OMW Midterm (Protestant Reformation)

How did Spain acquire the dominant position in Europe in the sixteenth century? What were its strengths and weaknesses as a nation?

- During the 16th century Spain acquired a dominant position through empire expansion. - Philip II, who ruled Spain through most of the second half of the 16th century, controlled vast territories, many people, and much wealth. For the first 25 years or so of Philip's reign, his attention was focused on the demographic and economic changes within his kingdom, defense against the Turks in the Mediterranean, and the annexation of Portugal (which led to control over Portugal's wealthy colonies). The second half of his reign was overshadowed by unrest and, eventually, defeat in the Netherlands.

What was Elizabeth I's "settlement"? How was it imposed on England? Who were her opponents and what were their criticisms of her?

- Elizabeth I thought the nation was more important than religion (politique) and wanted to make one big Church. - Opponents were extremists. - Spanish criticized her protestants way and refusal to marry Philip II.

What were the forces behind European expansion in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries?

- European economic motivation was the main cause of European exploration in the 15th and 16th century. Explorers were in search of gold, spices, and new trade routes. - Since trade within Asia and Africa was shrinking there was great competition among European explorers to find new trade routes. - Exploration was motivated by the desire to convert and spread Catholicism - Unification of Spain; strong militant Catholicism - Italian and Muslim control of the Mediterranean during the 15th and 16th century forced countries like Portugal to explore elsewhere.

Discuss the early Jesuits work in education, and their philosophy of teaching and scholarship. How did they combine the influence of the Humanists as well as the Scholastics?

- Ignatius' humanistic approach to education included encouraging critical thinking, religious values, and explorative thinking. - Spiritual exercises were humanistic

Luther's rebellion started against a backdrop of problems. What were the intellectual, social, political, and economic factors that led Luther to challenge the church and help explain the rapid spread of his beliefs?

- Intellectual problems include the belief that one must live a nearly sinless life to be saved led Luther to challenge the Roman Church. - Economic problems include the selling of indulgences which were regularly dispensed for small cash payments, they were modest sums that were regarded as a good work of almsgiving. The Peasant Revolt was happening in Germany during this time and laypeople could not afford to buy indulgences. - Political factor includes one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Empire being Fredrick the Elector, one of Luther's protectors during the Diet of Worms. He let his ideas spread and allowed him to continue to challenge the church. - A social factor is Northern Humanist (in Germany) had opposed Rome which provided a solid foundation for Luther's movement.

Explain why and to whom Luther's ideas appealed and how they were spread.

- Luther's ideas appealed to 1) Protestants against the church 2) young humanist 3) those opposed to governmental authority 4) political leaders - The ideas were spread through Luther and his followers preaching and writing about a priesthood of all believers and ridiculed papal laws because it was not scriptural. It was also spread by Luther posting the 95 theses to the door of Church of Wittenberg. Soon enough German Humanist and Peasantry considered him to be an ally.

Discuss the genesis of Ignatius Loyola's conversion and his founding of the Society of Jesus. How did he and the early Society contribute to the Catholic Reformation?

- St. Ignatius Loyola was born into a wealthy noble family and later took part in the military. - After having suffered from an injury, he turned to literature, specially faith-based reading like The Golden Legend, Life of Christ, and most importantly Imitation of Christ. - When his practices became popularized, especially after having studied in France, he gained a following and they were labeled as the Society of Jesus. The Society of Jesus was not solidified until he went to Rome, and when Ignatius passed 1,000 Jesuits were divided into 12 administrative provinces

How did the Reformation affect women in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries? How did relations between women and men in the family change?

- The Protestant Reformers' study of Scripture and the resulting conviction of the equality of all believers before God led them to initiate changes in the way education, the church, family, and societal structures were conceived. As a result of the Reformation, women were given new opportunities to be educated, participate in the church and in the family, and share the Gospel - Martin Luther proclaimed the priesthood of all believers, teaching that both men and women were equal before God and free to pursue their God-given vocational callings. - The family size changed

Why has the Thirty Years War been called a Meaningless War? Discuss.

- The Thirty Years' War has been called the outstanding example in European history of meaningless conflict because it epitomizes a conflict, that had deep religious motivations but greed and politics were the real forces at work; thus, the Thirty Years' War was meaningless because it had no concrete purpose. - The Thirty Years' War was politically worthless; however, for religions, the Thirty Year's War was very important for determining the people's ability to practice their religion. Nevertheless, the results of the war, millions of dead and the destruction of Germany. - The Treaty of Westphalia ended with Calvin's getting religious recognition.

List and enumerate the specific technical developments that made possible the explorations of the 16th century.

- The compass - Ships/sails - Astrolabe (measures angle and altitude) - Weapons

What explains the population decline in the Caribbean islands after Columbus's arrival, and how did Spain compensate for this?

- The native people living in America never experienced major epidemics until the Europeans came over. The most deadly disease spread was smallpox which killed millions of people. - Spain compensated for this because it was a form of weaponry and they were able to kill many natives

What led to the infamous Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre? What did it achieve?

- Through the support of powerful families like Bourbons and Montmorency Chatillons, the Huguenot's were able to combat Catherine de Medici, Queen of France and the Guises, an influencial Catholic families. - Catherine de Medici equipted the Guise family with a military to combat the Huguenots, though it was not her intention to murder the Huguenots. - The conflict between Protestant and Catholics shifted from internal political struggle to a warfare after 20,000 Huguenots were murdered in Paris on the feast day of St. Bartholomew on August 24, 1572. Achieved: - Henry Navarre enacted the Edict of Nantes, in relation to the Peace of Augsburg. This agreement allowed for the religious toleration of the Protestants. He did this in hopes of ending the violent wars between Catholics and Protestants.

Was, as some have claimed, the Thirty Years' War, "the outstanding example in European history of meaningless conflict? Explain why or why not.

- Wars are always fought for reasons. Although nominally the fighting was over religious issues, the Reformation being in full swing, the reasons the various phases of the Thirty Years War (1614-1648) were fought over the political and economic control of central Europe. - The Thirty Years War thus started out as a German Civil War, and spread to include the dominant powers in Europe at the time.

Describe the ways in which the Reformation contributed to the further breakup of the medieval world and the coming of the modern age.

- changing role in women: Protestant reformers favored clerical marriage, new laws gave them greater security and protection. They also gained the right to divorce and remarry. The education of women was also encouraged. - Arranged marriages-tended to be arranged by parents discussing terms of marriage before the prep for wedding, the couple could legally resist the marriage - Family size consisting of 2-4 children who survived into adulthood, woman originally producing 6-7 children but ⅓ died as infants, larger household including servants, in-laws, laborers and borders

Analyze the factors that contributed to the Radical Reformation. What were the general characterisitics and specific beliefs of the anabaptists.

Anabaptist Characteristics/Beliefs: - Rejected infant baptism and insisted on adult baptism since Jesus had been baptized as an adult - Separated themselves from established society in order to live communal lives in the imitation of Christ Factors Contributing to Radical Reformation: - Secular authorities perceived the separation from established society by anabaptist as a threat to basic social bonds. - People accused Zwingli and Luther of not promoting drastic change, radicals desired more thorough implementation of apostolic Christianity - Catholics/Lutherans/Zwinglians all opposed Anabaptism and were persecuted in cities - Movement found a footing in the rural agrarian classes of people

Analyze the beliefs of John Calvin, especially on the issue of salvation. What were the political and social implications of Calvin's beliefs?

Beliefs of John Calvin: - Divine predestination is the center of his beliefs. - denies free will because a persons path is already determined - Thought individuals have a responsibility to reorder society according to God's plan. - Believed humans must conform to god's will Political Implications/outcome of Calvin's beliefs: - Calvinism inspired massive political resistance in France, Germany, Netherlands, and Scotland - Calvin implements strict moral order; 5000 refugees from France, England, and Scotland fled religious persecution and moved to Geneva. Calvins became the early Puritans Social Implications: - Made people live good and moral lives to prove that they've already been saved

What was the outcome of the conflict between Catholics and Lutherans in the Holy Roman Empire?

Conflict: - Attempts to eradicate Protestantism - Diet of Worms: Charles V and estates of the Holy Roman Empire demanded that Lutherans revert to Catholicism Outcome: - Charles V realized that Protestantism was too deeply entrenched in the holy roman empire to eradicate it - Protestant forces defeated the army of Charles V. - Peace of Augsburg (1555): declared the ruler of a land would determine its religion. Religious freedom did not extend to Calvinist and Anabaptist

Explain the Council of Trent and the specific changes the Catholic Church made to the challenge of Protestantism.

Council of Trent: - Emperor Charles V advised Pope Paul III to call general council of the church to reassert Church doctrine(Apart of the Counter Reformation). This council included 3 sessions spread over the course of an 18 years due to war, plague and politics - aimed to stop corruption in the Catholic Church Changes the Catholic Church made to the challenge of Protestantism: - Conservatism at the council: Catholic Church reaffirmed its conviction in Good works were necessary for salvation - stopped the selling of indulgences - All 7 sacraments, Transubstantiation, Withholding of the eucharistic cup from italy, Clerical celibacy, Purgatory, The veneration of saints, relics and sacred images

How did the views of Columbus and De Las Casas about Amerindians differ? In what ways did they operate from the same assumptions?

De las casas - outspoken about the poor treatment of natives, believed that conquests was not necessary for conversation, both wanted conversion Columbus - felt that the island population seems naive and exploitable

How does the Edict of Nantes move in the direction of religious toleration? How does it fall short of toleration? What is the difference between religious toleration and religious freedom?

Edict of Nates: - This agreement was put forth after the St. Bartholomews Day Massacre. On this day thousands of Huguenots were murdered in Paris. - It allowed the establishment of minor religions (Lutheran, Calvinism, and Anabaptists)as part of the Peace of Augsburg and particularly gave French Calvinists religious freedom. - This was enacted by Henry of Navarre to help put an end to the religious wars between the Catholics and Protestants Religious freedom - is where people have the right to practise any religion that they want. Religious tolerance - is where people do not agree with your religion, but they will tolerate it

What similarities and differences do you see between the systems of government and religious policies in place in England and France at the end of the seventeenth century?

England: Strong parliament power: - Passed petition of grievances and petition of right because they did not want to pay for England's wars-Raised an army and incited a civil war in which the King was executed Religion: - Remained Puritan: People were worried that the heir to the throne would be Catholic because James II was married to a French Catholic, so parliament asked him to leave and he did Constitutionalist: - William and Mary could become monarchs if they agreed to the Bill of Rights France: System of government: - Absolutist - Less focus on religion, French king gives himself power to appoint Catholic bishops, took power away from the church -Restricted parliaments Divine right of kings: - doctrine that kings derive their authority from God, not from their subjects, from which it follows that rebellion is the worst of political crimes

How was the English Reformation different from religious reform on the Continent? How was it similar? What were the long-term consequences of the English Reformation?

English Reformation on the Continent: - Parliament reforms, meaning religious reforms must receive approvement from Parliament. -English clergy recognized Henry VIII as the church of England - Submission placed cannon law under royals control - Henry appointed a new archbishop who invalidated his first marriage. - Two important pieces of legislation 1) Act of Succession and Act of Supremacy England Reformation: (Religious) - England split from Catholicism - Henry enacted his own Church after the annulment of his marriage - they had to wait until his death to enact real Protestant reform - images were removed from Churches -Bloody Mary repealed protestant reforms and imposed strict catholic rule on the people of England -Elizabeth I succeeded Mary and worked out a lasting religious settlement for England

Why did Prostestantism succeed in Germany, parts of France, and England, while Catholicism strongly survived in Italy and elsewhere?

Germany: - Succeeded because of Luther and his movement. People were also angry at Rome. France: - Huguenots were strong in cities England: - Henry VIII split the church from Catholicism after the annulment of his marriage. Italy and Elsewhere: - Catholicism strongly survived in Italy because Rome was the center of Catholicism.

Compare and contrast the ideas of Huss and Luther. Why was Luther able to succeed in his revolt, whereas Huss was not?

Huss: - Extremist - Supported vernacular translations of the bible and criticized several aspects of the sacrament of Eucharist - Believes in Christ alone is the head of the Church and that only God can forgive us. - He traveled to the council of Constance to convince his strongest critics of the truth of his teaching. He was then accused of heresy and imprisoned, where he later died at the stake. Luther: (Why he was able to succeed) - His ideas appealed to people of all classes - Printing press made his ideas more accessible and assured they were recorded in all forms - Hymns made his ideas more appealing and those who were illiterate could be his followers - Protection by Frederick the Elector

Columbus found the islands he explored to be "thickly peopled.' What was his initial attitude toward the inhabitants? How did this attitude change over the course of his voyages?

Initial attitude: - Described them as timid and not warlike people. Change in Attitude: - Viewed them as another resource to exploit. He wanted to take possession of the land, no attempt to live in harmony with the natives. Marched in with proclamation and banner claiming the land for Spain with no regard to the natives that have lived there for years. Unwillingness to preserve the native people and renamed the islands.

Discuss Martin Luther's personal struggle over the issue of salvation, and explain how it was related to the issue of indulgences and to the ninety-five theses.

Luther struggled with the idea that salvation can only be achieved if one lives a nearly sinless life. He believed salvation could only be achieved through faith alone, and the way you should live life is through scripture alone. The papacy tried to reduce people's anxieties by selling indulgences. However, most of the funds raised from indulgences went towards the reconstruction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Luther began his public protest of indulgences on October 31, 1517, when he posted the 95 theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg.

Compare and contrast the religious compromises worked out in the Peace of Augsburg, the Edict of Nantes, and the Elizabethan religious settlement.

Peace of Augsburg: - Ended the wars of religion in Germany - Prince chose religion of subject: Lutheran or Catholic - Individuals could convert, move, or face extermination - Calvinists and Anabaptists excluded Edict of Nates: - Gave tolerance for Lutherans and Calvinism Elizabeth religious settlement: - Wanted ONE church

Describe Luther's political and social views, explain their religious and practical foundations, and apply them to the situation of the Peasant Revolt.

Peasant Revolt: - Recent tax increases and revocation of traditional rights fueled peasant anger in Germany. This was during the time of Luther's view of a corrupt papacy. It would seem likely that Luther would sympathize with the peasants but he did not. L's Political: - He was against the tax increases and eradicating certain human rights. Thought violence was not the solution to fixing this problem L's Social: - The tax increases were an act of greediness by the government. This is similar to the selling of indulgences by the Church.

Although the Protestant Reformation is usually interpreted as a religious movement, it did have a profound impact on European civilization in general. Discuss the political, social, and economic consequences of the Reformation.

Political: - Church (Catholics) had to work with state to stop the spread Protestantism. (EX: Diet of Worms/Council of Trent/ Edict of Nantes) social - division among people with different religions Economic: - churches (Catholic) were not being funded by the indulgences; this ended Renaissance patronage when they weren't given enough money to purchase art

Define the term politique. How does it apply as a description of Henry of Navarre (Henry IV of France), Elizabeth I, and William of Orange?

Politiques: - Rulers or people in positions of power who put the success and well-being of their states above all else. Henry of Navarre: - He initially kept the Protestant faith (the only French king to do so) and had to fight against the Catholic League, which denied that he could wear France's crown as a Protestant. After four years of stalemate, he converted to Catholicism to obtain mastery over his kingdom - He believed a royal policy of tolerant Catholicism would be the best way to achieve peace. - He promulgated the Edict of Nantes (1598), which guaranteed religious liberties to Protestants, thereby effectively ending the Wars of Religion. Elizabeth I: - Established that the church of England welcomes everybody and would not persecute Catholics. - she repealed the anti- Protestant legislation of Mary Tudor, and guided England to where they can settle their religious differences. - Despite what her religion was, Elizabeth I put everything behind her and focused on the good of her country. William of Orange: - Originally a Dutch Prince - placed the political autonomy and well-being of the Netherlands above religious creeds. - He was known to be a staunch Protestant, so England invited him and his wife Mary to rule after the Glorious Revolution ended. - Pacification of Ghent was when William of Orange united the 17 provinces of Spain. This was the first sign of Netherlands nationalistic self-consciousness.

What explains the fact that despite the "Golden Century" Spain never became a major trading or industrial center?

Spain never became a major trading or industrial center because all of the money coming in from the mines in the Americas was spent immediately and never saved or stored.

Discuss the Roman Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation. What steps did the Church take to reform the church and fight Protestantism in Europe?

The Roman Catholic church established a Counter-Reformation in response to the Protestant Reformation. To fight Protestantism in Europe the church met at the Council of Trent and made the following changes... - Stop the selling of indulgences - The Inquisition was a powerful office set up within the Catholic Church to root out and punish heresy throughout Europe and the Americas. - Worked to increase education for priests - Made an index of prohibited books - Adapted services for longer hymns and services

What were the terms and objectives of the Treaty of Westphalia?

The Treaty of Westphalia - resolved the 30 Years War. Many territories received additions of land, while some had a negative turnout. Religiously, rulers had the right to impose the religion of a state, however allowing toleration of other faiths. Outcome: - All parties would now recognize the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of cuius regio, eius religion).

Why was the Thirty Years War fought? Could matters have been resolved without war? To what extent did politics determine the out come of the war?

Why: - The 30 Year's War was fought on the grounds of religious and political opposition. Attaining new territory was a major reason for fighting. - The peace of Augsburg had attempted to freeze the territorial holdings Lutherans in the Catholics Four Periods within the War: 1) Bohemian - Ferdinand attempt to restore Catholicism to eastern hapsburg domains; escalates into international war 2) The Danish Period- The Lutheran King of Denmark joins the Protestant Side. 3) The Swedish Period- King of Sweden joins Denmark and Netherlands 4) The Swedish/French Period- France joins forces against Spain. Outcome: - the 30 Year's War ended with the Treaty of Westphalia - Ended all hostilities with the holy Roman Empire - First general peace in Europe after a war - The ruler of the land determines the religion of the land - The treaty gave Calvinists legal recognition