O'Connor - American Government: Roots & Reform (COMPLETE GLOSSARY)
greenhouse gases
gases in the atmosphere that lead to higher global temperatures
entitlement programs
government benefits that all citizens meeting eligibility criteria - such as age, income level, or unemployment - are legally "entitled" to receive
economic regulation
government regulation of business practices, industry rates, routes, or areas serviced by particular industries
reserve requirements
government requirements that a portion of member banks' deposits be retained a s backing for their loans
independent executive agencies
governmental units that closely resemble a Cabinet department but have narrower areas of responsibility and perform services rather than regulatory functions
categorical grant
grant that appropriates federal funds to states for a specific purpose
War Powers Resolution
passed by Congress in 1973; the president is limited in the deployment of troops overseas to a sixty-day period in peacetime (which can be extended for an extra thirty days to permit withdrawal) unless Congress explicitly gives its approval for a longer period
writs of habeas corpus
petition requesting that a judge order authorities to prove that a prisoner is being held lawfully and that allows the prisoner to be freed if the government's case does not persuade the judge. Habeas corpus rights imply that prisoners have a right to know what charges are being made against them
Eighth Amendment
part of the Bill of Rights that states: "excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted"
double jeopardy clause
part of the Fifth Amendment that protects individuals from being tried twice for the same offense in the same jurisdiction
crossover voting
participation in the primary election of a party with which the voter is not affiliated
whip
party leader who keeps close contact with all members of his or her party, takes vote counts on key legislation, prepares summaries of bills, and acts a s communication link within a party
discharge petition
petition that gives a majority of the House of Representatives the authority to bring an issue to the floor in the face of committee inaction
nomination campaign
phase of a political campaign aimed at winning a primary election
general election campaign
phase of a political campaign aimed at winning election to office
Dillon's Rule
a premise articulate by Judge John F. Dillon in 1868 which states that local governments do not have nay inherent sovereignty and instead must be authorized by state governments that can create or abolish them
closed primary
a primary election in which only a party's registered voters are eligible to cast a ballot
open primary
a primary election in which party members, independents, and sometimes members of other parties are allowed to participate
UN Security Council
a principal part of the United Nations, charged with authorizing peacekeeping operations, international sanctions, and military action in order to maintain global peace and security
precedent
a prior judicial decision that serves a s a rule for settling subsequent cases of a similar nature
campaign consultant
a private-sector professional who sells to a candidate the technologies, services, and strategies required to get that candidate elected
hold
a procedure by which a senator asks to be informed before a particular bill or nomination is brought to the floor. This request signals leadership that a member may have objections to the bill (or nomination) and should be consulted before further action is taken
reconciliation
a procedure that allows consideration of controversial issues affecting the budget by limiting debate to twenty hours, thereby ending threat of a filibuster
senatorial courtesy
a process by which presidents generally allow senators from the state in which a judicial vacancy occurs to block a nomination by simply registering their objection
congressional review
a process whereby Congress can nullify agency regulations by a joint resolution of legislative disapproval
bill
a proposed law
get-out-the-vote (GOVT)
a push at the end of a political campaign to encourage supporters to go to the polls
administrative adjudication
a quasi-judicial process in which a bureaucratic agency settles disputes between two parties in a manner similar to the way courts resolve disputes
rule making
a quasi-legislative process resulting in regulations that have the characteristics of a legislative act
Shay's Rebellion
a rebellion in which an army of 1,500 disgruntled and angry farmers led by Daniel Shays marched to Springfield, Massachusetts, and forcibly restrained the state court from foreclosing mortgages on their farms
deregulation
a reduction in market controls (such as price fixing, subsidies, or controls on who can enter the field) in favor of market-based competition
press briefing
a relatively restricted session between a press secretary or aide and the press
writ of certiorari
a request for the Supreme Court to order up the records from a lower court to review the case
inflation
a rise in the general price levels of an economy
runoff primary
a second primary election between the two candidates receiving the greatest number of votes in the first primary
The Federalist Papers
a series of eighty-five political essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Hay in support of ratification of the U.S. Constitution
markup
a session in which committee members offer changes to a bill before it goes to the floor
agenda
a set of issues to be discussed or given attention
economic stability
a situation in which there is economic grown, rising national income, high employment, and steadiness in the general level of prices
national party platform
a statement of the general and specific philosophy and policy goals of a political party, usually promulgated at the national convention
sample
a subset of the whole population selected to be questioned for the purposes of prediction or gauging opinion
merit system
a system of employment based on qualifications, test scores, and ability, rather than party loyalty
direct democracy
a system of government in which members of the policy meet to discuss all policy decisions and then agree to abide by majority rule
indirect democracy
a system of government that gives citizens the opportunity to vote for representatives who work on their behalf
democracy
a system of government that gives power to the people, whether directly or through elected representatives
free trade system
a system of international trade that has limited government interference on the sale of goods and services among countries
poll tax
a tax levied in many southern states and localities that had to be paid before an eligible voter could cast a ballot
protectionism
a trade policy wherein a country takes steps to limit the import of foreign goods through tariffs and subsidies to domestic firms
strategic trade policy
a trade policy wherein governments identify key industries that they wish to see grow and enact policies to support their development and success
bicameral legislature
a two-house legislature
stratified sampling
a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups and weighted based on demographic characteristics of the national population
retrospective judgment
a voter's evaluation of a candidate based on past performance on a particular issue
prospective judgment
a voter's evaluation of a candidate based on what he or she pledges to do about an issue if elected
proportional representation
a voting system that apportions legislative seats according to the percentage of the vote won by a particular political party
separation of powers
a way of dividing the power of government among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, each staffed separately, with equality and independence of each branch ensured by the Constitution
global war on terrorism
an international action, initiated by President George W. Bush after the 9/11 attacks, to weed out terrorist operatives throughout the world
World Trade Organization (WTO)
an international organization that replaced the GATT in 1995 to supervise and expand international trade
incorporation doctrine
an interpretation of the Constitution holding that the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires state and local governments to guarantee the rights stated in the Bill of Rights
European Union
an organization that joins 27 countries in Europe into a union that includes free trade, a central bank, a common currency, ease of immigration, an European Parliament, and other political institutions to govern and administer the organization
public interest group
an organization that seeks a collective good that will not selectively and materially benefit group members
political party
an organized group with shared goals and ideals that joins together to run candidates for office and exercise political and electoral power
press conference
an unrestricted session between an elected official and the press
hate speech
any communication that belittles a person or group on the basis of characteristics
foreign policy
are of policy making that encompasses how one country builds relationships with other countries in order to safeguard its national interest
defense policy
area of policy making that focuses on the strategies that a country uses to protect itself from its enemies
prior restraint
constitutional doctrine that prevents the government from prohibiting speech or publication before the fact; generally held to be in violation of the First Amendment
tracking polls
continuous surveys that enable a campaign or news organization to chart a candidate's daily rise or fall in support
interstate compacts
contracts between states that carry the force of law; generally now used as a tool to address multistate policy concerns
social capital
cooperative relationships that facilitate the resolution of collective problems
trial court
court of original jurisdiction where cases begin
affirmative action
policies designed to give special attention or compensatory treatment to members of a previously disadvantaged group
democratic enlargement
policy implemented during the Clinton administration in which the United States would actively promote the expansion of democracy and free markets throughout the world
Super PACs
political action committees established to make independent expenditures
candidate-centered politics
politics that focus on the candidates, their particular issues, and character rather than party affiliation
exit polls
polls conducted as voters leave selecting polling places on Election Day
push polls
polls taken for the purpose of proving information on an opponent that would lead respondents to vote against that candidate
supremacy clause
portion of Article VI of the Constitution mandating that national law is supreme (that is, supersedes) all other laws passed by states or by any other subdivision of government
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GAAT)
post-World War II economic development treaty designed to help facilitate international trade negotiations and promote free trade
free rider problem
potential members fail to join a group because they can get the benefit, or collective good, sought by the group without contributing to the effort
judicial review
power of the courts to review acts of other branches of government and the states
reserved powers
powers reserved to the states by the Tenth Amendment that lie at the foundation of a state's right to legislate for the public health and welfare of its citizens
inherent powers
powers that belong to the president because they can be inferred from the Constitution
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
the Supreme Court upheld broad congressional power to regulate interstate commerce. The Court's broad interpretation of the Constitution's commerce clause paved the way for later rulings upholding expansive federal powers
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
the Supreme Court upheld the power of the national government and denied the right of a state to tax the federal bank, using the Constitution's supremacy clause. The Court's broad interpretation of the necessary and proper clause paved the way for later rulings upholding expansive federal powers
isolationism
the U.S. policy of avoiding entangling alliances with European powers
administrative discretion
the ability of bureaucrats to make choices concerning the best way to implement congressional or executive intentions
lobbying
the activities of a group or organization that seek to persuade political leader to support the group's position
policy adoption
the approval of a policy proposal by people with the requisite authority, such as a legislature
line-item veto
the authority of a chief executive to delete part of a bill passes by the legislature that involves taxing or spending. Ruled unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court
county
the basic administrative unit of local government
dual federalism
the belief that having separate and equally powerful levels of government is the best arrangement, often referred to as layer-cake federalism
open market operations
the buying and selling of government securities by the Federal Reserve Bank
majority rule
the central premise of direct democracy in which only policies that collectively garner the support of a majority of voters will be made into law
electorate
the citizens eligible to vote
political ideology
the coherent set of values and beliefs about the purpose and scope of government held by groups and individuals
Articles of Confederation
the compact between the thirteen original colonies that created a loose league of friendship, with the national government drawing its powers from the states
policy formation
the crafting of proposed courses of action to resolve public problems
fiscal policy
the deliberate use of the national government's taxing and spending policies to maintain economic stability
gerrymandering
the drawing of congressional districts to produce a particular electoral outcome without regard to the shape of the district
suffrage movement
the drive for voting rights for women that took place in the United States from 1890 to 1920
budget deficit
the economic condition that occurs when expenditures exceed revenues
mass media
the entire array of organizations through which information is collected and disseminated to the general public
population
the entire group of people whose attitudes a researcher wishes to measure
Medicare
the federal program established during the Lyndon B. Johnson administration that provides medical care to elderly Social Security recipients
Great Compromise
the final decision of the Constitutional Convention to create a two-house legislature, with the lower house elected by the people and the powers divided between the two houses. It also made national law supreme
necessary and proper clause
the final paragraph of Article I, section 8 of the Constitution, which gives Congress the authority to pass all laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the enumerated powers specified in the Constitution; also called the elastic clause
Tenth Amendment
the final part of the Bill of Rights that defines the basic principle of American federalism in stating that the powers not delegated to the national government are reserved to the states or to the people
spoils system
the firing of public-office holders of a defeated political party to replace them with loyalists of the newly elected party
establishment clause
the first clause of the First Amendment; it directs the national government not to sanction an official religion
Virginia Plan
the first general plan for the Constitution offered in Philadelphia. Its key points were a bicameral legislature, as well as an executive and a judiciary chosen by the national legislature
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
the first peacetime military treaty joined by the United States; NATO is a collective security pact that includes the United States, Canada, and Western Europe
Bill of Rights
the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which largely guarantee specific rights and liberties
grandfather clause
voter qualification provision in many southern states that allowed only those citizens whose grandfathers had voted before Reconstruction to vote unless they passed a wealth or literacy test
ticket-splitting
voting for candidates of different parties for various offices in the same election
public opinion
what the public thinks about a particular issue or set of issues at any point in time
Political equality
the principle that all citizens are the same in the eyes of the law
World Bank
international governmental organization created to provide loans for large economic development projects
popular consent
the principle that governments must draw their powers from the consent of the governed
voter canvass
the process by which a campaign reaches individual voters, either by door-to-door solicitation or by telephone
implementation
the process by which a law or policy is put into operations
framing
the process by which a news organization defines a political issue and consequently affects opinion about the issue
apportionment
the process of allotting congressional seats to each state according to its proportion of the population, following the decennial census
policy implementation
the process of carrying out public policy
policy evaluation
the process of determining whether a course of action is achieving its intended goals
agenda setting
the process of forming the list of issues to be addressed by government
redistricting
the process of redrawing congressional districts to reflect increases or decreases in seats allotted to the states, as well as population shifts within a state
political socialization
the process through which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values
turnout
the proportion of the voting-age public that casts a ballot
human rights
the protection of people's basic freedoms and needs
discount rate
the rate of interest at which the Federal Reserve Board lends money to member banks
reapportionment
the reallocation of the number of seats in the House of Representatives after each decennial census
iron triangles
the relatively ironclad relationships and patterns of interaction that occurs among agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees
nullification
the right of a state to declare void a federal law
right to privacy
the right to be left alone; a judicially created principle encompassing a variety of individual actions protected by the penumbras cast by several constitutional amendments, including the First, Third, Fourth, Ninth, and Fourteenth Amendments
equal time rule
the rule that requires broadcast stations to sell air time equally to all candidates in a political campaign if they choose to sell it to any
free exercise clause
the second clause of the Frist Amendment; it prohibits the U.S. government from interfering with a citizen's right to practice his or her religion
politics
the study of who gets what, when, and how--or how policy decisions are made
front-loading
the tendency of states to choose an early date on the nomination calendar
civic virtue
the tendency to form small-scale associations for the public good
disturbance theory
the theory that interest groups from as a result of changes in the political system
pluralist theory
the theory that political powers is distributed among a wide array of diverse and competing interest groups
transactions theory
the theory that public polic8ies are the result of narrowly defined exchanges or transactions among political actors
federal bureaucracy
the thousands of federal government agencies and institutions that implement and administer federal laws and programs
gross domestic product (GDP)
the total market value of all goods and services produced in an area during a year
winner-take-all system
an electoral system in which the party that receives at lease one more vote than any other party wins the election
independent regulatory commission
an entity created by Congress outside a major executive department
selective incorporation
a judicial doctrine whereby most, but not all, protections found in the Bill of Rights are made applicable to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment
public policy
an intentional course of action or inaction followed by government in dealing with some problem or matter of concern
judicial restraint
a philosophy of judicial decision making hat posits courts should allow the decisions of other branches of government to stand, even when they offend a judge's own principles
judicial activism
a philosophy of judicial decision making that posits judges should use their power broadly to further justice
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
international governmental organization designed to stabilize international currency transactions
public opinion polls
interviews or surveys with samples of citizens that are used to estimate the feelings and beliefs of the entire population
progressive federalism
a pragmatic approach to federalism that views relations between national and state governments as both coercive and cooperative
pardon
an executive grant providing restoration of all rights and privileges of citizenship to a specific individual charged or convicted of a crime
personal liberty
a key characteristic of U.S. democracy. Initially meaning freedom from governmental interference, today it includes demands for freedom to engage in a variety of practices without governmental interference or discrimination
block grant
a large grant given to a state by the federal government with only general spending guidelines
bill of attainder
a law declaring an act illegal without a judicial trial
special district
a local government that is restricted to a particular function
margin of error
a measure of the accuracy of a public opinion poll
random sampling
a method of poll selection that gives each person in a group the same chance of being selected
Executive Office of the President (EOP)
a mini-bureaucracy created in 1939 to help the president oversee the executive branch bureaucracy
national convention
a party meeting held in the presidential election year for the purposes of nominating a presidential and vice presidential ticket and adopting a platform
political machine
a party organization that recruits voter loyalty with tangible incentives and is characterized by a high degree of control over member activity
patron
a person who finances a group or individual activity
New Jersey Plan
a framework for the Constitution proposed by a group of small states. Its key points were a one-house legislature with one vote for each states, a Congress with the ability to raise revenue, and a Supreme Court with members appointed for life
Taliban
a fundamentalist Islamic group that controlled Afghanistan from 1996 until U.S. military intervention in 2001. The Taliban provided refuge for al-Qaeda, allowing terrorist training camps to operate in the country
Medicaid
a government program that subsidizes medical care for the poor
amicus curiae
"friend of the court"; amici may file briefs or even appear to argue their interests orally before the court
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
2010 legislation aimed at reducing the number of uninsured individuals and decreasing health care costs
Sixteenth Amendment
Amendment to the U.S. Constitution that authorized Congress to enact a national income tax
Seventeenth Amendment
Amendment to the U.S. Constitution that made senators directly elected by the people, removing their selection from state legislatures
American dream
An American ideal of a happy, successful like, which often includes wealth, a house, a better life for one's children, and, for some, the opportunity to grow up to be president
republic
a government rooted in the consent of the governed; a representative or indirect democracy
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
A landmark Supreme Court ruling holding that the Fifth Amendment requires individuals arrested for a crime to be advised of their right to remain silent and to have counsel present
trade association
a group that represents a specific industry
economic interest group
a group with the primary purpose of promoting the financial interests of its members
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Case in which the Supreme Court first asserted the power of judicial review by finding that the congressional statute extending the Court's original jurisdiction was unconstitutional
Department of Defense
Chief executive branch department responsible for formulation and implementation of U.S. defense and military policy
appellate court
Court that generally reviews only findings of law made by lower courts
legislative courts
Courts established by Congress for specialized purposes, such as the Court of Appeals from Veterans Claims
strict scrutiny
a heightened standard of review used by the Supreme Court to determine the constitutional validity of a challenged practice
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
Education reform passed in 2002 that employs high standards and measurable goals as a method of improving American education
moderate
a person who takes a relatively centrist or middle-of-the-road view on most political issues
Marshall Plan
European collective recovery program, named after Secretary of State George C. Marshall, that provided extensive American aid to Western Europe after World War II
Bretton Woods System
International finance system devised shortly before the end of World War II that created the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund
brief
a document containing the legal written arguments in a case filed with a court by a party prior to a hearing or trial
constitution
a document establishing the structure, functions and limitations of a government
Civil Rights Cases (1883)
Name attached to five cases brought under the Civil Rights Act of 1875. In 1883, the Supreme Court decided that discrimination in a variety of public accommodations, including theaters, hotels, and railroads, could not be prohibited by the act because such discrimination was private, not state, discrimination.
press release
a document offering an official comment or position
privileges and immunities clause
Part of Article IV of the Constitution guaranteeing that the citizens of each state are afforded the same rights as citizens of all other states
Monroe Doctrine
President James Monroe's 1823 pledge that the United States would oppose attempts by European states to reestablish their political control in the Western hemisphere
charter
a document that, like a constitution, specifies the basic policies, procedures, and institutions of local government. Charters for local governments must be approved by state legislatures.
de facto discrimination
Racial discrimination that results from practice (such as housing patterns or other social or institutional, nongovernmental factors) rather than the law
equal protection clause
Sections of the Fourteenth Amendment that guarantees all citizens receive "equal protection of the laws"
monarchy
a form of government in which power is vested in hereditary kings and queens who govern in the interest of all
U.S. v. Nixon (1974)
Supreme Court ruling on power of the president, holding that no absolute constitutional executive privilege allows a president to refuse to comply with a court order to produce information needed in a criminal trial
Clean Water Act of 1972
The Act that created water quality standards to control pollution, including elimination of point source discharge of pollutants
totalitarianism
a form of government in which power resides in a leader who rules according to self-interest and without regard for individual rights and liberties
oligarchy
a form of government in which the right to participate depends on the possession of wealth, social status, military position, or achievement
monetary policy
a form of government regulation in which the nation's money supply and interest rates are controlled
Cabinet
The formal body of presidential advisors who head the fifteen executive departments. Presidents often add others to this body of formal advisors.
Clean Air Act of 1970
The law that established national primary and secondary standards for air quality in the United States. A revised version was passed in 1990.
muckraking
a form of journalism, in vogue in the early twentieth century, devoted to exposing misconduct by government, business, and individual politicians
yellow journalism
a form of newspaper publishing in vogue in the late nineteenth century that featured pictures, comics, color, and sensationalized news coverage
party caucus or conference
a formal gathering of all party members
filibuster
a formal way of halting Senate action on a bill by means of long speeches or unlimited debate
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
U.S. Supreme Court decisions holding that school segregation is inherently unconstitutional because it violates the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantee of equal protection
Truman Doctrine
U.S. anti-communist policy initiated in 1947 that became the basis of U.S. foreign policy throughout the Cold War
Containment
U.S. policy of opposing Soviet expansion and communist resolutions around the world with military forces, economic assistance, and political influence
Social Security Act
a 1935 law that established old age insurance; assistance for the needy, aged, blind, and families with dependent children; and unemployment insurance
laissez-faire
a French term meaning "to allow to do, to leave alone." It holds that active governmental involvement in the economy is wrong
Berlin Wall
a barrier built by East Germany in 1961 to cut off democratic West Berlin from communist East Berlin
pollster
a campaign consultant who conducts public opinion surveys
domestic policy
a category of public policy that includes a broad and varied range of government programs affecting the lives of citizens within a country
party identification
a citizen's personal affinity for a political party, usually expressed by a tendency to vote for the candidates of that party
interest group
a collection of people or organizations that tries to influence public policy
mandate
a command, indicated by an electorate's votes, for the elected officials to carry out a party platform or policy agenda
preemption
a concept that allow the national government to override state or local actions in certain policy areas
checks and balances
a constitutionally mandated structure that gives each of the three branches of government some degree of oversight and control over the actions of the others
recession
a decline in the economy that occurs as investment sags, production falls off, and unemployment increases
systemic agenda
a discussion agenda; it consists of all public issues that are viewed as requiring governmental attention
natural law
a doctrine that society should be governed by certain ethical principles that are part of nature and, as such, can be understood by reason
executive privilege
an implied presidential power that allows the president to refuse to disclose information regarding confidential conversations or national security to Congress or the judiciary
mid-term election
an election that takes place in the middle of a presidential term
referendum
an election whereby the state legislature submits proposed legislation or state constitutional amendments to the voters for approval
Congressional Budget Act of 1974
act that established the congressional budgetary process by laying out a plan for congressional action on the annual budget resolution, appropriations, reconciliation, and any other revenue bills
conventional political participation
activism that attempts to influence the political process through commonly accepted from of persuasion such as voting or letter writing
unconventional political participation
activism that attempts to influence the political process through unusual or extreme measures, such as protests, boycotts, and picketing
contrast ad
ad that compares the records and proposals of the candidates, with a bias toward the candidate sponsoring the ad
Twenty-Second Amendment
adopted in 1951; prevents a president from serving more than two terms, or more than ten years if he came to office via the death, resignation, or impeachment of his predecessor
Twenty-Fifth Amendment
adopted in 1967 to establish procedures for filling vacancies in office of president and vice president as well as providing for procedures to deal with the disability of a president
negative ad
advertising on behalf of a candidate that attacks the opponent's character or platform
positive ad
advertising on behalf of a candidate that stresses the candidate's qualifications, family, and issue positions, with no direct reference to the opponent
inoculation ad
advertising that attempts to counteract the anticipated attack from the opposition before the attack is launched
Three-Fifths Compromise
agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention stipulating that each slave was to be counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of determining population for representation in the U.S. House of Representatives
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
agreement that promotes free movement of goods and services among Canada, Mexico, and the United States
incumbency
already holding an office
interventionist state
alternative to the laissez-faire state; the government took an active role in guiding and regulating the private economy
Nineteenth Amendment
amendment to the Constitution that guaranteed women the right to vote
strict constructionist
an approach to constitutional interpretation that emphasizes interpreting the Constitution as it was originally written and intended by the Framers
mercantilism
an economic theory designed to increase a nation's wealth through the development of commercial industry and a favorable balance of trade
politico
an elected representative who acts as a trustee or as a delegate, depending on the issue
recall
an election in which voters can remove an incumbent from office prior to the next scheduled election
initiative
an election that allows citizens to propose legislation or state constitutional amendments by submitting them to the electorate for popular vote
critical election
an election that signals a party realignment through voter polarization around new issues and personalities
Rule of Four
at least four justices of the Supreme Court must vote to consider a case before it can be heard
jurisdiction
authority vested in a particular court to hear and decide the issues in particular case
standing committee
committee to which proposed bills are referred; continues from one Congress to the next
government corporations
businesses established by Congress to perform functions that private businesses could provide
political culture
commonly shared attitudes, beliefs, and core values about how government should operate
Roosevelt Corollary
concept developed by President Theodore Roosevelt early in the twentieth century declaring that it was the responsibility of the United States to ensure stability in Latin America and the Caribbean
Department of Homeland Security
cabinet department created after the 9/11 terrorist attacks to coordinate domestic security efforts
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964)
case in which the Supreme Court concluded that "actual malice" must be proven to support a finding of libel against a public figure
suspect classification
category or class, such as race, that triggers the highest standard of scrutiny from the Supreme Court
vouchers
certificates issued by the government that may be applied toward the cost of attending private or other public schools
Department of State
chief executive bran department responsible for formulation and implementation of U.S. foreign policy
municipality
city governments created in response to the emergence of relatively densely populated areas
due process clause
clause contained in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments; over the years, it has been constructed to guarantee a variety of rights to individuals
501(c) group
interest groups whose primary purpose is not electoral politics
superdelegates
delegate to the Democratic Party's national convention that is reserved for a party official and whose vote at the convention is unpledged to a candidate
Declaration of Independence
document drafted largely by Thomas Jefferson in 1776 that proclaimed the right of the American colonies to separate from Great Britain
public funds
donations from general tax revenues to the campaigns of qualifying presidential candidates
matching funds
donations to presidential campaigns whereby every dollar raised from individuals in amounts less than $251 is matched by the federal treasury
party realignment
dramatic shifts in partisan preferences that drastically alter the political landscape
general election
election in which voters decide which candidates will actually fill elective public offices
primary election
election in which voters decide which of the candidates within a party will represent the party in the general election
libel
false written statement that defames a person's character
constitutional courts
federal courts specifically created by the U.S. Constitution or by Congress pursuant to its authority in Article III
programmatic request
federal funds designated for special projects within a state or congressional district
New Federalism
federal-state relationship proposed by Reagan administration during the 1980s; hallmark is returning administrative powers to the state governments
business cycles
fluctuations between periods of economic growth and recession, or periods of boom and bust
executive agreements
formal international agreements entered into by the president that do not require the advice and consent of the U.S. Senate
judicial implementation
how and whether judicial decisions are translated into actual public policies affecting more than the immediate parties to a lawsuit
pocket veto
if Congress adjourns during the ten days the president has to consider a bill passed by both houses of Congress, the bill is considered vetoed without the president's signature
stare decisis
in court rulings, a reliance on past decisions or precedents to formulate decisions in new cases
Board of Governors
in the Federal Reserve System, a seven-member board that makes most economic decisions regarding interest rates and the supply of money
on the record
information provided to a journalist that can be released and attributed by name to the source
on background
information provided to a journalist that will not be attributed to a named source
deep background
information provided to a journalist that will not be attributed to any source
off the record
information provided to a journalist that will not be released to the public
think tank
institutional collection of policy-oriented researchers and academics who are sources of policy ideas
lobbyist
interest group representative who seeks to influence legislation that will benefit his or her organization or client through political and/or financial persuasion
patronage
jobs, grants, or other special favors that are given as rewards to friends and political allies for their support
substantive due process
judicial interpretation of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments' due process clauses that protects citizens from arbitrary or unjust state or federal laws
exclusionary rule
judicially created rule that prohibits police from using illegally seized evidence at trial
trusts
large-scale, monopolistic businesses that dominate an industry
ex post facto law
law that makes an act punishable as a crime even if the action was legal at the time it was committed
Black Codes
laws denying most legal rights to newly freed slaves; passed by southern states following the Civil War
Jim Crow laws
laws enacted by southern states that required segregation in public schools, theaters, hotels, and other public accommodations
pork
legislation that allows representatives to bring money and jobs to their districts in the form of public works programs, military bases, or other programs
Equal Pay Act of 1963
legislation that requires employers to pay men and women equal pay for equal work
Judiciary Act of 1789
legislative act that established the basic three-tiered structure of the federal court system
content regulations
limitations on the substance of the mass media
Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007
lobbying reform banning gifts to member of Congress and their staffs, toughening disclosure requirements, and increasing time limits on moving from the federal government to the private sector
departments
major administrative units with responsibility for a broad area of government operations. Departmental status usually indicates a permanent national interest in a particular governmental function, such as defense, commerce, or agriculture
cloture
mechanism requiring the vote of sixty senators to cut off debate
news media
media providing the public with new information about subjects of public interest
First Continental Congress
meeting held in Philadelphia from September 5 to October 26, 1774, in which fifty-six delegates (from every colony) except Georgia) adopted a resolution in opposition to the Coercive Acts
Stamp Act Congress
meeting of representatives of nine of the thirteen colonies held in New York City in 1765, during which representatives drafted a document to send to the kind that lists how their rights had been violated
Second Continental Congress
meeting that convened in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, at which it was decided that an army should be raised and George Washington of Virginia was named commander in chief
elector
member of the Electoral College
Joint Chiefs of Staff
military advisory body that includes the Army chief of staff, the Air Force chief of staff, the chief of naval operations, and the Marine commandant
signing statements
occasional written comments attached to a bill signed by the president
political action committees (PACc)
officially recognized fund-raising organizations that represent interest groups and are allowed by federal law to make contributions directly to candidates' campaigns
Fourteenth Amendment
one of the three Civil War Amendments; guarantees equal protection and due process of the law to all U.S. citizens
Thirteenth Amendment
one of the three Civil War Amendments; specifically bans slavery in the United States
Fifteenth Amendment
one of the three Civil War Amendments; specifically enfranchised newly freed male slaves
statist
one who believes in extensive government control of personal and economic liberties
libertarian
one who believes in limited government interference in personal and economic liberties
social conservative
one who believes that the government should support and further traditional moral teachings
liberal
one who favors greater government intervention, particularly in economic affairs and in the provision of social services
conservative
one who favors limited government intervention, particularly in economic affairs
citizen journalists
ordinary individuals who collect, report, and analyze news content
527 political committee
organizations created with the primary purpose of influencing electoral outcomes; the term is typically applied only to freestanding interest groups that do not explicitly advocate fro the election of a candidate
Committees of Correspondence
organizations in each of the American colonies created to keep colonists abreast of developments with the British; served as powerful molders of public opinion against the British
extradition clause
part of Article IV of the Constitution that requires states to extradite, or return, criminals to states where they have been convicted or are to stand trial
Fifth Amendment
part of the Bill of Rights that imposed a number of restrictions on the federal government with respect to the rights of persons suspected of committing a crime. It provides fro indictment by a grant jury and protection against self-incrimination, and prevents the national government from denying a person life, liberty, or property without the due process of law. It also prevents the national government from taking property without just compensation
First Amendment
part of the Bill of Rights that imposes a number of restrictions on the federal government with respect to civil liberties, including freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition
Ninth Amendment
part of the Bill of Rights that makes it clear that enumerating rights in the Constitution or Bill of Rights does not mean that others do not exist
Fourth Amendment
part of the Bill of Rights that reads: "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized"
Sixth Amendment
part of the Bill of Rights that sets out the basic requirements of procedural due process for federal courts to follow in criminal trials. These include speedy and public trial, impartial juries, trials in the state where the crime was committed, notice of the charges, the right to confront and obtain favorable witnesses, and the right to counsel
governmental (institutional) agenda
problems to which public officials feel obliged to devote active and serious attention
non-means-tested programs
programs that provide cash assistance to qualified beneficiaries, regardless of income. Among these are Social Security and unemployment insurance
means-tested programs
programs that require that beneficiaries have incomes below specified levels to be eligible for benefits. Among these are SI, TANF, and SNAP
Equal Rights Amendment
proposed amendment to the Constitution that states "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex."
Title IX
provision of the Education Amendments of 1972 that bars educational institutions that receive federal funds from discriminating against female students
de jure discrimination
racial segregation that is a direct result of law or official policy
Pendleton Act
reform measure that established the principle of federal employment on the basis of open, competitive exams and created the Civil Service Commission
delegate
representative to the party convention
Electoral College
representatives of each state who cast the final ballots that actually elect a president
trustee
role played by an elected representative who listens to constituents' opinions and then uses his or her best judgment to make final decision
delegate
role played by an elected representative who votes the way his or her constituents would want, regardless of personal opinions
executive order
rule or regulation issued by the president that has the effect of law. All executive orders must be published in the Federal Register.
full faith and credit clause
section of Article IV of the Constitution that ensures judicial decrees and contracts made in one state will be binding and enforceable in any other state
charter schools
semipublic schools that have open admission but may also receive private donations to increase the quality of education
collective goods
something of value that cannot be withheld from a nonmember of a group, for example, a tax write-off or a better environment
conference committee
special joint committee created to reconcile differences in bills passed by the House and Senate
independent expenditures
spending for campaign activity that is not coordinated with a candidate's campaign
joint committee
standing committee that includes members from both houses of Congress set up to conduct investigations or special studies
Miranda rights
statements required of police that inform a suspect of his or her constitutional rights protected by the Fifth Amendment, including the right to an attorney provided by the court if the suspect cannot afford one
polarization
the presence of increasingly conflicting and divided viewpoints between the Democratic and Republican parties
policy coordinating committees
subcabinet-level committees created to facilitate interactions between agencies and departments to handle complex policy problems
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
supreme Curt case that challenged a Louisiana statue requiring that railroads provide separate accommodations for blacks and whites. The Court found that separate-but-equal accommodations did not violate the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment
symbolic speech
symbols, signs, and other methods of expression generally considered to be protected by the First Amendment
unitary system
system of government in which the local and regional governments derive all authority from a strong national government
federal system
system of government in which the national government and state governments share power and derive all authority from the people
narrowcasting
targeting media programming at specific populations within society
tariffs
taxes on imported goods
select (or special) committee
temporary committee appointed for a specific purpose
direct incitement test
test articulated by the Supreme Court in Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969) holding that the First Amendment protects advocacy of illegal action unless imminent lawless action is intended and likely to occur
clear and present danger test
test articulated by the Supreme Court in Schenck v. U.S. (1919) to draw the line between protected and unprotected speech; the Court looks to see "whether the words used" could "create a clear and present danger that they will bring about substantive evils" that Congress seeks "to prevent."
Hatch Act
the 1939 act to prohibit civil servants from taking activist roles in partisan campaigns. This act prohibited federal employees from making political contributions, working for a particular party, or campaigning for a particular candidate
Cuban Missile Crisis
the 1962 confrontation over the deployment of ballistic missiles in Cuba that nearly escalated into nuclear was between the United States and the Soviet Union
Reagan Doctrine
the Reagan administration's commitment to ending communism by providing military assistance to anti-communist groups
Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857)
the Supreme Court concluded that the U.S. Congress lacked the constitutional authority to bar slavery in the territories. This decision narrowed the scope of national power, while it enhanced that of the states
Roe v. Wade (1973)
the Supreme Court found that a woman's right to an abortion was protected by the right to privacy that could be implied from specific guarantees found in the Bill of Rights applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment
Barron v. Baltimore (1833)
the Supreme Court ruled that the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment did not apply to the actions of states. This decision limited the Bill of Rights to the actions of Congress alone
government
the formal vehicle through which policies are made and affairs of state are conducted
veto
the formal, constitutional authority of the president to reject bills passed by both houses of Congress, thus preventing them from becoming law without further congressional action
solicitor general
the fourth-ranking member of the Department of Justice; responsible for handling nearly all appeals on behalf of the U.S. government to the Supreme Court
civil rights
the government-protected rights of individual against arbitrary or discriminatory treatment by governments or individuals
secular realignment
the gradual rearrangement of party coalitions, based more on demographic shifts than on shocks to the political system
majority leader
the head of the party controlling the most seats in the House of Representatives or the Senate; is second in authority to the Speaker of the House and in the Senate is regarded as its most powerful member
minority leader
the head of the party with the second highest number of elected representatives in the House of Representatives or Senate
collective security
the idea that an attack on one country is an attack on all countries
détente
the improvement in relations between the United States and the Soviet Union that occurred during the 1970s
global warming
the increase in global temperatures due to carbon emissions from burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil
press secretary
the individual charged with interacting and communicating with journalists on a daily basis
finance chair
the individual who coordinates the financial business of the campaign
campaign manager
the individual who travels with the candidate and coordinates the campaign
media effects
the influence of news sources on public opinion
cooperative federalism
the intertwined relationship between the national, state, and local governments that began with the New Deal, often referred to as marble-cake federalism
original jurisdiction
the jurisdiction of courts that hear a case first, usually in a trial. These courts determine the facts of the case
issue networks
the loose and informal relationships that exist among a large number of actors who work in broad policy areas
civil serve system
the merit system by which many federal bureaucrats are selected
New Deal
the name given to the program of Relief, Recover, Reform" begun by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 to bring the United States out of the Great Depression
military-industrial complex
the network of political and financial relations formed by defense industries, the U.S. armed forces, and Congress
popular sovereignty
the notion that the ultimate authority in society rests with the people
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
the office that prepares the president's annual budget proposal, reviews the budget and programs of the executive departments, supplies economic forecasts, and conducts detailed analyses of proposed bills and agency rules
president pro tempore
the official chair of the Senate; usually the most senior member of the major party
Speaker of the House
the only officer of the House of Representatives specifically mentioned in the Constitution; the chamber's most powerful position; traditionally a member of the majority party
communications director
the person who develops the overall media strategy for the candidate
civil liberties
the personal guarantees and freedoms that the government cannot abridge by law, constitution, or judicial interpretation
divided government
the political condition in which different political parties control the presidency and Congress
unified government
the political condition in which the same political party controls the presidency and Congress
majority party
the political party in each house of Congress with the most members
minority party
the political party in each house of Congress with the second most members
impeachment
the power delegated to the House of Representatives in the Constitution to charge the president, vice president, or other "civil officers," including federal judges, with "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors." This is the first step in the constitutional process of removing government officials from office
appellate jurisdiction
the power vested in particular courts to review and/or revise the decision of a lower court
implied powers
the powers of the national government derived from the enumerated powers and the necessary and proper clause
enumerated powers
the powers of the national government specifically granted to Congress in Article I, section 8 of the Constitution
manifest destiny
theory that the United States was divinely supported to expand across North America to the Pacific Ocean
fundamental freedoms
those rights defined by the Court as essential to order, liberty, and justice and therefore entitled to the highest standard of review
Federalists
those who favored a stronger national government and supported the proposed U.S. Constitution later became the first U.S. political party
Anti-Federalists
those who favored strong state governments and a weak national government; opposed ratification of the U.S. Constitution
Lemon test
three-part test created by the Supreme Court for examining the constitutionality of religious establishment issues
seniority
time of continuous serve on a committee
concurrent powers
type of government in which the national government derives its powers from the states; a league of independent states
straw poll
unscientific survey used to gauge public opinion on a variety of issues and policies
slander
untrue spoke statements that defame the character of a person
logrolling
vote trading; voting to support a colleague's bill in return for a promise of future support
Farwell Address
when President George Washington left office, he wrote a letter, addressed to the People of the United States, warning people of the dangers to avoid in order to preserve the republic
Civil Rights Act of 1964
wide-ranging legislation passed by Congress to outlaw segregation in public facilities and discrimination in employment, education, and voting; created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
fighting words
words that "by their very utterance inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach of peace." fighting words are not subject to the restrictions of the First Amendment
interagency councils
working groups created to facilitate coordination of policy making and implementation across a host of governmental agencies