P2 outlines (Human rels - Personal relationships)

Eval teacup matching hypothesis

+ Application - Testability, subjective ratings of physical attraction - Less empirical evidence - Less predictive validity

Contrasting evolutionary theory vs attachment theory pointers

Difference 1: Difference 2: Difference 3:

Discuss formation of personal relationships in general

Do bio and socio, better not to do just one approach

Evaluating evolutionary theory vs attachment theory pointers

Evolutionary + wedekind demonstrates evolutionary in terms of MHC predictive validity + application to real life, understanding why women may say no to certain men, encouraging men to become more mature - social norms changed since Charles Darwin natural selection theory - Doesn't apply to homosexual relationships Attachment + application to understanding how to have healthier attachments in familial/friend/romantic relationships + empirical evidence; morhenn et al found similar + Baumgartner et al; when playing game placebo prtcps more likely to dec rate of trust after briefed that trust broken whilst oxy prtcps continued to invest at similar rate, inc consis + rel - testability, difficulty to measure hormones as occur simultaneously with other hormones -

To what extent role of comms

For - collins + Milller Against - Cameron study from gender oneTo

Discuss the formation of prsnl rels / To what extent can personal relationships be explained by sociocultural/biological factors (switch socio/bio part first depending on which theory is in q) (INCOMPLETE CARD)

INSERT - IC = prioritise own experiences, beliefs interests, forming unique self identity, CC = prioritise: prioritise needs of others, tradition and the group, impact on prsnl rels through traditional mate characteristics = preferring ppl w characteristics conforming to cultural preference, to relate - Bejanyan: investigate influence of culture on mate preference through comparative study between young adults in India (CC) + America (IC) - exemplifying effect of culture diffs on attraction in prsnl rels < 209 singles, 82% future marriage, 14% undecided 4% not interested, paid fr completion online survey, demographic q's etc gender role ideology, collectivism, romantic beliefs, mate preferences + anticipated future difficulties in marriage < Indians reported greater collectivism, more traditional and pragmatic; pragmatic love: practical aspects of a relationship, like CC's compared to IC's,. Indians endorsed more traditional gender roles; women cooking males working, CC's tend to prioritise ability of m/f to fulfil these roles, whereas IC's wouldn't, depicting diffs in attraction in prsnl rels due to culture + asked same q's, standardised, consistency + another - self reported data - sample size, limited generalisability Desp..mini conc CT: - Evolution = change in characteristics of a species over svrl generations, relies on natural selection = populations of living organisms adapt + change < aspect = maximising effectiveness of offspring immune systems, research into MHC: females prefer less similar MHC genes, as ↑diversity in MHC genes → stronger immune systems. Interlinkage: mate selection = maximising chances of reproductive success through selecting desirable characteristics in mate, etc good resources, genes, parental abilities etc. Evolution suggests males prioritise short-term characteristics etc physical appearance, females prioritise long-ter etc financial stability + caregiving - Buss: test for gender differences in mate selection < 10,000 prtcs across 6 continents filled questionnaire w 3 sections 1. biological info related to age + religion + gender 2. desired age of marriage + desired age differential between spouses 3. rating 18 characteristics on imp when choosing a mate < stated preferred spouse age diffs reflected in acc age diffs at marriage + preferred age of self & spouse close to acc ages, suggesting when desired mate satisfies desired characteristic of age, more likely to form prsnl rel wthem < sig diffs in responses across 2 gndrs, f's valued financial capacity, older age + 'ambition', 'industriousness', m's valued physical attractiveness + youth more: supporting mate selection, whereby m's value + more attracted to ST, cues for high reproductive rates, whilst f's 'choosier', value + more attracted to LT, beneficial for raising child etc, hence we're more attracted to ppl representing the + sample → generalizable + another - self-reported data - questionnaire done once ↓ consistency ↓ Desp weak...mini conc: values influencign attraction to mates diff in m (ST) /f, (LT), form rels w those showcasing characteristics of interest..study helped establish a link between attraction + evolution as prtcps from all cultures had similar features, they were attracted to indicating attraction was due to evolution. SS: supported by findings from Shackelford et al (2005) found in a cross-cultural study, women valued social status more than men, supporting evolution as this indicated good resources to help support child long term. Whereas men valued physical strictness more than women, supporting evolution as this indicates good genes for offspring Overall conc:

Discuss one/more socio/ Evaluate sociocultural explanations in personal relationships

INSERT INTRO - IC = prioritise own experiences, beliefs interests, forming unique self identity, CC = prioritise: prioritise needs of others, tradition and the group, impact on prsnl rels through traditional mate characteristics = preferring ppl w characteristics conforming to cultural preference, to relate - Bejanyan: investigate influence of culture on mate preference through comparative study between young adults in India (CC) + America (IC) - exemplifying effect of culture diffs on attraction in prsnl rels < 209 singles, 82% future marriage, 14% undecided 4% not interested, paid fr completion online survey, demographic q's etc gender role ideology, collectivism, romantic beliefs, mate preferences + anticipated future difficulties in marriage < Indians reported greater collectivism, more traditional and pragmatic; pragmatic love: practical aspects of a relationship, like CC's compared to IC's,. Indians endorsed more traditional gender roles; women cooking males working, CC's tend to prioritise ability of m/f to fulfil these roles, whereas IC's wouldn't, depicting diffs in attraction in prsnl rels due to culture + asked same q's, standardised, consistency - self reported data - sample size, limited generalisability Desp w.. study effectively shows effect of CC'S + IC'S as it showed a difference in features found attractive by Indians and Americans. However, study goes against the evolutionary explanation of formation of relationships because evolution should predict all cultures are attracted to universal evolutionary standards as found by Buss et al (1989). Therefore, they should all be attracted to features that increase their chances of survival and reproduction. However, Buss et al (1990) in follow up study found notable diffs in cultures for characs related to housekeeping, personality, desire for home and children, refinement + neatness, education + religious background. This study along with Bejanyan suggest culture could have a role in attraction. - Proximity: ppl with whom we spend more time + physically closer to are more likely to become friends or romantic partners, cuz less resistance + effort, more convenient to form a rel w someone livin/workin nearby go to trouble of finding frnds/ prtnrs distances away. People tend to pair up w those whom been to skl/work w - familiarity:what is well known to an individual may appear to be more attractive than what is unknown. - Festinger: investigate whether proximity key factor in formation of rels < observed + regular interviews on MIT students living in 17 blocks of uni, each had 5 rooms, staircases at ends < asked abt 3 closest frnds, found friendships larger distance = less close, more likely between ppl on same floor + ppl closer to staircase more likely to make friends w those on diff floors; closer proximity, less resistance to communicate, spend more time, get to know each other, enhancing prsnl rel < prtcps w same bedtime + mealtime more likely to be friends: closer proximity, experience situations together, discuss days, fostering bond, supporting proximity as key factor in formation of prsnl rel + natural obs, ecological valditiy + interview, qual data, int val - same uni, limited generalisability Despite w's, study effectively shows potential link btwn proximity + formation of relationship - SS: Nahemov and Lawton (1975) showed that in homes for college students + the elderly, distances between rooms predicted friendship + attraction. However, study doesn't predict how long these friendships lasted. Might be the case that its initially easier to form friendships w those physically close but over time this may change. CT: question accuracy as early friendships based on proximity may be replaced by new people who share one's interests, hobbies, or personality traits. CONC

Discuss approaches to research used to study personal relationships/Contrast two approaches to research used to study personal relationships

RM's: approaches used by psychologists to investigate the answers to questions. Rsrchrs investigating prsnl rels use a variety of methods but most common technique: questionnaires + as elements of prsnl rels are v difficult to measure using other methods. Questionnaires allow rsrchrs to find universal behvs on elements of prsnl rels due to large num of responses they can get in a limited time. This essay will explore the use of questionnaires to prsnl rels using the study of Buss et al + Markey n Markey. Questionnaires: < written self-report technique, prtpcs given num of pre-set q's to respond to. < q's closed-ended/open-ended: questions, where there is a pre-determined set of answers to choose from, or open questions - where there is no restriction on how participants make their response. < relatively cheap + quick gathering lrge amnt of data. < Questionnaires can be completed privately however these prtcps dont get clarification on any q meanings etc < Distributing questionnaires en masse means any data collected relies on responses to be returned, response rates often poor, and it may be that only a certain type of person returns questionnaires, so generalising sample of results to a large population can be unconvincing. - Ex study uses questionnaire to demonstrate evolutionary exp for mate selection: Buss et al < aimed to investigate the extent to which evolution can be used to explain attraction. < used over 10,000 participants aged 19-28 from 33 countries (questionnaires: large sample) < ask abt characs etc age, religion, also indicated on rating scale how highly certain characs, etc chastity, were valued; ranked 13 personality characteristics according to their ideas as to mate preference (questionaires: close + open ended q's) - results support evolutionary theory of attraction: males focused on looks, youthfulness and signals of fertility, whereas women chose signs of wealth + security, had an overall preference for older mates, dmsntring how questionnaires useful... + questionnaire allowed researchers to investigate several countries and find evolutionary diffs in in priorities; m youthfulness, f security, increasing generalisability + rsrchrs ensured all questionnaires translated from original English then checked by translators, meaning all participants understood the questions increasing the validity of the procedure - questionaire involving ranking leads to diff interpretations of each value, dec int val - potential social desirability, dec int val Desp w.. q's useful in.... < SS: FIND used q's to find similar results.. consistency + rel supporting the RM CT: question whether questionnaires would be more valuable if they were more enjoyable, etc interviews more convo - Another study ex...Markey + Markey < aim: to investigate the extent to which similarity is a factor in the way people choose a partner < large sample of 169 (questionaires; large sample) < asked undergrads to describe psychological characteristics, values + attitudes of ideal romantic partner, w out thinking of anyone, then asked to describe themselves (questionnaire: mix of closed + open q's) - Follow-up study: 106 heterosexual cples together for a yea, filled out a questionnaire about themselves + partner's personality characs; found ppl want partners similar to themselves; similar individuals attracted to each other + form rels (questionnaires: quantitative data quick + easy to analyse in the form of both statistics and graphs) + sample 169, inc generalisability, reducing chances of anomalies + follow up study means replicable, inc consis + rel - scoial desirability, may feel expectation to over-estimate/under-estimate characs they're interested in dec int val - prtcps describing selves maybe subjective dec int val Desp w...q's useful... CT: questionnaires are quick, does this make them as valuable as we think they are? Overall...

Contrast pointers similarity vs matching hypothesis

Similarity attraction More empirical evidence Based on many factors e.g. personality, culture etc Can be real or perceived Matching Lack of studies showing this theory Only based on looks More linked to self-confidence Only real?

To what extent changing/ending (if it ever came up)

You could say from felmlee, 30% found fatal attraction

Eval TEACUP Similarity theory

+ Application + Empirical evidence - Testability difficlty as we can be similar in diff ways - Culture may influence - Predicitive validity in tidwell slightly not on point

Eval pointers TEACUP role of comms

+ Empirical evidence + Application - Testability; self reports could be subjective, social-desirability effect etc - Culture? CC vs IC could impact

Discuss ethical considerations in the study of personal relationships

- Ethics are moral principles that govern a person's behaviour or the conducting of an activity, hence must be considered in psych exps + investigations. - sensitive nature of rsrch into prsnl rels imp to ensure prtpcs protected from psychological harm/distress. - Another major ethical consideration w prsnl rels: confidentiality of data; prtcps have a complete right to confidentiality + anonymity, no prtp should be identifiable by name/other detail. - This essay will explore the ethical issues of protection from harm and confidentiality of data using the studies of Felmlee et al + Gupta and Singh. - Protection from harm; responsibility of rsrchr to ensure prtcps aren't caused LT physical/mental damage. - It may be that prtcps temporarily caused distress, although but rsrch pre-approved by an ethics committee ensuring this is sufficiently minimized + debriefing after < particularly imp when cross-cultural research carried out as q's may be unsuitable for some cultures. - example of a study which would need to consider the ethical issue of protection from psychological harm: Felmlee... < aimed to investigate the fatal attraction hypothesis as an explanation for relationship breakdown < prtcps had to list qualities that first attracted them to a recent partner, then list qualities they least liked about that person (harm: could be strsfl + embarassing as recall why past relationship ended v prsnl, may not feel comfy sharing info) - identified almost 30% of what she termed fatal attraction break-up (ppl may be uncomfy + confidentially maintained, use of much anecdotal evidence v prsnl, therefore confidentiality crucial as prtcps may not want others to know about rel breakdown + prtcps protected from physical harm partially following protection from harm ethical guidelines. - Felmlee may not have considered participants psychological well-being. Felmlee would have had to ensure that her questions about failed relationships did not impose undue distress on her participants, Desp w...imp to abide... SS: Felmelee 2010, used homosexuals, similar findings and impliations for protection from harm CT: argubaly info mentioned by partners abt their previous partners could be strsfl for them if they found out someone disliked them and shared this info w rsrchr - Another major ethical consideration w prsnl rels is confidentiality of data + anonymity given private + prnl nature of topic. - Prtcps have a complete right to confidentiality and anonymity, no prtcp should be identifiable by name/other detail. - Confidentiality means info is priv but it's technically poss for a rsrchr to figure out a prtcps identity + anonymity, it's impossible for anyone, even rsrchr to connect a participant with their data. < While a researcher can link a prcpt w results, these results are always published in aggregate form, w no individual data, ensuring anonymity. < Data collected needs to be kept confidential, so responses arent traced to any named prtcp. -Ex..Gupta + Singh < aim: investigate how arranged marriages score on the scales of loving, when compared with love marriages < looked at couples who were students at the Uni of Rajasthan India, interviewed separately. 25 love marraiges, 25 arranged marriage. (conf: diffcultures have diff rules + expectation of marriage, confidentiality should be maintied as some less open to sharing prsnl info that could cause problems in their culture) < Each participant was asked to answer the questions based on Rubin's scale of liking and loving (conf: may find details abt loving partner prsnl, so keeping confidential was necesary) + participants were protected from physical harm as they only had to complete a questionnaire which didn't not affect their physical health. < researchers should carefully consider the wording of questions as too personal questions can cause stress and embarrassment < participants should be debriefed at the end as recalling these parts of their marriage could have caused negative emotions depending on the quality of their relationship Desp w...must abide.. SS: Bejanyan also had to keep confidential, also abt cross cutlrual rels CT: can information rlly be kept confidential? by prtcpting ur already giving away info Overall, both studies followed most ethical guidelines. These studies demonstrate the importance for ethical guidelines to be followed when studying the personal relationships to maintain trust between participants and psychologists. Furthermore, it shows how researchers clearly had a lot to consider when planning their studies, carrying them out and publishing them.

Discuss one biological theory that helps explain the formation of relationships. (if they ask for one/more, then do the evolution + hormones)

- Prsnl rels, attraction = action/power of evoking interest in someone/smthn: evolution - Evolution = change in characteristics of a species over svrl generations, relies on natural selection = populations of living organisms adapt + change (wedekind) + (buss) < aspect of natural selection = maximising effectiveness of offspring immune systems, research into MHC: females prefer less similar MHC genes, as ↑diversity in MHC genes → stronger immune systems. Interlinkage: mate selection = maximising chances of reproductive success through selecting desirable characteristics in mate, etc good resources, genes, parental abilities etc. Evolution suggests males prioritise short-term characteristics etc physical appearance, females prioritise long-ter etc financial stability + caregiving - Wedekind: test if women would prefer odour of men w less similar MHC genes of their own < 49 f 44 m w wide range of MHC genes < men wore clean shirts for 2 nights, avoided influencing natural body odour w no spicy food, odour free soap etc < shirts returned, placed in plastic boxes w sniffing hole, each female got a diff set of 7 boxes w t-shirts to rate as pleasant/unpleasant (seeing effect of MHC): 3 boxes similar MHC, 3 boxes dissimilar, 1 unworn ctrl + f returned at mid-point of menstrual cycle (strongest smelling + fertile), rated diff 7 boxes < women more likely to prefer scent of t-shirts of menw dissimilar MHC, exemplifying mate selection biological impact on attraction, links to choosiness, personal rels formation + double blind + ctrl shirt - extran vrs on odour - reductionist, other factors? Desp weaknesses...overall, study provides indication that attraction may be due to evolution supporting as women seem to be choosier when choosing their mates to optimise the offspring chance of survival. SS: Clarke + Hatfield (1989) found females have adapted 'choosier' strategies in mate selection. Male respondents said yes to the going-to-bed request because they prefer youth + health which could be adjust quickly from their looks, whilst contrast females said no cuz it takes time to decide whether a male is a good genetic risk, and if he's likely to be nurturant, protective, and productive CT: does culture and acculturation influence evolutionary explanation of attraction? - Buss: test for gender differences in mate selection < 10,000 prtcs across 6 continents filled questionnaire w 3 sections 1. biological info related to age + religion + gender 2. desired age of marriage + desired age differential between spouses 3. rating 18 characteristics on imp when choosing a mate < stated preferred spouse age diffs reflected in acc age diffs at marriage + preferred age of self & spouse close to acc ages, suggesting when desired mate satisfies desired characteristic of age, more likely to form prsnl rel wthem < sig diffs in responses across 2 gndrs, f's valued financial capacity, older age + 'ambition', 'industriousness', m's valued physical attractiveness + youth more: supporting mate selection, whereby m's value + more attracted to ST, cues for high reproductive rates, whilst f's 'choosier', value + more attracted to LT, beneficial for raising child etc, hence we're mroe attracted to ppl representing the + sample → generalizable + ANOTHER - self-reported data - questionnaire done once ↓ consistency ↓ mini conc: values influencign attraction to mates diff in m (ST) /f, (LT), form rels w those showcasing characteristics of interest - Despite weak..study helped establish a link between attraction + evolution as prtcps from all cultures had similar features, they were attracted to indicating attraction was due to evolution. SS: supported by findings from Shackelford et al (2005) found in a cross-cultural study, women valued social status more than men, supporting evolution as this indicated good resources to help support child long term. Whereas men valued physical attractiveness more than women, supporting evolution as this indicates good genes for offspring CT: Are we merely the products of evolution, although results of Buss results show diff in desire of m + f, however existence of homosexual relationships refutes idea of evolutionary mate preferences as goal of evolution is reproduction, which isn't poss for homosexual rels. Doesn't explain why some woman don't want children/marriage, evolutionary explanations of attraction deterministic in exercise of human choice + free will in their romantic rels

Discuss one/more biological theory that helps explain the formation of relationships

- Prsnl rels, attraction = action/power of evoking interest in someone/smthn: evolution (wedekind) + attachment = form of affection, fondness/bone w sm1/smthn, role of hormones (ditzen) - Evolution = change in characteristics of a species over svrl generations, relies on natural selection = populations of living organisms adapt + change < aspect = maximising effectiveness of offspring immune systems, research into MHC: females prefer less similar MHC genes, as ↑diversity in MHC genes → stronger immune systems. Interlinkage: mate selection = maximising chances of reproductive success through selecting desirable characteristics in mate, etc good resources, genes, parental abilities etc. Evolution suggests males prioritise short-term characteristics etc physical appearance, females prioritise long-ter etc financial stability + caregiving - Wedekind: test if women would prefer odour of men w less similar MHC genes of their own < 49 f 44 m w wide range of MHC genes < men wore clean shirts for 2 nights, avoided influencing natural body odour w no spicy food, odour free soap etc < shirts returned, placed in plastic boxes w sniffing hole, each female got a diff set of 7 boxes w t-shirts to rate as pleasant/unpleasant (seeing effect of MHC): 3 boxes similar MHC, 3 boxes dissimilar, 1 unworn ctrl + f returned at mid-point of menstrual cycle (strongest smelling + fertile), rated diff 7 boxes < women more likely to prefer scent of t-shirts of menw dissimilar MHC, exemplifying mate selection biological impact on attraction, links to choosiness, personal rels formation + double blind + ctrl shirt - extran vrs on odour - reductionist, other factors? Desp weaknesses...overall, study provides indication that attraction may be due to evolution supporting as women seem to be choosier when choosing their mates to optimise the offspring chance of survival. SS: Clarke + Hatfield (1989) found females have adapted 'choosier' strategies in mate selection. Male respondents said yes to the going-to-bed request because they prefer youth + health which could be adjust quickly from their looks, whilst contrast females said no cuz it takes time to decide whether a male is a good genetic risk, and if he's likely to be nurturant, protective, and productive - Attachment inc attraction in formation of prsnl rels, Bowlby: innate attachment systems of specific behaviour + physiological responses, like mumbaby, seen in adult love rels, oxytocin released in m + f during intimacy; role in intensifying attachment, formation of rels - Ditzen: investigate pssble oxy role in imprvn cmunictn between couples when discussin contentious issue < 47 heretosexual took oxy/placebo, < dbl blind, filmed as engaging in convo, cortisol levels regulated throughout, measuring affect of oxy < both genders had impvd communicaiton after oxy + reduced cortisol levels: oxy reduced stress, encouraged understanding + respect of each others opinions regarding contentious topic, creating intimacy + trust, strengthening attachment, hence attraction, depicting oxy role in enhancing formation of personal rels + dble blind + lab exp, cause + effect - observation, social desr - generalisability limited Despite these weaknesses..study effectively shows effect of oxytocin on human bonding + connection supporting + biological theory of formation of relationships. CT: We can link the importance of attraction and attachment to explain why people experience severe pain after separating from their significant other. CONC:

Discuss one sociocultural explanation in personal relationships

- Prsnl rels, socio perspective, culture affects prsnl rels, culture = set of ideas/behaviours/attitudes/traditions existing within grps of ppl (bejanyan) + (gupta & singh) - IC = prioritise own experiences, beliefs interests, forming unique self identity, ^ more luv marraiges - CC = prioritise: prioritise needs of others, tradition and the group, ^ more arranged marriages impact on prsnl rels through traditional mate characteristics = preferring ppl w characteristics conforming to cultural preference, to relate - Bejanyan: investigate influence of culture on mate preference through comparative study between young adults in India (CC) + America (IC) - exemplifying effect of culture diffs on attraction in prsnl rels < 209 singles, 82% future marriage, 14% undecided 4% not interested, paid fr completion online survey, demographic q's etc gender role ideology, collectivism, romantic beliefs, mate preferences + anticipated future difficulties in marriage < Indians reported greater collectivism, more traditional and pragmatic; pragmatic love: practical aspects of a relationship, like CC's compared to IC's,. Indians endorsed more traditional gender roles; women cooking males working, CC's tend to prioritise ability of m/f to fulfil these roles, whereas IC's wouldn't, depicting diffs in attraction in prsnl rels due to culture + asked same q's, standardised, consistency - self reported data - sample size, limited generalisability CT/SS: questionable, as buss 1989 found regarding evolutionary explanation Desp w.. study effectively shows effect of CC'S + IC'S as it showed a difference in features found attractive by Indians and Americans. However, study goes against the evolutionary explanation of formation of relationships because evolution should predict all cultures are attracted to universal evolutionary standards as found by Buss et al (1989). Therefore, they should all be attracted to features that increase their chances of survival and reproduction. However, Buss et al (1990) in follow up study found notable diffs in cultures for characs related to housekeeping, personality, desire for home and children, refinement + neatness, education + religious background. This study along with Bejanyan suggest culture could have a role in attraction. - Gupta: investigate how arranged marriages scored on scales of liking/loving compared to love marriages < 50 cpls uni of Rajasthan, 25 arranged , 25 love, married from <1yr - 20yrs < interviewed separately, using rubin's scale of liking + loving; estimates romantic love using triad: attachment, caring + intimacy. prtcps given statements based on lvls of attachment/caring/intimacy shown by them to their partners, testing attraction + subsequent marriage success. higher score = more 'inlove' < love marriages started strong + 'in love' but declined rapidly over yrs, whereas arranged marriages started w fewer feelings of liking/loving but progresses over yrs; arranged (CC - value fam, tradits) hence partner , love (IC - own opinion ), suggesting CC's initial less love avoids blindness, prioritising pragmatic characteristics as attractive + getting approval, enhances future quality + feelings in prsnl rel, whereas IC's blinded by love, lack of approval fails to realise less attractive characteristics in long-term of prsnl rel + all using rubins scale, standardised, consistency - same uni, less generalisable - self-reported, int validity SS: Buss et al (1990): diffs in cltrs for characs related to housekeeping, personality, desire for home + children, refinement + neatness, education + religious background, inc consis + rel, cltr role in attraction CT: starting married life w lower expectations of liking/loving can be a good basis to start a rel on mutual respect, hard work + appreciation of other person Desp w, study effectively shows effect of CC's + IC's values on attraction. However, it raises question if it's possible effects of acculturation can also be seen in attitudes towards choice of marriage partner. Additionally, starting married life w lower expectations of liking/ loving can be a good basis to start a relon mutual respect, hard work + appreciation of other person. Love may then be built on these strong foundations wout disappointments + romantic ideals can bring. Therefore, could the failure of love marriage be due to unrealistic expectations? CONC

Discuss one/more cognitive Markey = cute green cake = could have a honey comb = NewCOMB SS Taylor = gilmore girls = cupcake shop =

- Prsnl rels: associations + interactions btwn humans (familial romantic etc). Attraction: action/pwr of evoking an intrst in smone/smthn. linked to cognitive theories of attraction; idea that internal mental processes (etc decision-making/perception) influence the formation of relationships. ex similarity-attraction theory; basis of rel formation is having same interests, traits + opinions as other prsn. Also matching hypothesis; idea that in each individual's mind, everyone has their own rating for lvl of attractiveness. This essay will discuss...(Markey + Markey) + (Taylor) - Similarity hypothesis: < ppl sharing similar likes, dislikes, interests + opinions are likely to be attracted each other, and form prsnl rels < similarity may be real or perceived (we may believe our close friends/romantic partner are more similar to us than they acc are) - cognitive consistency acheived by increased agreement , disagreement → potential cognitive imbalanced state → discomfort, may not be frnds anymore to restore cognitive consistency - ex...study: Markey + Markey < aim: extent to which similarity is a factor in the way ppl choose a partner - undergrads did questionnaire where they described psychological characteristics, traits, values + attitudes of ideal romantic partner, without thinking of anyone in particula + asked abt that of themselves, to compare results and see impact of similarity on attraction - found the way ppl described themselves was similar to waht their ideal partner looked like, demonstrating how we're more likely to form prsnl rels w those who demonstrate similar characteristics as we're more likely to reach cognitive consistency with them ^ follow up study of 106 youn gprtcps of heteroseual cpls found simialr results + SS: Newcomb; as time passed, attraction correlated to matching participants' attitudes when forming personal relationships OR USE TIDWELL→ consistency → reliability + Standardised, all prtcps asked same q's - However, the use of a questionnaire → subjective (may not know themselves as much as they think so can't judge similarity/ or social desirability bias) → less accuracy →less internal validity - Sample; heterosexual couples, limited generalisability, diff results ma be seen for homosexuals Desp..mini conc CT: opposites attract ideology Another cognitive theory that can be used to explain formation of prsnl rels; matching hypothesis; < ppl influenced by desirability of potential match (what individual wants) + perception of probability of obtaining desired person (what an individual thinks they can get) < individuals make realistic choices if they stand a chance of having their affection reciprocated < not many ppl risk rejection by pursuing someone who appears in another league appearance wise - ex... Taylor < aim: investigate matching hypothesis by examining real online dating behaviour - 60 heteros, m + f profile selected randomly from online dating site, identified as 'initiators'; initiated contact w other uses - Records kept to show who responded ('reciprocating contacts')/ didn't respond ('non-reciprocating contacts') collected a max of 6 initiators' profile pics + reciprocating + non reciprocating profile pics - 966 pics collected, rsrchrs appointed judges to rate pics using own contacts - ratings based on 7 point scale of attractiveness (-3 to +3), each pic rated by at least 14 judges - Calcs based on mean attractiveness ratings given to each initiator, to each of their contacts + separate attractiveness means for each initiator's reciprocating + non-reciprocating contacts - Found initiators' physical attractiveness showed no correlation w mean physical attractiveness of all ppl contacted on site; initiators tended to contact ppl on site who were rated as more attractive than they were, suggesting ppl don't necessarily apply matching hypothesis in dating decisions - don't set a certain level of attractiveness (based on their own attractiveness) when picking a partner to pick someone of similar level in terms of attraction, suggesting matching hypothesis does not impact formation of prsnl rel - Use of several judges, distributing spread of subjectivity, increasing consistency + reliability - SS: Buss et al (1989) pointed out old, ugly, rich men seem to attract young, beautiful women due to anisogamy but also examples of same-age couples, neither of whom are rich nor powerful, who seem completely unsuited in terms of their looks. also heavily relies on an individual's self-esteem as this will affect how highly they rate themselves and who they think they can get. - Sample of ppl one one dating site, reuslts may have been diff for ppl on diff dating site, decreasing generalisability - Ppl edit themselves to look better on online dating sites, decreasing accuracy of rating, decreasing internal validity Desp weak.. CT: conforming to matching hypothesis attributed to confidence? Overall...

Discuss one cognitive Markey = cute green cake = could have a honey comb = beeCOMbing like me = NewCOMB SS Tidwell = dating shoe = m+f = cross-sex = 'mine' = Morry SS

- Prsnl rels: associations + interactions btwn humans (familial romantic etc). Attraction: action/pwr of evoking an intrst in smone/smthn. linked to cognitive theories of attraction; idea that internal mental processes (etc decision-making/perception) influence the formation of relationships. ex similarity-attraction theory; basis of rel formation is having same interests, traits + opinions as other prsn. This essay will discuss...(Markey + Markey) + (Tidwell) - Similarity hypothesis: < ppl sharing similar likes, dislikes, interests + opinions are likely to be attracted each other, and form prsnl rels < similarity may be real or perceived (we may believe our close friends/romantic partner are more similar to us than they acc are) - cognitive consistency acheived by increased agreement , disagreement → potential cognitive imbalanced state → discomfort, may not be frnds anymore to restore cognitive consistency - ex...study: Markey + Markey < aim: extent to which similarity is a factor in the way ppl choose a partner - undergrads did questionnaire where they described psychological characteristics, traits, values + attitudes of ideal romantic partner, without thinking of anyone in particula + asked abt that of themselves, to compare results and see impact of similarity on attraction - found the way ppl described themselves was similar to waht their ideal partner looked like, demonstrating how we're more likely to form prsnl rels w those who demonstrate similar characteristics as we're more likely to reach cognitive consistency with them ^ follow up study of 106 youn gprtcps of heteroseual cpls found simialr results + Construct validity + SS: Newcomb; as time passed, attraction correlated to matching participants' attitudes when forming personal relationships → consistency → reliability + Standardised, all prtcps asked same q's - However, the use of a questionnaire → subjective (may not know themselves as much as they think so can't judge similarity/ or social desirability bias) → less accuracy →less internal validity - Sample; heterosexual couples, limited generalisability, diff results ma be seen for homosexuals Desp..mini conc CT: opposites attract ideology - Another study...Tidwell <aim: investigate whether perceived similarity matched actual similarity - abt 200 undergards did 1/8 speed dating sessions < first did a questionaire assessing variables etc (personality, religion, mindset, tradiationalism, uni major, religion etc) to then compare w imapct simiarlity of date < each dating session was 11-12 dates, each followed by 2-min questionaire rating date according to characs in questionare. - after each data, prtcps also gave 1-9 ratings for < general similarity, to see.... < romantic liking, to see... - Actual similarity didn't predict attraction, however overall similarity, strongly linked to romantic liking than any other specific trait individually, suggesting we're attracted to ppl w general similarities, etc for understanding holistic morals, but there's the necessity for differences us these make rels unique, inc chances of forming prsnl rel - also suggests that effects of social reinforcement + pleasantness in similarity don't exceed past perception, prospect of similarity between pairs is enough to initiate attraction compared to every precise similarities + Standardised, all prtcps asked same q's + Mundane realism; could acc be a way to meet their real partner, increasing accuracy and internal validity? + SS: Morry (2007): second round of research closer cross-sex friends (male + female friends) perceived greater similarity btwn themselves + friend, supporting similarity hypothesis for diff types of rels too - However, use of a questionnaire → subjective (may not know themselves as much as they think so can't judge similarity/ or social desirability bias) → less accuracy → less internal validity - Sample limited to undergrads age 18-22, limited generalizability, may be diff for ppl of diff ages Despite weaknesses... CT: social desirability effect in dates, answers may not be accurate w speed dating Overall...

Discuss 1/more/2 reasons why rels change/end (fatal + equity)

- Prsnl rels: connections + interactions btwn humans (romantic, platonic etc) - rels change/end due to infidelity, financial issues, disinterest, psychologists explore reasons. Difficult to measure, ppl in rel may not even know core reasons for change/end, hence psychologists research topic - equity: quality of being fair + impartial, failure can lead to change/end. - fatal attraction theory: suggests reason we're attracted to ppl may be reason rel w them ends leads to rel breakdown - this essay will discuss why rels change/end through equity theory affecting feelings and actions of cpls who may change/end rel (Hatfield) and fatal attraction theory explaining why ppl break up (felmelee) - equity: partners concerned abt fairness, acheived when they get what they deserve in rel < doesnt mean equality, means balance created by equal costs + benefits for both partners < over-benefitted → guilty, under-beneffited → resentful < perception of equity changes over time; ppl initally under-benefitted become dissatisfied + probs leave/ what seemed unfair can become a norm. regardless, feeling lack of equity → dissatisfaction → inc likeliness of changing/ending prsnl rel - ex..study: hatfield < aim: investigate how perceptions of equity impacts satisfaction in rels - interviewed US 2000 cpls, found 1. those deprived of → more likely to have affair earlier w other prsn, than those treated equally/over-benefitted < imbalance of costs + benefits encourages em to get benefits from other prsn → adultery 2. over-benefitted/under-benefitted didn't see rel lasting long-term < over-ben: supposedly cuz not encouraged to give as much due to disinterest, guilty, might wanna end it < under-ben: drained from effort + no reciprocation, dissatisfied so may end it 3. felt rel perfectly equitable equitable more likely to think they'd be together in 1-5 yrs < balanced cost + rewards, satisfied, demonstrating how equity, inc longevity, impacts changes/endings, reducing it if sufficient + interviews, in-depth qual, acc, int val + standardised proc, consis , rel - interviews, potential social desirability abt truth in balance, acc, int val - sample size, all US, lim generalisability, all probs individualistic cltre, may be diff for collectivist SS: Aumer-Ryan, consis + rel Desp weak..mini conc CT: being over-benefitted/un-debenefitted v subjective, potentially unjustifiable at times? Another rsn for changing/ending: fatal attraction < specific behaviours/features initially attracting abt a partner in a prsnl rel become reason for rel breakdown. etc if someone's confidence initially attractive yet becomes too egotistical to bear w, encouraging breakup; partner no longer interested in rel, causing change/end Ex...study: felmelee < aim: investigate fatal attraction hypothesis as explanation for rel breakdown - 301 uni cal students, did self-report asking qualities that first attract them to a recent partner + least favored qualities .. to comapre rsns and hwo they can be usef to expn rel breakups - 88 attributed to reasons which felmelee coined as 'fatal attraction' terms ... 3 patterns 1. Fun → foolish: fun become immature, not taking things srsly 2. Strong → domineering: confidence becomes egotistical, bossy 3. Spontaneous → unpredictable: living in the moment becomes unreliable, inconsistent + standardised, all prtcps did it + anecdotal evidence from self-report; ecological val - sample same uni, dec generalisability, may not be reason to change/end for other uni students - self-report, subjective, acc, int val SS: Felmelee 2010: examined process of romantic attraction in same-sex rels, found disappointed w initially appealing qualities of, inc consis + rel Desp... mini conc CT: depends, not all ppl, sometimes these qualities do not become less attractive to ppl, not a rsn to change/end Overall...

Discuss 1 reason why rels change/end (only equity) Hatfiled = think durham (except its acc US) accom = russel grp sim to Stanford = SS Stafford Canary, ppl there more satisfied when theres balance Aumer-Ryan = cltres diff equity perception = Mills = Miller thinks its unquantifiable

- Prsnl rels: connections + interactions btwn humans (romantic, platonic etc) - rels change/end due to infidelity, financial issues, disinterest, psychologists explore reasons. Difficult to measure, ppl in rel may not even know core reasons for change/end, hence psychologists research topic - equity: quality of being fair + impartial, failure can lead to change/end. - this essay will discuss why rels change/end through equity theory affecting feelings and actions of cpls who may change/end rel (Hatfield) and feelings of prtns in diff cultures (Aumer-Ryan) - equity: partners concerned abt fairness, acheived when they get what they deserve in rel < doesnt mean equality, means balance created by equal costs + benefits for both partners < over-benefitted → guilty, under-beneffited → resentful < perception of equity changes over time; ppl initally under-benefitted become dissatisfied + probs leave/ what seemed unfair can become a norm. regardless, feeling lack of equity → dissatisfaction → inc likeliness of changing/ending prsnl rel < aim: ex..study: hatfield < aim: investigate how perceptions of equity impacts satisfaction in rels - interviewed US 2000 cpls, found 1. those deprived of → more likely to have affair earlier w other prsn, than those treated equally/over-benefitted < imbalance of costs + benefits encourages em to get benefits from other prsn → adultery 2. over-benefitted/under-benefitted didn't see rel lasting long-term < over-ben: supposedly cuz not encouraged to give as much due to disinterest, guilty, might wanna end it < under-ben: drained from effort + no reciprocation, dissatisfied so may end it 3. felt rel perfectly equitable equitable more likely to think they'd be together in 1-5 yrs < balanced cost + rewards, satisfied, demonstrating how equity, inc longevity, impacts changes/endings, reducing it if sufficient + interviews, in-depth qual, acc, int val + standardised proc, consis , rel - interviews, potential social desirability abt truth in balance, acc, int val - sample size, all US, lim generalisability, all probs individualistic cltre, may be diff for collectivist SS: Stafford + Canary (2006) : prtnrs perceivng fair + balance more satsifiied, less liekly to end rel, inc consis + rel Desp weak..mini conc CT: being over-benefitted/un-debenefitted v subjective, potentially unjustifiable at times? - another...Aumer-Ryan < aim: investigate equity theory across cltres - 300 prtcps uni Hawaii, 122 prctsp uni west Indies (Jamaica), questionnaires asking rating imp of equity in rels + reflect equitability of own rels, to cmpre imapct of equity - Equity imp fr both cltres, but degree of satisfaction derived from feelign of equity differed. < H prtcps had more equity comprd to J's, hence expressed stronger pos feelings when rel thought to be equitable; due to balance between cots + benefits.. equity probs helping rel last < J's more satsified when over-benefited, suggesting balance not as imp, no guilt affectign satisfaction, hence cltlre determiens whats equitable + standaridsied procedure, consis, rel + large sample representative of 2 cltres, how still - sample, prtcps in uni, lim generalisablity - questionnaire, subjective, acc, int val SS:Mills + Clarke: not poss to assess equity through loving rels as input v emotional + unquantifiable, better to study using idiographic approach focusing on quant aspects of experiences Desp weaknesses..mini conc CT: despite cltre, ppl equity arguably v subjective

Discuss/ evaluate the role of gender on communication

- Prsnl rels: connections + interactions btwn humans (romantic, platonic etc) communication, discussions, at least 2 ppl, influences actions, not always successful, verbal + non verbal, sig role in maintaining prsnl rels, understanding its role can enhance strength + longevity of rel, could've saved marriages - Understanding ways in which gender influences our comm in terms of giving + receiving has a sig impact on strength of our rels - men + women seem to have diff attitudes to self-disclosure + generally diff approaches to communicating, often resulting in misunderstanding - thesis - Communication involves understanding other perspectives. Misunderstanding in dffs btwn how men + women communicate often leads to prblms in interpersonal rels, whether friends/romantic cpls. - Diff genders prioritise diff things in comms in rels - communication stydles: empathy approach, problem-solving approach ^ may vary w culture, comm styles aren't relflective of 'maleness' or 'femaleness' so much as of product of gender roles. - gndr roles driven by cltre, so as cltre changes, so may comm style - ex..study: Tannean < investigate diffs in linguistic features used by genders in communication - observations of USA intimite couples having convos, analysing di - found women more use 'sorry' to express emaphty whilst men hear it as an apology, sign of weakness < women leadn twrds empathy apprch whilst males lean twrs problem slvng approach, thinking avoiding emotions is a prblm solver, especially due to cultural expectation of 'men dont cry' (esp in CC's) , increasing difficulty in successful comms in prsnl rels - women don't appreciate men comin gup solutions whne theyre stressed/low mood, instead want to be listened to. < prblm slvn when woman just want to be heard, and empathsied w whilst men feel ned to prblm solve, dmstrng potential cltre clash in comm styles + observations, natural beh, ecological val + standardised proced, consis, rel - overt obs, demand characs, accuracy + int val - analysis of speech is unqiue to each couple, decreasing generaliasbiltiy of relsts Desp w.... resuts effectively delineate diffs in comms btwn genders in terms of empathy vs prblem slv comm style across men + women, increasing difficulty in maintaining rels CT: Tannean's results can be used in couples therapy On the other hand, ex study.... cameron < aim: challenge assumption gender diffs in speaking lang - reviewed psychological + sociological lit on gender diffs in lang, one meta-analysis w 56 research pieces into lang + gndr (based on recorded male + female convos), investigating talkativeness, self-disclosure + interruption - found tiny effect size for women talking more than men in convos, women self disclosure only slightly higher than males < despite possible link to men sharing less about their feelings, the small diffs in effect size, suggest diffs in comm through language aren't too significantly impactful on maintenance of rels , avoiding difficulty in comms to maintain rel - also men were only marginally more assertive in their speech than women, < countering gender role dominant ideologies of men being more dominant, instead supporting opinions of both genders as important and considered when communicating, supposedly decreasing misunderstanding and aiding maintenance of relationships + meta analysis, traingulation, consis, rel + secondary research, less time consuming, also less researcher bias , increasing accuracy + internal validity - Secondary research means less control, unaware how well controlled ext vars were, potentially decreasing accuracy + internal validity Desp w, dmnstrs minimal diff btwn the 2 contradicting Tannen's study, diffs in communication style btwn men + women do not sig cause misunderstanding interfering w maintenance of rels CT: raises curiosity in whether believing in gender diffs in comms creates fixed mindset?

Discuss/evaluate: Role of comms Collins = shuga cow SS: Laurencea diaries - writing abt shuga cow rel Sprecher + Hendrick = loafie Hendrick SS = Has + Hartford = gilmore girls = Michelle = Homosexual cpls (letter H)

- Prsnl rels: connections + interactions btwn humans (romantic, platonic etc) communication, discussions, at least 2 ppl, influences actions, not always successful, verbal + non verbal, sig role in maintaining prsnl rels, understanding its role can enhance strength + longevity of rel, could've saved marriages - comms through sharing prsnl info exmplfd through self disc: sharing prsnl info abt oneself to another prsn, essential, typcly gradual, increasingly slower yet more intimate info revealed as rel progresses, without self dic, rel = superficial - this essay...self disc + liking (Collins + Miller), self disc + rel quality (Sprecher + Hendrick) - Altman + Taylor: social penetration theory, 'peeling z onion', explains diffs in comm regarding depth of intrprsnl rels < rels being w disclosing srfce lvl info, inc intimiate as rel grows 1st lyr: biologcl info (name, age) 2nd lyr: likes, dislikes 3rd lyr: goals, ambitions 4th lyr: religious, philiosophical beliefs 5th lyr: fears + fantasies 6th lyr: concept of self, who am i more 'peeled' = stronger < risk to disclose, sharing hopes, fear → indirect indication of trust →warm feelings, intimacy → more comm → maintnnc rel < explains reciprocity principle - Ex...Collins + Miller < aim: investigate link btwn self-disc + liking in maintnc of rels < meta-analysis, analysed range of jrnls (lab exps, self reports) isolating terms linked to self disc + liking < used stat program, study effect size in studies of self disc in rels - found pos corrs + larger effect sizes btwn self disc + liking, esp fr self report studies, even in lab exps → demonstrating how sharing increasingly personal information (peeling more layers from the onion) indirectly indicates trust towards someone, increasing comfort and intimacy when w them, and therefore how much one likes them, increasing chances of wanting to communicate with them, demonstrating role of comm in maintaining personal relationship through sharing personal information ^ in fact, found intimacy linked to liking, reinforcing ppl will disclose more to those whom they already feel close + at very act of disclosing increases liking Meta analysis → triangulation → consistency → reliability. Also less subject to research bias → increasing accuracy + internal validity Statistical program, scientific, accuracy, Internal validity However, Self-reported data, subjective, decreasing accuracy, internal validity Only published data could be used → publication bias → researchers tend not to publish results that oppose their proposed theory, decreasing accuracy + internal validity Desp weaknesses....CT: bidirectional corr SS: Laurenceau et al (2005): got prtcps to write daily entries, finding those who self disclosed more often, had greater feelings of intimacy → consis + rel Another ex...Sprecher + Hendrick < aim: test if there's a correlation between amnt of satisfaction each person felt + overall self-disclosure that occurred between partners. < longitudinal study, midwestern uni, orig samp: 101 dating cpls, sample size decreases every wave < all did self administered questionnaire - pos corr: self disc + rel quality: , when someone shares personal information w u, they're communicating info abt self, indirect trust, intimate, encouraging them to communicate more often, aiding maintenance - women perceiving high lvls of self disc early in rel less likely to break up: shring prsnl info, communicating, understanding feelings, inc intimacy, maintaining + strengthening prsnl rel + standardised proced, consis, rel + longitudinal, long-term effects, consis - sample same uni, lim generalisability - self adminsitered, subjective, acc, int val Desp...CT: decades of rsrch but we know communciting = essential/bidirectional corr too SS: Has + Hartford (1998) studied homosexual couples; 57% gay men + women considered open self-disclosure a main way to maintain close rels; consis + rel Overall...

Discuss/ evaluate the role of culture on communication (make associations when recalling)

- Prsnl rels: connections + interactions btwn humans (romantic, platonic etc) communication, discussions, at least 2 ppl, influences actions, not always successful, verbal + non verbal, sig role in maintaining prsnl rels, understanding its role can enhance strength + longevity of rel, could've saved marriages - ctlre: set of ideas, behaviors, beliefs + attitudes existing within grps of ppl. Sociocultural psychologists focus on how communication in rels could be influenced by culture. - IC = prioritise own self identity, CC = prioritise: needs of others, tradition + grp, impact on prsnl rels through traditional mate characteristics = preferring ppl w characteristics conforming to cultural preference, to relate. ^ Such cultural diffs can be exemplified through arranged marriages versus 'love' marriages. - Arranged marriages are part of the cultural norm in some CC's, but in IC's idea of having your marriage arranged by a third party, usually family, is in direct opposition to idea of a 'love-match' in which emotion, passion + personal choice are valued. - Sociocultural psychologists interested in how couples in arranged marriages use communication to maintain their relationship and whether a particular type of communication is necessary for an arranged marriage to succeed. - Thesis - Communication a 2 way street, listening styles impact comm - diff cltres have diff listening styles < detached listeners: lil eye contact, no effort, no enthusiasm < passive listeners: sometimes eye contact, lil effort, calm < involved listeners: eye contact, effort, give attention < active listeners: alert , full effort, enthusiasm - ex..study: Ahmad + Reid found more traditional marriages (collectivist cultures) were less active listeners. < aim: investigate link btwnn traditional marital expectations + listening styles in arranged marriage couples - abt 100 Indo-Pakistani married cpl (6mtnhs-36yrs) ww arranged marraiges living in Canada, responded to q's using Marital Satisfaction Scale, looking at variables: < listening styles < traditionality of each prtcps role <marriage satisfaction. - Prtcps ranked statements on the scale etc, 'my partner understands + sympathises w me'. - Found more traditional marriage → lower lvls of active listening + less satisfaction; CC's tend to follow traditional arranged marriages, suggesting CC's don't exhibit beh of active listening during comm. Since comm required to maintain rels, arguably prescribed roles for husband + wife in CC's may have led to invalidation of certain feelings that didn't conform to their role. Etc if man wanted to communicate he was upset, he may have not done so as his role is the dominant 'breadwinner', 'doesn't show his feelings' → misunderstandings when not communicated effectively with his wife, increasing difficulty in maintenance of the relationship → decreasing satisfaction in the marriage - Found less listening to partner to understand them → lower marital satisfaction. The lower expectation of equality between partners (feature of arranged marriages) linked to comm style of couples. - Perceptions of equality + communication styles = predictors of how satisfied a couple is w their arranged marriage, demonstrating role of culture in comms in maintenance of rels, as seen by the effects of the CC traditional beliefs abt marriage roles on marriages + the decrease in satisfaction they caused. + standardised, consis, rel + application, - answers may be overestimated/underestimated, dec int val - only 100 ppl, limtied sample, lim generalisability, also may not be same for other CC's Desp w...mini conc CT: Is it possible for someone who is outside a culture to understand the subtleties of communication within that culture? This could cause difficulty in counselling if the therapist cannot relate to the culture FIND SS - ex..study: Bello < aim: investigate influence of appreciation expression on rel quality in high-context CC's + low-context IC's - expression of appreciation fundamentally imp to health + quality of close rel, but takes diff forms - questionaire 200 prtcps from China (hihg-context CC) + America (low-context IC) to list specific methods used for expressing appreciation in close friendship/romantic rels ^ so diffs could be used to explain diffs in preferences in appreciation expression across CC's + IC's - inductive + statistical analysis undertaken, finding US prtcps relied evenly on verbal + nonverbal methods of expressing appreciation, whilst Chinese prtcps favored nonverbal methods significantly over verbal methods; - Americans also used more expression of appreciation overall cmprd to Chinese using more indirect ^ suggesting CC's who value traditionality + formality, so more likely to formally, indirectly + subtly, CC's may see a favour done for them by another as an expected contribution to the group as they believe in group loyalty + benefiting the community, so these actions are unremarkable... whilst IC's value uniqueness, independence, feel need to personally thank, express own feelings of appreciation ^ LINK TO LISTENING TYPE SOMEHOW + standardised, consis + rel + statistical analysis, inc consis + rel - questionaire subjecitve, dec int val Desp w..mini conc CT: May be diff for diff CC's + IC's SS:

Contrast two approaches to research used to study personal relationships (ADD IN DIFFS)

- RM's: approaches used by psychologists to investigate the answers to questions. - Rsrchrs investigating prsnl rels use a variety of methods but most common technique: questionnaires + metanalysis as elements of prsnl rels are v difficult to measure using other methods. Questionnaires + metanalysis allow rsrchrs to find universal behvs on elements of prsnl rels due to large num of responses they can get in a limited time - This essay will explore the use of questionnaires to study personal relationships using the study of Buss et al and the use of meta-analysis experiment in Collins and Miller's study. - Ex study uses questionnaire to demonstrate evolutionary exp for mate selection: Buss et al < aimed to investigate the extent to which evolution can be used to explain attraction. < used over 10,000 participants aged 19-28 from 33 countries (questionnaires: large sample) < ask abt characs etc age, religion, also indicated on rating scale how highly certain characs, etc chastity, were valued; ranked 13 personality characteristics according to their ideas as to mate preference (questionaires: close + open ended q's) - results support evolutionary theory of attraction: males focused on looks, youthfulness and signals of fertility, whereas women chose signs of wealth + security, had an overall preference for older mates, dmsntring how questionnaires useful... + questionnaire allowed researchers to investigate several countries and find evolutionary diffs in in priorities; m youthfulness, f security, increasing generalisability + rsrchrs ensured all questionnaires translated from original English then checked by translators, meaning all participants understood the questions increasing the validity of the procedure - questionaire involving ranking leads to diff interpretations of each value, dec int val - potential social desirability, dec int val Desp w.. q's useful in.... < SS: Markey + Markey used q's to find similar results.. consistency + rel supporting the RM CT: question whether questionnaires would be more valuable if they were more enjoyable, etc interviews more convo - Meta-analysis < popular quantitative method w cross-cultural research into prsnl rels allowing etic approach; investigation operationalized then data from studies in many diff countries analysed to determine effect cross- culturally. < Meta-analyses handling secondary data, quantitative measure - Ex study using a meta-analysis to show social penetration theory: Collins and Miller who found an association between self-disclosure and liking < aim: investigate a possible link between self-disclosure and liking in the maintenance of relationships < researchers used a range of journal articles published between 1955 and 1992, isolating the key terms linked to self-disclosure and liking (questionnaires: large sample of studies) < statistical programme used to look for effect size in studies of self-disclosure in rels, studies included were varied, from lab exps to self-reports (questionnaires: range of different types of studies) ....Therefore, use of metanalysis in this study was useful as triangulated data means that a range of methods was used in the original research, allowing for cross-research analysis. + use of both self-report and laboratory studies allows us to have a more holistic and in-depth understanding of the effect of self-disclosure: triangulation, inc consis + rel + secondary data, less subject to research bias as the researcher did not conduct the original study, inc int val - Secondary data, unaware of how controlled ext vars are, dec int val - cold and detached statistical measures cannot reveal why and how self-disclosure takes place, only that it does, dec ecological val Desp w..meta's useful... CT: SS: Cameron, meta-analysis Overall questionnaires (OR and meta-analysis) are useful to study personal relationships. They both allow researchers to have a large sample and provide a holistic insight into behaviour.

Contrast pointers btwn Cltre + proximity

Cltre Proximity

Eval pointers for Cltre + proximity

Cltre + Application; + Predictive validity - Testability, hard to test cuz diffs in each individual of each cultre influences results - Proximity + Application + Empirical evidence -

Contrast pointers for changing/ending

Equity Involves sub-aspects including cost and balance What is deemed as equitable in a relationship can be more general More empirical support More common? Hence more applicable/realistic Fatal-attraction simply involves the initial aspect that attracted you, no longer attracting you, hence equity theory may be more likely to avoid the relationship ending, by changing it, compared to Aspects may be more personal (or vise versa, make it work) Flemlee only found 30%

Eval TEACUP changing/ending theories

Equity theory + Application + Predictive validity - Testability - Culture affect Fatal attraction + Application + Predictive val - less empirical evidence -