PAPER 3 Section (1, 8, 17, 18)

Aztecs

(1200-1521) 1300, Located in central and southern Mexico (Valley of Mexico)

Slaves

At the bottom of Aztec society were the slaves. In Aztec society, the children of slaves were not slaves. Aztec people became slaves by selling themselves into slavery to pay for debts or as punishment for crimes. The slaves had certain rights. They were not to be mistreated by their owners, they could buy their freedom, and they could not be sold by their masters unless they agreed.

Quetzalcoatl

Aztec nature god, feathered serpent, his disappearance and promised return coincided with the arrival of Cortes

Viceroy

Below the Sapa Inca was the viceroy, or Inkap Rantin. He was a close relative of the Sapa Inca and worked as his closest advisor.

Pipiltin

Below the Tecuhtli were the pipiltin or the noble class. Only the noble class could wear certain types of clothes and jewelry such as feathers and gold. The pipiltin held high ranking positions in the priesthood, the army, and the government. They formed the city council which helped to rule the city-states. The king was always chosen from the pipiltin.

Maya economy (agriculture)

Depended on agriculture Most important crop was corn

The top of the social classes was the king and his Family

Tlatoani

Huitzilopochtli

-Another important aspect of the Aztec religion was the practice of human sacrifice to postpone the end of the world by God Huitzilopochtli. -People who were sacrificed were often people caught in wars specifically for the purpose of sacrificing them. However, because of their large devotion to the god, sometimes Aztec citizens were willing to sacrifice themselves or their family to appease Huitzilopochtli.

Maya social structure (artists)

-Artist had high status, importance in record keeping -Vase painters and scribes, ruling elite

Mayan Culture

-Built eighty large ceremonial centers, which included pyramids, palaces, and temples; large centers included Palenque, Chichen Itza, and Tikal, the latter with a population of approximately 40,000 people and the Temple of the Jaguar. -Plazas w/ sculptures, used to create dramatics and rituals -Wore brightly colored textiles, feathers, jaguar skins, and jade Shows people rank and wealth -Yaxchilan structure, glorification of ruler -Lady Xok Lintels made to reinforce Shield Jaguars lineage, right for rulership

other incan culture

-Corn, squash, and beans were a large part of the Inca diet. -There were some forms of education for the Incas, but only the rich could afford it. -Most children weren't watched over by their parents, many only interacted with them to be fed. -Houses were made of adobe brick and typically were a one-story-one-room situation.

Inca Role of Warfare

-Early Inca warfare was concerned merely with acquiring the wealth of the enemy but gradually, as they became more ambitious, they sought to permanently control the territory of their neighbours and so spread their influence across South America. -great diplomats, and they were able to extend their influence throughout the Andes region by negotiating trade and tribute agreements, offering impressive gift exchanges, organising inter-marriages, and relocating sympathetic populations to newly acquired or troublesome areas. -Only when these strategies failed did warfare become necessary.

Maya Religion

-Human sacrifice had begun prior to the Classic Period, and was used as a tool of social and religious control to demonstrate the power of the ruler and the gods. -polytheistic - Gods represent nature - human sacrifice and bloodletting

Ayllu

-In Incan society, a small community or family group whose members worked together for the common good of the peoples. -Everyone who was a part of the empire belonged to one of these groups. -These groups worked like families.

Inca (1200-1532)

-Inca empire emerged, along with the Aztecs around the 1400s. -They were not a rival to the Mayans. -Incan empire was larger than Aztec

Incan gods

-Inti (sun god), Mama Quilla (moon goddess), Pachamama (earth goddess), Supay (god of death). -Everything they did in their society was either loosely or strongly connected to their religion. -They believed that their ancestors needed to be pleased in order to keep the environment calm and prevent natural disasters. They did this by sacrificing either precious materials or animals.

Incan political structure

-It was a monarchy ruled by a single leader called the Sapa Inca( sole ruler), his wife was called the coya -The empire was separated into units, which were all governed by a central government called Tawantinsuyu. -Any sort of foul acts such as murder, stealing, cursing the gods, etc. was punished by execution.

Aztec Culture

-Language spoken was Nahuatl, conquered much of central Mexico -Tenochtitlan the imperial capital was a vast and teeming complex of towers, palaces, and pyramids that, according to the flabbergasted Spanish adventure rose like a mirage from the water. -Sacrificial victims climbed, priests threw them quickly over a stone, cut open chest, pulled out "still-throbbing hearts"; ensure survival of the sun, gods, and Aztecs; then rolled down stairs dismembered

Maya social structure (class)

-Maya society was rigidly divided between nobles, commoners, serfs, and slaves -Nobles→ specialized, passed through lineage Served as rulers, priests, plantation owners -Commoners→ farmers, laborers, and servants -Could higher status through military service but were forbidden from wearing the clothes and symbols of nobility -Plazas w/ sculptures, used to create dramatics and rituals -Wore brightly colored textiles, feathers, jaguar skins, and jade -Shows people rank and wealth

Incan clothing

-Men wore long-sleeved shirts while women wore long dresses. -In addition, they wore capes and ponchos to keep warm in the winter. -Hairstyles usually signified which Ayllu one was apart of or what social class they belonged to.

Chinampas - "Floating gardens"

-Raised fields constructed along lake shores in Mesoamerica to increase agricultural yields. -made it easier to farm as no complicated tools or machinery were needed. It is still used today in those regions.

Aztec Economic Structure

-Tenochtitlan was the main city state with markets that served 40,000 people daily. This city state also helped facilitate trade with other neighboring city states. -Trade was an important aspect of life and merchants held high social status during this time. -One particular type of merchant was the pochteca, who was known for making long-distance travels for deliveries.

Maya economy (currency)

-nitially they only traded in need items: but later cacao became currency -Farmers gave up portions of each crop, or paid with other items such as salt, cloth, honey, fruit, and domestic animals to the government and also used them to buy and trade goods

Aztecs Political Structure

-The Aztec civilization was largely decentralized as warriors conquered nearby territories and made the people of those areas pay tribute. -As long as tribute was paid, then the city states could remain somewhat independent. As a result, there were multiple city states each with its own leader. (city-states known as alteptl)

Incan Economic Structure

-The Incans had road systems that would allow them to travel over 20,000 miles across their territory. This allowed for easy access to resources and their transportation. -Because the Incas practiced terrace-farming on high mountains, they were able to store a food supply in freezer-like buildings to preserve the food for use in the winter. -Sustainable agriculture included terraced slopes, irrigation, and the use of nitrate rich bird droppings, called guano, for fertilizer. -The society was divided by groups of ten -Each group of people had to pay two separate taxes—one was a crop tax to the government and priests, the second was manual labor that males ages 16-60 had to perform for the government called mita.

qiupu

-The Incans invented an ancient communication system using the quipu—ropes that were knotted and strung along a long line. -Each quipu told a story, and many Incans knew how to read using the strings. -The quipu were also used for the government's record keeping.

Maya Political System

-The Mayans developed a hierarchical government ruled by kings and priests. -The Maya states were initially governed by simple chiefdoms. -By the Classic Period, Maya governance had taken on the form of powerful centralized leaders who legitimized their authority through their political connections and their divine lineages -lived in independent city-states consisting of rural communities and large urban ceremonial centers. These states were tied together through trade, political alliances, and tribute obligations. Some of these states were independent, while others were part of larger political hierarchies.

Maya Role of Warfare

-There were no standing armies, but warfare played an important role in religion, power and prestige. (warfare = religion, power, and prestige) -Each state had a supreme military commander named nacom -Constant engage in inter-polity war, violence between states in order to capture sacrificial victims (acquiring and holding valued resources)

Council of Four

-These were powerful men and generals of the army who were first in line to become the next emperor. -They gave advice to the emperor and it was important that he had their agreement in major decisions. -New emperors were elected They were required to be nobles, to be over the age of 30, to have been educated at one of the elite calmecac schools, to be experienced warriors and military leaders, and to be just

Civil Rights and social movements in the Americas post-1945

-This section examines the origins, nature, challenges and achievements of civil rights and social movements after 1945. Causes of some of these movements may be pre-1945. These movements represented the attempts to achieve equality for groups that were not recognized or accepted as full members of society, and they challenged established authority and attitudes. -Indigenous peoples and civil rights in the Americas -African Americans and the civil rights movement: origins, tactics and organizations; the US Supreme Court and legal challenges to segregation in education; ending of segregation in the south (1955-1980) -Role of Dr Martin Luther King Jr in the civil rights movement; the rise of radical African American activism (1965-1968): Black Panthers; Black Power and Malcolm X; role of governments in civil rights movements in the Americas -Feminist movements in the Americas; reasons for emergence; impact and significance -Hispanic American movement in the United States; Cesar Chavez; immigration reform -Youth culture and protests of the 1960s and 1970s: characteristics and manifestation of a counter-culture

Section 1: Indigenous societies and cultures in the Americas (c750-1500)

-Types of political organization: non-sedentary, semi-sedentary, confederations and empires; the role of local and state authorities -The role of warfare in maintaining and expanding political organization -Economic and social structures: role and nature of the tribute; landholding; agricultural production; systems of exchange; nature of the tribute in societies without money -Religion: polytheistic beliefs; relationship between religious and political powers; relationship between man and nature -Culture: written and unwritten language; contributions to scientific development and the arts

Coyolxauhqui Stone monolith

-War captives killed on sacrificial stone, rolled down on top of monolith of Coyolxauhqui (reenact myth & reminder submit to Mexica authority) -

Maya social structure (slavery)

-active slave trade in the Maya region, and commoners and elites were both permitted to own slaves. -Slaves were criminals or debtors

Batabs

-appointed by the Halach Uinic, oversaw the dependent cities as well as the villages that came within the state -held military, judicial and administrative authority over the towns and ensured that the tribute was paid to the supreme leader or ruler -supplied troops at the time of war -heads of the local councils that were comprised of the members who were known as cuch cabob (almost like the President, lead of executive branch)

Flat pyramids

-are climbable and used for human sacrifice and religious summoning -Chichen Itza→ built meaningfully with angles and heights matching different angles of the Earth -Religiously important -Cenote water sources -3 structures: El castillo, Great Ball Court, Temple of Warriors

Mayan art and architecture

-cosmic symbolism, descent of gods divine right to rule Animal companion: everyone had one→ "way ob" -king→ jaguar Share souls

Cuch Cabobs

-councillors who headed different subdivisions in the towns (like US Gov't departments, cabinet members)

Tlatoani (plural - tlatoque)

-king of a city-state; translate to "he who speaks" ; always of the noble class -claimed to be a descendant of the sun god and was on the council of lords and government officials. -ultimate owner of all land in his city-state, received tribute, oversaw markets and temples, led the military, and resolved judicial disputes required to be from the noble class and of royal lineage -served his city-state for life. -Capital leaders were huey tlatoani

Tlaloc Temple

-male figure on back painted blue & red, hold vessel to receive offerings (chacmool), older than mexica and rain god (Tlaloc, also life and water, agrarian concepts) -Two frogs (Altar of the Frogs), croaking of frogs = herald the coming of the rainy season

Bloodletting

-performed by nobles and high ranking priest. Cuts parts of body (lips, tongue, genitals...) to release blood which puts them in a trance-like state. Able to communicate with their ancestors or gods. -Blood drips on paper held in bowl, paper is then burned in honor of birth to an heir -Representation of Mayan story of creation, God let their blood spill to make humans

Maya economy (trade w/ neighbors)

-salt, cotton mantels, slaves, quetzal feathers, flint, chert, obsidian, jade, colored shells, Honey, cacao, copper tools, and ornaments. Prestige items: gold copper, intricate pottery→ used by royals and nobles to flaunt their wealth -Obsidian was also a valuable commodity, usually being used to craft statues, weapons, and in religious rituals. -Sustenance items such as food was traded locally or given fro tribute while luxury items like copper and jade were used for long-distance trade -Manufactured goods: textiles, especially embroidered cloth, clothing, feather capes and headdresses, paper, furniture, jewelry, toys and weapons.: -Animal trade: turkeys, ducks, dogs, fish, Tikal allowed for trade with the rest of the Guatemalan peninsula

Coyolxauhqui (Bells-Her-Cheeks)

-sister of patron god Huitzilopochtil Attempted to kill their mother Coatlicue (Snakes-her-skirt) with 400 brothers, but Huitzilophtli yeeted out of the stomach and killed her and the brothers fully decked in armor and clothed on mountain "Coatepec", beheaded her and threw down the mountain, body broke apart

Acamapichtli (1369-91)

-struggled to expand the Aztec empire out from under the control of its neighboring societies, such as the Tepanec. -Regardless, Acamapichtli improved Tenochtitlan in several key ways, including: building up the chinampa 'floating garden' system around the city to improve agriculture, and building temples and public buildings.

Halach Uinic

-supreme leader of the Mayan people and the separate states only ruled nine of the states but other states and towns were led by the council of nobles of the elite lineage power and authority of the --Halach Uinic was sometimes limited by the council, foreign advisors and the special military -leaders or rulers were succeeded by their sons or other suitable

Nacom

-supreme military commander of each of the states of Maya -served a period of 3 years and he was responsible for making the military strategy and also asking the troops to go to war

Itzacoatl (1427-40)

-tenochtitlan formed alliances with the neighboring states of Texcoco and Tlacopan (Triple Alliance) and became the dominant power in central Mexico. -fought against the Tepanec and challenged them for superiority in the Valley of Mexico -grew considerably with new temples, public buildings, and causeways to the shore of Lake Texcoco.

Templo Mayor

-the major temple in the centre of Tenochtitlan, dedicated to the god Huitzilopochtli -located at the heart of the city, divided into 4 main quadrants, represents the Mexica cosmos (axis mundi) -Two grand staircases w/ two temples beside for deities Tlaloc (water, rain, agriculture) & Hutizilpochtli (warfare, fire, sun) -Source of rain and lightning, quadruple (black, white, blue and red) -Sacrifice children bring rain, end dry season "the more they cried, the more the Rain God was pleased" -Symbolizes Mexica (atl-tlachinolli/burnt water = warfare); how they achieved wealth and power -Huitzilopochtli temple = sacrificial stone, held paper banners and feathers

High Priest

-third position in the hierarchy of Mayan politics -led a hierarchy of priests -responsible for foretelling auspicious events for the ruler and finding the dates of ceremonies and festival

Flowery Wars (xochiyaoyotl)

-when the Aztecs went to war with enemies just to get people for sacrifice, not to gain land -both sides agreed to the battle beforehand, agreeing that the losers would provide warriors for sacrifice. The Aztecs believed that the blood of sacrificial victims, especially of brave warriors, fed the god Huitzilopochtli.

Moctezuma I (1440-69)

-worked to strengthen the Triple Alliance with Texcoco and Tlacopan and improved Tenochtitlan by building aqueducts that supplied fresh water to the growing city -expanding the Aztec Empire outside of the Valley of Mexico and into parts of the coast along the Gulf of Mexico

Mayan Civilization

200BC-900AD

Incan Social Structure

Emperor, nobles, local chiefs and officials, common people

Aztec Role of Warfare

First and foremost, successful warfare brought the Aztecs new territory and secured and extended their lucrative trade network.

Tuplies

constables who worked under the Batabs and were responsible for maintaining peace

Tokoyrikoq (Inspectors)

In order to maintain control and to make sure people were paying their taxes and following the ways of the Inca, the Sapa Inca had inspectors that watched over the people. The inspectors were called "tokoyrikoq".

Tecuhtli

Just below the emperor, who ruled the capital Tenochtitlan, were the rulers of the other city-states. They were very wealthy and lived in large palaces within their cities. They had complete power over their cities as long as they paid tribute to the emperor.

Incan Culture

Settled in the Valley of Cuzco; conquered all of Peru and moved into neighboring lands

Coricancha

Temple in Cuzco; important celestial beings and royal mummies were venerated (built for sun god)

Aztec Social Structure

The Aztecs referred to themselves as culhua-mexica to link themselves with the colhuacan, the center of the most civilized people "of the valley of Mexico

Apu (Governors of a Quarter)

The Inca Empire was divided up into four quarters. Each of these quarters was ruled by a governor called an Apu.

Festival of death

The Inca mummified the dead and participated in a "Festival of Death" in order to honor fallen emperors

Council of the Realm

The Sapa Inca also kept a council of men who advised him on major matters. These men were powerful nobles.

Macehualtin

The common people in Aztec society were called the macehualtin. This included the farmers, warriors, and craftsmen. Later on in the history of the Aztecs, craftsmen and warriors began to have a higher position in society than the farmers.

Sapa Inca

The emperor of the Incan Empire. People believed that he was descended from the sun god.

Pochteca

There was a special class of Aztec merchants called pochteca. They were treated like the nobility in society because their jobs were considered very important to the Aztec Empire. The pochteca traveled long distances in order to bring back luxury goods that were treasured by the nobility.

Apukuna (Military Generals)

There were also military generals. The head general was usually a close relative of the Sapa Inca. These leaders were called "Apukuna".

Other Officials

There were many other government officials and leaders throughout the Inca Empire such as priests, military officers, judges, and tax collectors.

Al Kuleboob

These were the assistants to the Batabs who helped in carrying out many kinds of government duties.

interlocking stones

They created earthquake resistant masonry walls with the interlocking stones

Aztec Religion

Worship hundreds of gods, human sacrifices to please the gods (polytheistic)

canal

important aspect to facilitate trade. Tenochtitilan was founded on a swampy island in Lake Texcoco, so canals throughout the city and around it made it easier to navigate through the area as well as increase trading.

Quechua

language of the Inca, drew on as history of previous cultural evolutions in the Andes.

Incan Religion

polytheistic emphasizing sun god (Inti), llama sacrifice then human sacrifice.

cihuacoatl

second in command after the tlatoani, was a member of the nobility, served as the supreme judge for the court system, appointed all lower court judges, and handled the financial affairs of the altepetl.

wilaq umu (high priest)

second in power to the Sapa Inca due to the importance of religion in the Inca Empire.