy is put into operations

framing

the process by which a news organization defines a political issue and consequently affects opinion about the issue

apportionment

the process of allotting congressional seats to each state according to its proportion of the population, following the decennial census

policy implementation

the process of carrying out public policy

policy evaluation

the process of determining whether a course of action is achieving its intended goals

agenda setting

the process of forming the list of issues to be addressed by government

redistricting

the process of redrawing congressional districts to reflect increases or decreases in seats allotted to the states, as well as population shifts within a state

political socialization

the process through which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values

turnout

the proportion of the voting-age public that casts a ballot

human rights

the protection of people's basic freedoms and needs

discount rate

the rate of interest at which the Federal Reserve Board lends money to member banks

reapportionment

the reallocation of the number of seats in the House of Representatives after each decennial census

iron triangles

the relatively ironclad relationships and patterns of interaction that occurs among agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees

nullification

the right of a state to declare void a federal law

right to privacy

the right to be left alone; a judicially created principle encompassing a variety of individual actions protected by the penumbras cast by several constitutional amendments, including the First, Third, Fourth, Ninth, and Fourteenth Amendments

equal time rule

the rule that requires broadcast stations to sell air time equally to all candidates in a political campaign if they choose to sell it to any

free exercise clause

the second clause of the Frist Amendment; it prohibits the U.S. government from interfering with a citizen's right to practice his or her religion

politics

the study of who gets what, when, and how--or how policy decisions are made

front-loading

the tendency of states to choose an early date on the nomination calendar

civic virtue

the tendency to form small-scale associations for the public good

disturbance theory

the theory that interest groups from as a result of changes in the political system

pluralist theory

the theory that political powers is distributed among a wide array of diverse and competing interest groups

transactions theory

the theory that public polic8ies are the result of narrowly defined exchanges or transactions among political actors

federal bureaucracy

the thousands of federal government agencies and institutions that implement and administer federal laws and programs

gross domestic product (GDP)

the total market value of all goods and services produced in an area during a year

winner-take-all system

an electoral system in which the party that receives at lease one more vote than any other party wins the election

independent regulatory commission

an entity created by Congress outside a major executive department

selective incorporation

a judicial doctrine whereby most, but not all, protections found in the Bill of Rights are made applicable to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment

public policy

an intentional course of action or inaction followed by government in dealing with some problem or matter of concern

judicial restraint

a philosophy of judicial decision making hat posits courts should allow the decisions of other branches of government to stand, even when they offend a judge's own principles

judicial activism

a philosophy of judicial decision making that posits judges should use their power broadly to further justice

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

international governmental organization designed to stabilize international currency transactions

public opinion polls

interviews or surveys with samples of citizens that are used to estimate the feelings and beliefs of the entire population

progressive federalism

a pragmatic approach to federalism that views relations between national and state governments as both coercive and cooperative

pardon

an executive grant providing restoration of all rights and privileges of citizenship to a specific individual charged or convicted of a crime

personal liberty

a key characteristic of U.S. democracy. Initially meaning freedom from governmental interference, today it includes demands for freedom to engage in a variety of practices without governmental interference or discrimination

block grant

a large grant given to a state by the federal government with only general spending guidelines

bill of attainder

a law declaring an act illegal without a judicial trial

special district

a local government that is restricted to a particular function

margin of error

a measure of the accuracy of a public opinion poll

random sampling

a method of poll selection that gives each person in a group the same chance of being selected

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

a mini-bureaucracy created in 1939 to help the president oversee the executive branch bureaucracy

national convention

a party meeting held in the presidential election year for the purposes of nominating a presidential and vice presidential ticket and adopting a platform

political machine

a party organization that recruits voter loyalty with tangible incentives and is characterized by a high degree of control over member activity

patron

a person who finances a group or individual activity

New Jersey Plan

a framework for the Constitution proposed by a group of small states. Its key points were a one-house legislature with one vote for each states, a Congress with the ability to raise revenue, and a Supreme Court with members appointed for life

Taliban

a fundamentalist Islamic group that controlled Afghanistan from 1996 until U.S. military intervention in 2001. The Taliban provided refuge for al-Qaeda, allowing terrorist training camps to operate in the country

Medicaid

a government program that subsidizes medical care for the poor

amicus curiae

"friend of the court"; amici may file briefs or even appear to argue their interests orally before the court

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act

2010 legislation aimed at reducing the number of uninsured individuals and decreasing health care costs

Sixteenth Amendment

Amendment to the U.S. Constitution that authorized Congress to enact a national income tax

Seventeenth Amendment

Amendment to the U.S. Constitution that made senators directly elected by the people, removing their selection from state legislatures

American dream

An American ideal of a happy, successful like, which often includes wealth, a house, a better life for one's children, and, for some, the opportunity to grow up to be president

republic

a government rooted in the consent of the governed; a representative or indirect democracy

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

A landmark Supreme Court ruling holding that the Fifth Amendment requires individuals arrested for a crime to be advised of their right to remain silent and to have counsel present

trade association

a group that represents a specific industry

economic interest group

a group with the primary purpose of promoting the financial interests of its members

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Case in which the Supreme Court first asserted the power of judicial review by finding that the congressional statute extending the Court's original jurisdiction was unconstitutional

Department of Defense

Chief executive branch department responsible for formulation and implementation of U.S. defense and military policy

appellate court

Court that generally reviews only findings of law made by lower courts

legislative courts

Courts established by Congress for specialized purposes, such as the Court of Appeals from Veterans Claims

strict scrutiny

a heightened standard of review used by the Supreme Court to determine the constitutional validity of a challenged practice

No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)

Education reform passed in 2002 that employs high standards and measurable goals as a method of improving American education

moderate

a person who takes a relatively centrist or middle-of-the-road view on most political issues

Marshall Plan

European collective recovery program, named after Secretary of State George C. Marshall, that provided extensive American aid to Western Europe after World War II

Bretton Woods System

International finance system devised shortly before the end of World War II that created the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund

brief

a document containing the legal written arguments in a case filed with a court by a party prior to a hearing or trial

constitution

a document establishing the structure, functions and limitations of a government

Civil Rights Cases (1883)

Name attached to five cases brought under the Civil Rights Act of 1875. In 1883, the Supreme Court decided that discrimination in a variety of public accommodations, including theaters, hotels, and railroads, could not be prohibited by the act because such discrimination was private, not state, discrimination.

press release

a document offering an official comment or position

privileges and immunities clause

Part of Article IV of the Constitution guaranteeing that the citizens of each state are afforded the same rights as citizens of all other states

Monroe Doctrine

President James Monroe's 1823 pledge that the United States would oppose attempts by European states to reestablish their political control in the Western hemisphere

charter

a document that, like a constitution, specifies the basic policies, procedures, and institutions of local government. Charters for local governments must be approved by state legislatures.

de facto discrimination

Racial discrimination that results from practice (such as housing patterns or other social or institutional, nongovernmental factors) rather than the law

equal protection clause

Sections of the Fourteenth Amendment that guarantees all citizens receive "equal protection of the laws"

monarchy

a form of government in which power is vested in hereditary kings and queens who govern in the interest of all

U.S. v. Nixon (1974)

Supreme Court ruling on power of the president, holding that no absolute constitutional executive privilege allows a president to refuse to comply with a court order to produce information needed in a criminal trial

Clean Water Act of 1972

The Act that created water quality standards to control pollution, including elimination of point source discharge of pollutants

totalitarianism

a form of government in which power resides in a leader who rules according to self-interest and without regard for individual rights and liberties

oligarchy

a form of government in which the right to participate depends on the possession of wealth, social status, military position, or achievement

monetary policy

a form of government regulation in which the nation's money supply and interest rates are controlled

Cabinet

The formal body of presidential advisors who head the fifteen executive departments. Presidents often add others to this body of formal advisors.

Clean Air Act of 1970

The law that established national primary and secondary standards for air quality in the United States. A revised version was passed in 1990.

muckraking

a form of journalism, in vogue in the early twentieth century, devoted to exposing misconduct by government, business, and individual politicians

yellow journalism

a form of newspaper publishing in vogue in the late nineteenth century that featured pictures, comics, color, and sensationalized news coverage

party caucus or conference

a formal gathering of all party members

filibuster

a formal way of halting Senate action on a bill by means of long speeches or unlimited debate

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

U.S. Supreme Court decisions holding that school segregation is inherently unconstitutional because it violates the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantee of equal protection

Truman Doctrine

U.S. anti-communist policy initiated in 1947 that became the basis of U.S. foreign policy throughout the Cold War

Containment

U.S. policy of opposing Soviet expansion and communist resolutions around the world with military forces, economic assistance, and political influence

Social Security Act

a 1935 law that established old age insurance; assistance for the needy, aged, blind, and families with dependent children; and unemployment insurance

laissez-faire

a French term meaning "to allow to do, to leave alone." It holds that active governmental involvement in the economy is wrong

Berlin Wall

a barrier built by East Germany in 1961 to cut off democratic West Berlin from communist East Berlin

pollster

a campaign consultant who conducts public opinion surveys

domestic policy

a category of public policy that includes a broad and varied range of government programs affecting the lives of citizens within a country

party identification

a citizen's personal affinity for a political party, usually expressed by a tendency to vote for the candidates of that party

interest group

a collection of people or organizations that tries to influence public policy

mandate

a command, indicated by an electorate's votes, for the elected officials to carry out a party platform or policy agenda

preemption

a concept that allow the national government to override state or local actions in certain policy areas

checks and balances

a constitutionally mandated structure that gives each of the three branches of government some degree of oversight and control over the actions of the others

recession

a decline in the economy that occurs as investment sags, production falls off, and unemployment increases

systemic agenda

a discussion agenda; it consists of all public issues that are viewed as requiring governmental attention

natural law

a doctrine that society should be governed by certain ethical principles that are part of nature and, as such, can be understood by reason

executive privilege

an implied presidential power that allows the president to refuse to disclose information regarding confidential conversations or national security to Congress or the judiciary

mid-term election

an election that takes place in the middle of a presidential term

referendum

an election whereby the state legislature submits proposed legislation or state constitutional amendments to the voters for approval

Congressional Budget Act of 1974

act that established the congressional budgetary process by laying out a plan for congressional action on the annual budget resolution, appropriations, reconciliation, and any other revenue bills

conventional political participation

activism that attempts to influence the political process through commonly accepted from of persuasion such as voting or letter writing

unconventional political participation

activism that attempts to influence the political process through unusual or extreme measures, such as protests, boycotts, and picketing

contrast ad

ad that compares the records and proposals of the candidates, with a bias toward the candidate sponsoring the ad

Twenty-Second Amendment

adopted in 1951; prevents a president from serving more than two terms, or more than ten years if he came to office via the death, resignation, or impeachment of his predecessor

Twenty-Fifth Amendment

adopted in 1967 to establish procedures for filling vacancies in office of president and vice president as well as providing for procedures to deal with the disability of a president

negative ad

advertising on behalf of a candidate that attacks the opponent's character or platform

positive ad

advertising on behalf of a candidate that stresses the candidate's qualifications, family, and issue positions, with no direct reference to the opponent

inoculation ad

advertising that attempts to counteract the anticipated attack from the opposition before the attack is launched

Three-Fifths Compromise

agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention stipulating that each slave was to be counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of determining population for representation in the U.S. House of Representatives

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

agreement that promotes free movement of goods and services among Canada, Mexico, and the United States

incumbency

already holding an office

interventionist state

alternative to the laissez-faire state; the government took an active role in guiding and regulating the private economy

Nineteenth Amendment

amendment to the Constitution that guaranteed women the right to vote

strict constructionist

an approach to constitutional interpretation that emphasizes interpreting the Constitution as it was originally written and intended by the Framers

mercantilism

an economic theory designed to increase a nation's wealth through the development of commercial industry and a favorable balance of trade

politico

an elected representative who acts as a trustee or as a delegate, depending on the issue

recall

an election in which voters can remove an incumbent from office prior to the next scheduled election

initiative

an election that allows citizens to propose legislation or state constitutional amendments by submitting them to the electorate for popular vote

critical election

an election that signals a party realignment through voter polarization around new issues and personalities

Rule of Four

at least four justices of the Supreme Court must vote to consider a case before it can be heard

jurisdiction

authority vested in a particular court to hear and decide the issues in particular case

standing committee

committee to which proposed bills are referred; continues from one Congress to the next

government corporations

businesses established by Congress to perform functions that private businesses could provide

political culture

commonly shared attitudes, beliefs, and core values about how government should operate

Roosevelt Corollary

concept developed by President Theodore Roosevelt early in the twentieth century declaring that it was the responsibility of the United States to ensure stability in Latin America and the Caribbean

Department of Homeland Security

cabinet department created after the 9/11 terrorist attacks to coordinate domestic security efforts

New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964)

case in which the Supreme Court concluded that "actual malice" must be proven to support a finding of libel against a public figure

suspect classification

category or class, such as race, that triggers the highest standard of scrutiny from the Supreme Court

vouchers

certificates issued by the government that may be applied toward the cost of attending private or other public schools

Department of State

chief executive bran department responsible for formulation and implementation of U.S. foreign policy

municipality

city governments created in response to the emergence of relatively densely populated areas

due process clause

clause contained in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments; over the years, it has been constructed to guarantee a variety of rights to individuals

501(c) group

interest groups whose primary purpose is not electoral politics

superdelegates

delegate to the Democratic Party's national convention that is reserved for a party official and whose vote at the convention is unpledged to a candidate

Declaration of Independence

document drafted largely by Thomas Jefferson in 1776 that proclaimed the right of the American colonies to separate from Great Britain

public funds

donations from general tax revenues to the campaigns of qualifying presidential candidates

matching funds

donations to presidential campaigns whereby every dollar raised from individuals in amounts less than $251 is matched by the federal treasury

party realignment

dramatic shifts in partisan preferences that drastically alter the political landscape

general election

election in which voters decide which candidates will actually fill elective public offices

primary election

election in which voters decide which of the candidates within a party will represent the party in the general election

libel

false written statement that defames a person's character

constitutional courts

federal courts specifically created by the U.S. Constitution or by Congress pursuant to its authority in Article III

programmatic request

federal funds designated for special projects within a state or congressional district

New Federalism

federal-state relationship proposed by Reagan administration during the 1980s; hallmark is returning administrative powers to the state governments

business cycles

fluctuations between periods of economic growth and recession, or periods of boom and bust

executive agreements

formal international agreements entered into by the president that do not require the advice and consent of the U.S. Senate

judicial implementation

how and whether judicial decisions are translated into actual public policies affecting more than the immediate parties to a lawsuit

pocket veto

if Congress adjourns during the ten days the president has to consider a bill passed by both houses of Congress, the bill is considered vetoed without the president's signature

stare decisis

in court rulings, a reliance on past decisions or precedents to formulate decisions in new cases

Board of Governors

in the Federal Reserve System, a seven-member board that makes most economic decisions regarding interest rates and the supply of money

on the record

information provided to a journalist that can be released and attributed by name to the source

on background

information provided to a journalist that will not be attributed to a named source

deep background

information provided to a journalist that will not be attributed to any source

off the record

information provided to a journalist that will not be released to the public

think tank

institutional collection of policy-oriented researchers and academics who are sources of policy ideas

lobbyist

interest group representative who seeks to influence legislation that will benefit his or her organization or client through political and/or financial persuasion

patronage

jobs, grants, or other special favors that are given as rewards to friends and political allies for their support

substantive due process

judicial interpretation of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments' due process clauses that protects citizens from arbitrary or unjust state or federal laws

exclusionary rule

judicially created rule that prohibits police from using illegally seized evidence at trial

trusts

large-scale, monopolistic businesses that dominate an industry

ex post facto law

law that makes an act punishable as a crime even if the action was legal at the time it was committed

Black Codes

laws denying most legal rights to newly freed slaves; passed by southern states following the Civil War

Jim Crow laws

laws enacted by southern states that required segregation in public schools, theaters, hotels, and other public accommodations

pork

legislation that allows representatives to bring money and jobs to their districts in the form of public works programs, military bases, or other programs

Equal Pay Act of 1963

legislation that requires employers to pay men and women equal pay for equal work

Judiciary Act of 1789

legislative act that established the basic three-tiered structure of the federal court system

content regulations

limitations on the substance of the mass media

Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007

lobbying reform banning gifts to member of Congress and their staffs, toughening disclosure requirements, and increasing time limits on moving from the federal government to the private sector

departments

major administrative units with responsibility for a broad area of government operations. Departmental status usually indicates a permanent national interest in a particular governmental function, such as defense, commerce, or agriculture

cloture

mechanism requiring the vote of sixty senators to cut off debate

news media

media providing the public with new information about subjects of public interest

First Continental Congress

meeting held in Philadelphia from September 5 to October 26, 1774, in which fifty-six delegates (from every colony) except Georgia) adopted a resolution in opposition to the Coercive Acts

Stamp Act Congress

meeting of representatives of nine of the thirteen colonies held in New York City in 1765, during which representatives drafted a document to send to the kind that lists how their rights had been violated

Second Continental Congress

meeting that convened in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, at which it was decided that an army should be raised and George Washington of Virginia was named commander in chief

elector

member of the Electoral College

Joint Chiefs of Staff

military advisory body that includes the Army chief of staff, the Air Force chief of staff, the chief of naval operations, and the Marine commandant

signing statements

occasional written comments attached to a bill signed by the president

political action committees (PACc)

officially recognized fund-raising organizations that represent interest groups and are allowed by federal law to make contributions directly to candidates' campaigns

Fourteenth Amendment

one of the three Civil War Amendments; guarantees equal protection and due process of the law to all U.S. citizens

Thirteenth Amendment

one of the three Civil War Amendments; specifically bans slavery in the United States

Fifteenth Amendment

one of the three Civil War Amendments; specifically enfranchised newly freed male slaves

statist

one who believes in extensive government control of personal and economic liberties

libertarian

one who believes in limited government interference in personal and economic liberties

social conservative

one who believes that the government should support and further traditional moral teachings

liberal

one who favors greater government intervention, particularly in economic affairs and in the provision of social services

conservative

one who favors limited government intervention, particularly in economic affairs

citizen journalists

ordinary individuals who collect, report, and analyze news content

527 political committee

organizations created with the primary purpose of influencing electoral outcomes; the term is typically applied only to freestanding interest groups that do not explicitly advocate fro the election of a candidate

Committees of Correspondence

organizations in each of the American colonies created to keep colonists abreast of developments with the British; served as powerful molders of public opinion against the British

extradition clause

part of Article IV of the Constitution that requires states to extradite, or return, criminals to states where they have been convicted or are to stand trial

Fifth Amendment

part of the Bill of Rights that imposed a number of restrictions on the federal government with respect to the rights of persons suspected of committing a crime. It provides fro indictment by a grant jury and protection against self-incrimination, and prevents the national government from denying a person life, liberty, or property without the due process of law. It also prevents the national government from taking property without just compensation

First Amendment

part of the Bill of Rights that imposes a number of restrictions on the federal government with respect to civil liberties, including freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition

Ninth Amendment

part of the Bill of Rights that makes it clear that enumerating rights in the Constitution or Bill of Rights does not mean that others do not exist

Fourth Amendment

part of the Bill of Rights that reads: "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized"

Sixth Amendment

part of the Bill of Rights that sets out the basic requirements of procedural due process for federal courts to follow in criminal trials. These include speedy and public trial, impartial juries, trials in the state where the crime was committed, notice of the charges, the right to confront and obtain favorable witnesses, and the right to counsel

governmental (institutional) agenda

problems to which public officials feel obliged to devote active and serious attention

non-means-tested programs

programs that provide cash assistance to qualified beneficiaries, regardless of income. Among these are Social Security and unemployment insurance

means-tested programs

programs that require that beneficiaries have incomes below specified levels to be eligible for benefits. Among these are SI, TANF, and SNAP

Equal Rights Amendment

proposed amendment to the Constitution that states "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex."

Title IX

provision of the Education Amendments of 1972 that bars educational institutions that receive federal funds from discriminating against female students

de jure discrimination

racial segregation that is a direct result of law or official policy

Pendleton Act

reform measure that established the principle of federal employment on the basis of open, competitive exams and created the Civil Service Commission

delegate

representative to the party convention

Electoral College

representatives of each state who cast the final ballots that actually elect a president

trustee

role played by an elected representative who listens to constituents' opinions and then uses his or her best judgment to make final decision

delegate

role played by an elected representative who votes the way his or her constituents would want, regardless of personal opinions

executive order

rule or regulation issued by the president that has the effect of law. All executive orders must be published in the Federal Register.

full faith and credit clause

section of Article IV of the Constitution that ensures judicial decrees and contracts made in one state will be binding and enforceable in any other state

charter schools

semipublic schools that have open admission but may also receive private donations to increase the quality of education

collective goods

something of value that cannot be withheld from a nonmember of a group, for example, a tax write-off or a better environment

conference committee

special joint committee created to reconcile differences in bills passed by the House and Senate

independent expenditures

spending for campaign activity that is not coordinated with a candidate's campaign

joint committee

standing committee that includes members from both houses of Congress set up to conduct investigations or special studies

Miranda rights

statements required of police that inform a suspect of his or her constitutional rights protected by the Fifth Amendment, including the right to an attorney provided by the court if the suspect cannot afford one

polarization

the presence of increasingly conflicting and divided viewpoints between the Democratic and Republican parties

policy coordinating committees

subcabinet-level committees created to facilitate interactions between agencies and departments to handle complex policy problems

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

supreme Curt case that challenged a Louisiana statue requiring that railroads provide separate accommodations for blacks and whites. The Court found that separate-but-equal accommodations did not violate the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment

symbolic speech

symbols, signs, and other methods of expression generally considered to be protected by the First Amendment

unitary system

system of government in which the local and regional governments derive all authority from a strong national government

federal system

system of government in which the national government and state governments share power and derive all authority from the people

narrowcasting

targeting media programming at specific populations within society

tariffs

taxes on imported goods

select (or special) committee

temporary committee appointed for a specific purpose

direct incitement test

test articulated by the Supreme Court in Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969) holding that the First Amendment protects advocacy of illegal action unless imminent lawless action is intended and likely to occur

clear and present danger test

test articulated by the Supreme Court in Schenck v. U.S. (1919) to draw the line between protected and unprotected speech; the Court looks to see "whether the words used" could "create a clear and present danger that they will bring about substantive evils" that Congress seeks "to prevent."

Hatch Act

the 1939 act to prohibit civil servants from taking activist roles in partisan campaigns. This act prohibited federal employees from making political contributions, working for a particular party, or campaigning for a particular candidate

Cuban Missile Crisis

the 1962 confrontation over the deployment of ballistic missiles in Cuba that nearly escalated into nuclear was between the United States and the Soviet Union

Reagan Doctrine

the Reagan administration's commitment to ending communism by providing military assistance to anti-communist groups

Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857)

the Supreme Court concluded that the U.S. Congress lacked the constitutional authority to bar slavery in the territories. This decision narrowed the scope of national power, while it enhanced that of the states

Roe v. Wade (1973)

the Supreme Court found that a woman's right to an abortion was protected by the right to privacy that could be implied from specific guarantees found in the Bill of Rights applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment

Barron v. Baltimore (1833)

the Supreme Court ruled that the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment did not apply to the actions of states. This decision limited the Bill of Rights to the actions of Congress alone

government

the formal vehicle through which policies are made and affairs of state are conducted

veto

the formal, constitutional authority of the president to reject bills passed by both houses of Congress, thus preventing them from becoming law without further congressional action

solicitor general

the fourth-ranking member of the Department of Justice; responsible for handling nearly all appeals on behalf of the U.S. government to the Supreme Court

civil rights

the government-protected rights of individual against arbitrary or discriminatory treatment by governments or individuals

secular realignment

the gradual rearrangement of party coalitions, based more on demographic shifts than on shocks to the political system

majority leader

the head of the party controlling the most seats in the House of Representatives or the Senate; is second in authority to the Speaker of the House and in the Senate is regarded as its most powerful member

minority leader

the head of the party with the second highest number of elected representatives in the House of Representatives or Senate

collective security

the idea that an attack on one country is an attack on all countries

détente

the improvement in relations between the United States and the Soviet Union that occurred during the 1970s

global warming

the increase in global temperatures due to carbon emissions from burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil

press secretary

the individual charged with interacting and communicating with journalists on a daily basis

finance chair

the individual who coordinates the financial business of the campaign

campaign manager

the individual who travels with the candidate and coordinates the campaign

media effects

the influence of news sources on public opinion

cooperative federalism

the intertwined relationship between the national, state, and local governments that began with the New Deal, often referred to as marble-cake federalism

original jurisdiction

the jurisdiction of courts that hear a case first, usually in a trial. These courts determine the facts of the case

issue networks

the loose and informal relationships that exist among a large number of actors who work in broad policy areas

civil serve system

the merit system by which many federal bureaucrats are selected

New Deal

the name given to the program of Relief, Recover, Reform" begun by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 to bring the United States out of the Great Depression

military-industrial complex

the network of political and financial relations formed by defense industries, the U.S. armed forces, and Congress

popular sovereignty

the notion that the ultimate authority in society rests with the people

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

the office that prepares the president's annual budget proposal, reviews the budget and programs of the executive departments, supplies economic forecasts, and conducts detailed analyses of proposed bills and agency rules

president pro tempore

the official chair of the Senate; usually the most senior member of the major party

Speaker of the House

the only officer of the House of Representatives specifically mentioned in the Constitution; the chamber's most powerful position; traditionally a member of the majority party

communications director

the person who develops the overall media strategy for the candidate

civil liberties

the personal guarantees and freedoms that the government cannot abridge by law, constitution, or judicial interpretation

divided government

the political condition in which different political parties control the presidency and Congress

unified government

the political condition in which the same political party controls the presidency and Congress

majority party

the political party in each house of Congress with the most members

minority party

the political party in each house of Congress with the second most members

impeachment

the power delegated to the House of Representatives in the Constitution to charge the president, vice president, or other "civil officers," including federal judges, with "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors." This is the first step in the constitutional process of removing government officials from office

appellate jurisdiction

the power vested in particular courts to review and/or revise the decision of a lower court

implied powers

the powers of the national government derived from the enumerated powers and the necessary and proper clause

enumerated powers

the powers of the national government specifically granted to Congress in Article I, section 8 of the Constitution

manifest destiny

theory that the United States was divinely supported to expand across North America to the Pacific Ocean

fundamental freedoms

those rights defined by the Court as essential to order, liberty, and justice and therefore entitled to the highest standard of review

Federalists

those who favored a stronger national government and supported the proposed U.S. Constitution later became the first U.S. political party

Anti-Federalists

those who favored strong state governments and a weak national government; opposed ratification of the U.S. Constitution

Lemon test

three-part test created by the Supreme Court for examining the constitutionality of religious establishment issues

seniority

time of continuous serve on a committee

concurrent powers

type of government in which the national government derives its powers from the states; a league of independent states

straw poll

unscientific survey used to gauge public opinion on a variety of issues and policies

slander

untrue spoke statements that defame the character of a person

logrolling

vote trading; voting to support a colleague's bill in return for a promise of future support

Farwell Address

when President George Washington left office, he wrote a letter, addressed to the People of the United States, warning people of the dangers to avoid in order to preserve the republic

Civil Rights Act of 1964

wide-ranging legislation passed by Congress to outlaw segregation in public facilities and discrimination in employment, education, and voting; created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

fighting words

words that "by their very utterance inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach of peace." fighting words are not subject to the restrictions of the First Amendment

interagency councils

working groups created to facilitate coordination of policy making and implementation across a host of governmental agencies