P2: Cold War Crises, Leaders and Countries

What did the Berlin Wall mean for the Cold War?

The building of the Berlin Wall settled the question of Germany and reved it as a key issue in Cold War negotiations. The US complained about the wall, and at one point US tanks confronted Soviet tanks at Checkpoint Charlie (official border post), however the US was relieved that a war over Berlin was prevented. The focus of the Cold War moved from Europe, although US missiles in Turkey remained an issue for the Soviets.

The impact of the Cold War on the nature of Castro's government

Castro used the continual threat of US intervention and the defeat of the USA at the Bay of Pigs to ensure Cubans followed laws and directives and also to appeal to nationalism in order to unite the country.

Why was the presence of missiles so intolerable to the US?

In October 1962, Kennedy was presented with photos from a U-2 spy plane which showed evidence that launch pads were being constructed by the Soviet for IRBMs. Although the positioning of the missiles in Cuba did not affect the worldwide nuclear balance, it reduced the warning time for missiles fired at the United States and would seem to the US public that the balance of power has shifted. Kennedy, under pressure following the disastrous episode of the Bay of Pigs and facing Congressional elections in November, had to take action, without precipitating a dangerous and world-threatening collision with the USSR.

Significance of the Berlin Wall Crisis (1958-1961)

Brown and Mooney (1981) - "... underlying all the questions that separated the Great Powers in the first 16 years of the Cold War was Germany." By 1949, Germany was essentially halved, which was so significant that it fuelled the Cold War up to 1961. Political and economic differences between the two spheres were candidly evident.

The impact of the Cold War on West German Politics

Adenauer agreed with the Allies that Stalin's proposal in 1952 for reuniting Germany was intended to split Germany from the West and keep a German state under Soviet influence. Rather, Adenauer wanted to gain support from the West and reform alliances with the French, which was met with criticism as it seemed to suggest he was not interested in reunifying Germany. As a result of Cold War tensions, Adenauer remained in power for 14 years because of the stability he represented and was more attractive than the extreme leftist groups present due to the strong anti-Communist sentiment of the 1950s.

The impact of the Cuban Missile Crisis

Although Castro's regime continued to rely on the USSR for economic aid and arms, Cuba became determined not to become a pawn in the East-West struggle rather pursuing a foreign policy independent of Moscow by spreading revolution in Africa and Central America. The crisis also resulted in the Test-Ban Treaty of August 1963 which forbade nuclear tests in the atmosphere, space or underwater and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968, which prevented signatories from transferring weapons, or knowledge of how to make them, to non-nuclear powers.

Discussion around the Berlin Crisis following Khrushchev's failed ultimatum

Although Khrushchev's ultimatum failed in the face of Western outrage, the German question was discussed at a conference in Geneva in the summer of 1959 with both sides proposing German unity however no agreement was secured. In September 1949, at a meeting in the US Khrushchev and Eisenhower were again unable to reach an agreement. A follow-up summit in Paris for May 1960 was cancelled due to the U-2 incident. Ulbricht, growing increasingly frustrated with the growing number of refugees fleeing from East Germany, urged Khrushchev to use force; however Khrushchev was hopeful he would be able to gain concessions over Berlin with the election of Kennedy (1960).

What did the Berlin Wall mean for Ulbricht?

Although Ulbricht did not get his peace treaty, the closed border in Berlin, combined with Soviet assistance, and helped him to consolidate Communist control in the GDR.

The impact of the Cold War on the division of Germany

Although the division of Germany at Yalta was only meant to be temporary, Cold War tensions were to lead to the country's permanent division. Whilst the Soviets began to dismantle factories, removed machinery and other valuable assets from their zone of control, the British and Americans introduced a new currency in 1947, lifted price controls and introduced Marshall Aid to help restart the economy. There were also political differences between the West and the East. The Berlin Blockade (1948-1949) made the division of Germany inevitable, which devastated many German families who remained divided throughout the Cold War. The German Democratic Republic (GDR) and the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) reflected the ideologies of opposing superpowers and carryed out propaganda wars against each other.

What were the results of the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion?

As a result of the failed invasion, Kennedy lost prestige within the United States and in the rest of the world and also undermined his attempts to identify the USA with anti-colonialism. It increased Castro's support within Cuba and strengthened his position. Following, the fiasco Castro declared himself as a Marxist-Leninist and concluded a defensive alliance with the Soviet Union, which involved a flow of Soviet advisers and into Cuba. The USA continued efforts to reverse the Cuban revolution, such as covert actions (Operation Mongoose), diplomatic isolation of Cuba and military pressure.

The Symbolism of the Berlin Wall

Between 1961 and 1989, the Berlin Wall stood as a symbol of the division between East and West. Winston Churchill's idea of an 'Iron Curtain' had become a reality in the form of a concrete wall. Kennedy described the wall as "the most vivid demonstration of the failures of the Communist system" and "an offence against humanity" in his "Ich bin ein Berliner' speech (1963). Over the next 30 years, 100s of people were killed by East German border guards when attempting to defect to the West. When the collapse of the Soviet Union began in 1989, the dismantling of the wall by the people of Berlin was the most vivid symbol of political reality: the Cold War was over.

The impact of the Cold War on Cuba's economy

Castro wanted to emulate Stalin's industrialisation of the USSR in the 1930s, which was also isolated by the US at the time. Despite investment from USSR, sugar production fluctuated. Although there was a rise in global sugar prices in 1970, Cuba was in heavy debt with the USSR. In 1972 Castro joined COMECON and signed a 15-year economic agreement with Brezhnev that provided Cuba with even more subsidies. Tensions between the USSR and USA meant that the Soviets were determined to support Castro's regime, even setting up the System of Direction and Planning of the Economy and the formation of Cuba's first five-year plan. As superpower tensions decreased, Soviet interest in Cuba declined as Gorbachev introduced his wide-ranging reforms and in 1989 he cut subsidies to Cuba. As Communist regimes fell across Eastern Europe, the Soviets cut oil supplies by 60% by 1991 and when the USSR was dissolved (late 1991) its economic support for Cuba ceased. Despite severe economic issues with the fall in GDP of 35% by 1993 and oil, gas, water and electricity shortages, Castro maintained his opposition to Capitalism.

Economic Differences between West Germany and East Germany

Economically, West Germany was geographically larger and had a lager populace, thus more industrial output potential, also received Marshall Aid. Germany in the 1950 and 60s were termed the 'economic miracle' where the standard of living rose rapidly. Meanwhile, in the East Ulbricht's forced collectivisation of farms and socialisation which were disastrous for East German economy. These hardships and the low standards of living led to many East Germans fleeing to the West through Berlin.

What is Peaceful Co-Existence?

Following Stalin's death (1953) and removal of Beria (Stalin's chief of secret police), Soviet foreign policy came under the collective leadership of Georgy Malenkov, Nikoli Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev. Malenkov formulated the idea of a 'New Course', which Khrushchev later renamed 'Peaceful Co-Existence'. This marked a move away from Lenin's 'necessity of war'. It meant that capitalism and communism should accept the continuing existence of one another rather than use force to destroy each other. Just as the Americans believe that, deprived of opportunities from expansionism, Communism would collapse, Khrushchev declared that in any case capitalism would die out due to its own inherent weaknesses. Thus there is no need to risk nuclear war.

The Crisis of 1958: Situation in Berlin

Following the 1948 Blockade, Berlin remained divided (Soviet, British, French and American occupation) with inequalities clearly seen due to economic and political differences. Escape from East to West was easy (subway/train) through Berlin then emigrate. Between 1945 and 1961, a sixth of the whole German population moved to the West. Additionally, Berlin's division enabled the West to run a propaganda and espionage base 186km deep in East German sphere.

What did the Berlin Wall mean for Khrushchev?

For Khrushchev, the wall was a defeat in the sense that it was a visible admission that the Communist propaganda message had failed: the Soviets had to create a barrier to keep the people in the East. He was able to regain control over this and free himself from pressure from Ulbricht. Once the wall was built, Khrushchev went back on his promise to Ulbricht and did not sign a separate peace treaty with the GDR that would have given East Germany access over routes to Berlin.

What did the Berlin Wall mean for the citizens of Berlin?

For the citizens of Berlin the wall was a horrifying experience as families and friends were cut off from each other and they continued on the front line of the Cold War.

Khrushchev's Ultimatum to the West

In 1958, Khrushchev proposed a peace treaty that recognised the existence of the two Germanys. In November 1958, he demanded the demilitarisation of Berlin involving the withdrawal of Western troops within 6 months to become a 'free city'. Khrushchev threatened that control of access routes to the Western sectors of Berlin would be turned over to the GDR (East Germany), which would give the GDR to interfere with traffic using land corridors from the FRG forcing the Western allies to recognize the sovereignty of the GDR. The West did not want to lose their prestige over Berlin or concede their intelligence base, however resisting Khrushchev could mean war. Khrushchev was prepared to precipitate such a war due to, according to Soviet archives, fear of West Germany acquiring nuclear weapons, concerns over the failing East German economy and pressure from Ulbricht (leader of GDR).

Why did Khrushchev put missiles in Cuba?

In 1962, Khrushchev placed intermediate range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) into Cuba with the aim of protecting Cuba. It was also in response to the placement of missiles in Turkey, which bordered the USSR, by the USA in 1959. Khrushchev also wanted to redress the humiliation caused by the Berlin Wall and acquire leverage in the stationing of US nuclear missiles in Europe. Robert Beggs (1977) - by placing missiles in Cuba, the Soviets had "stolen a march on the Americans". Gaddis, supported by Zubok and Pleshakov, believed that the Bay of Pigs showed Kennedy's determination to crush Cuban revolution, thus the placement of missiles was a defensive precaution for both Cuba and Soviet hegemony and the spread of Communism.

Impact of Cold War tensions on Cuban Foreign Policy in Africa

In Angola, which had been liberated from Portuguese control in 1974, a war broke out by the US-backed group, FNLA, and the MPLA, backed by the USSR. Castro sent 17,000 troops to help fight the 'imperialists'. In 1976 the MPLA won the civil war and the new government signed a Treaty of Friendship with the USSR. Although Cuban supports were essential in this victory, they were seen as Soviet expansionism and sustained US hostility towards Castro's regime. As a result of Angola, in September 1979 Castro was elected leader of the Non-Aligned Movement whilst still receiving about $6 billion of Soviet assistance annually. Brian Latell - 'those months in the fall of 1979 were the apogee of his power'.

Impact of Cold War tensions on the nature and direction of Cuba's revolution

In Castro's 'History will Absolve Me' speech, he set out five revolutionary laws - return power to the people, give land rights to those holding smaller plots, allow workers to have a 30% share of profits, allowing sugar plantation workers to have a 55% share of profits and end corruption. However the USA viewed these reforms as Communist in nature, which was further supported by the Agrarian Reform Act of July 1959 which sought to redistribute large land holdings to peasants. As a result, the US imposed an embargo on sugar in 1960 and ultimately imposed a total blockade in 1962. As a result, Castro turned to the USSR for economic aid, who viewed it as an opportunity to expand their sphere of influence. Castro declared himself as a Marxist-Leninist following US air raids in 1961 that were the prelude to the Bay of Pig invasion, which allowed him to gain the commitment of the USSR in the protection of the Cuban revolution.As a result of the Bay of Pigs fiasco, there was increased nationalist sentiment in Cuba and Castro was able to consolidate his power.

Castro takes power

In January 1959, the US recognised the new Cuban government under the leadership of Fidel Castro. Initially proclaiming that he was not a Communist, Castro hoped to obtain economic assistance from the US to fund reforms in April 1959. However, Castro refused to follow the guidelines of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and instead turned to the Soviet Union which offered economic aid in February 1960. Due to the close proximity of Cuba to the USA, this was perceived as a direct challenge to the USA.

Why was the Bay of Pigs invasion a failure?

In March 1960, President Eisenhower approved a CIA plan that intended on training Cuban refugees for an invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs in order to overthrow Castro's government, which was later inherited and enacted by Kennedy. However, the invasion failed with 1214 of the 1400 invaders captured, who were later released in return for $53 million worth of food and machines. Kennedy was condemned internationally for the failed venture, however in actuality the poor planning of the CIA were more at fault, including the underestimation of popular support for Castro's regime.

Impact of Cold War tensions on Cuban Foreign Policy in Latin America

In line with Marxist-Leninist ideology and to end US-isolation of Cuba, Castro provided training and helped to arm revolutionary groups in Latin America to overthrow oppressive regimes and US influence to create 'many Vietnams'. Although these revolutions did not succeed, it created concern in the USA. In Nicaragua in 1979, there was international support for a coalition of leftists, the Sandinistas, who overthrew the corrupt and inhuman leadership of Anastasio Somoza. Cuba sent 2500 advisers to the new regime, who had similar ideals to Castro. However the new regime was challenged by a right-wing group, the 'Contras', who were provided with material assistance from US President Ronald Reagan. Due to the invasion of Caribbean island of Grenada, where Cuba had also sent advisers, in 1983 by the US, Nicaragua demanded the withdrawal of all Cuban advisers in order to prevent US invasion.

How was the Cuban Missile Crisis resolved?

Kennedy assembled a crisis management team, the Executive Committee (ExComm) to deal with the threat of missiles in Cuba. Rejecting calls from the military for an immediate air strike and invasion of Cuba, Kennedy ordered a naval blockade of the island to prevent the delivery of any nuclear weaponry. After initially ignoring the quarantine and sending ships containing missiles headed for Cuba, on October 24th six Soviet ships turned back towards the Soviet Union. On the 26th of October, Khrushchev, convinced the US was on the verge of attacking Cuba, sent a telegram saying that the USSR would remove the missiles in return for a US pledge not to invade Cuba. In a second, more demanding letter, Khrushchev insisted on the inclusion of the removal of Turkish missiles in any deal over Cuba. Placing further pressure on Kennedy to take military action, Soviet military leaders without authorisation from the government shot down a US U-2 spy plane over Cuba. Kennedy accepted Khrushchev's first offer and on 28th of October, Khrushchev removed all missiles from Cuba with no reference to US removal of missiles from Turkey.

What conclusions can be reached about Khrushchev's actions in the Cuban Missile Crisis?

Khrushchev claimed victory as he argued that Cuban revolution was no longer under threat as Kennedy had promised not to invade Cuba. He was also prepared to back down in the face of nuclear war in order to preserve world peace. Castro was furious with Khrushchev's handling of the affair as he was not consulted about the final deal and was also left with the US base at Guantanamo Bay. Domestically, the military were particularly angry as they had to accept a hasty withdrawal from Cuba and US officials inspected missiles as they were removed, in addition to previous military cuts.

Khrushchev's Peaceful Co-Existence and Geneva Summit

Khrushchev eased tensions with USA and talked about peaceful co-existence rather than conflict. After ten years without any meetings between leaders of the USSR and USA, Khrushchev met with Western leaders in 1955 and 1960. There are improved relations between the Soviets and America post-1953 with the agreement over Austria. Soviets proposed Austrian Peace Treaty (April 1955) which ends occupation by 4 powers and allowed Austria to become an independent and neutral country. This leads to Geneva Summit (July 1955), however little of substance is achieved with disagreements regarding the arms race and Germany. Although there was no concrete progress, the Geneva Summit was a breakthrough in that discussions were carried out and also led to better relation in terms of trade exhibitions, exchanging scientific information and cultural exchanges.

Role of Khrushchev in the Cold War: Warsaw Pact

Khrushchev formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955, which was a defensive military alliance between many of the countries in the Eastern Sphere of Influence, and was in response to the establish of NATO and the Federal Republic of Germany being allowed to join NATO and rearm. The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) was also formed in response to NATO.

The impact of the Cold War on the economy of the FRG

Marshall Aid created a sense of confidence in investment and strengthened Adenauer's political position creating a sense of national stability that encouraged economic growth. The Korean War led to demand for German steel and manufactured goods, further boosting the economy, The fact that Germany was not allowed a military force meant spending was concentrated on rebuilding the country. The political stability, and strong, growing economy, encouraged skilled workers to escape from the East via West Berlin.

How was the Cuban Missile Crisis linked to the Berlin Crisis?

Resulting in an increase in tension, Kennedy believed that Khrushchev's actions were part of a Soviet plan to put pressure on America to get out of Berlin. Judt (2009) - the Soviets were not playing a 'complicated game of diplomatic chess' rather they were playing 'poker' in which 'they had a weak hand so they bluffed'.

How effective was Kennedy's handling of the Cuban Missile Crisis?

Sorensen and Neustadt, from an orthodox view, argue that the missile crisis was Kennedy's finest hour and that he successfully used nuclear brinkmanship to preserve world peace. From a revisionist perspective, Hagman and Horowitz argue that the missiles did not affect the worldwide nuclear balance and that Kennedy was only interested in personal and national prestige (i.e forthcoming elections and humiliation of Bay of Pigs), thus unnecessarily subjected the world to nuclear war. Following recent evidence from recordings of ExComm meetings, Kennedy repeatedly pushes for compromise and was keenly aware of the dangers of nuclear war.

Khrushchev's Peaceful Co-Existence and Khrushchev's visit to the US

Tensions over Berlin subsided and Khrushchev accepted an invitation to visit the US in September 1959 and arranged with Eisenhower for a summit meeting in Paris in May 1960. Although the meeting between Eisenhower and Khrushchev produced few results, it created a positive atmosphere termed by the public as 'the spirit of Camp David'. A few days before the summit in Paris, the Soviets announced an American plane had been shot down. The US initially denied that it was a spy plane, however the Soviets were able to prove, with support from the testimony of the pilot, Gary Powers, that it was in fact a high-altitude photo-reconnaissance plane. Eisenhower, although admitting the purpose of the plane, stated that aerial surveillance was 'a vital necessity', which, by 1962, ended any development in relations between the USA and USSR.

Role of Kennedy in the Cold War

The Cold War and the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union were vital international issues throughout Kennedy's political career. His inaugural address stressed the contest between the free world and the communist world, and he pledged that the American people would "pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and success of liberty." Kennedy made efforts to reduce direct tensions with the USSR following the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the installation of a teletype Hot Line was seen as essential to preventing the slowness of communication that had hampered talks during the crisis. He also signed the Limited Nuclear Test Ban in August 1963, which prohibited the testing of nuclear weapons in outer space, underwater or in the atmosphere. However Kennedy firmly believed in the "Domino Theory" and therefore, the idea of backing away from containment was impractical from a national security standpoint. JFK's 'flexible response' which expanded the available means of fighting and increased the number of American troops in Vietnam from 500 to 16,000..

Background to and causes of the Cuban Missile Crisis

The Cuban Missile Crisis, lasting 13 days, was the first time the USA and USSR came close to a direct military confrontation during the Cold War. In 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew the pro-American government led by General Flugencio Batista. Cuba, located 145 kilometres from the coast of Florida, was viewed to be in the US sphere of influence and thus should reflect US interests. US companies controlled most of Cuban industry. The USA also had an agreement with Cuba that allowed it to establish a naval base in Guantanamo Bay. The Platt Amendment (1901) allowed the US to interfere in Cuban domestic policy in the spirit of preserving Cuban independence.

The impact of the Cold War on the constitution of the FRG

The Federal Republic of Germany was a liberal democracy, which shared power between branches of government and between the federal Lander (states of Germany) and was committed to the protection of human rights and the reunification of Germany. Even after West German sovereignty was declared under Konrad Adenauer, the Ruhr was kept under international control and France retained the Saar coal-mining region.

How did the United States deal with the 'threat' of Castro?

The USA introduced an embargo to Cuba, which led to further economic agreements between Cuba and the Soviet Union. The USA also organised an invasion force of Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro's regime, which ended in humiliation for the US government.

Khrushchev, Ulbricht, and the crisis of 1960 - 1961

The first meeting of JFK and Khrushchev occurred at the Vienna Summit, where Khrushchev hoped to take advantage of JFK's inexperience due to his failure of Bay of Pigs fiasco. Khrushchev renews ultimatum on Berlin. JFK (to appear tough to Soviets) was not prepared to give any concessions to them. Kennedy referred to Berlin as 'an island of freedom in a Communist sea' and a 'beacon of hope being the Iron Curtain'. He said in a TV broadcast that US would not 'permit the Soviets drive us out of Berlin'. There was an increase in military spending and a civil defence programme to build more nuclear fallout shelters.

The Berlin Wall

The number of refugees moving from East to West increased. On the 12th of August 1961, 40,000 refugees fled to the West. Khrushchev had no intention of starting nuclear war over Berlin, following JFK's threat to defend Berlin 'by any means' and the growing crisis in East Germany, he bowed to Ulbricht's pressure and agreed to the closure of the East border in Berlin. On the 13th of August 1961, barbed wire fence was erected followed by a more permanent concrete wall.

Kennedy and flexible response

Under Kennedy's flexible response, he recognised the diversity, both geographically and in methodology (nationalist movements), of the Communist threat and moved away from Eisenhower's policy of massive retaliation.

Political Differences Between West Germany and East Germany

West Germany had democracy, however in the East there had not been free elections since 1946. By 1950s, there was a rigid, Stalinist, authoritarian state in East Germany which was met with massive discontent such as in riots in June 1953, the first major rebellion against Soviet control. Due to these differences, there was no attempt at re-unifying. Potential for conflict remained as evident in Khrushchev's description of Berlin as a 'fishbone in East Germany's gullet'.

The impact of the Cold War on West Germany's foreign policy

West Germany was important for America in the conflict against USSR due to the fact it bordered the Eastern bloc. With the break out of the Korean War, the US supported the idea of West Germany joining NATO given that the FRG faced an armed DDR. However, France could not be persuaded to allow this to happen until 1954. In 1955 Adenauer issued the Hallstein Doctrine, which stated the FRG would end diplomatic relations with any country that established diplomatic relations with the GDR. Hostilities reached a high point during the Berlin Wall crisis. With the election of Willy Brandt in 1969, as the superpowers were pushing towards détente, Brandt signed the Basic Treaty (Ostpolitik) was signed which recognised the existence of the two states creating a relaxation of tension and a sense of stability. However US-USSR détente came to an end, the gains of Ostpolitik came under pressure. The fall of the Berlin Wall, West Germany created a plan for the reunification of Germany with reunification occurring in October 1990.