PAST EXAM QUESTIONS PE

How would a coach use attribution theory to maintain motivation following a defeat? (4)

1)Attributions - perceived reasons for outcomes / performance 2)Failure to internal-unstable factors - effort 3)Failure to external - unstable factors - luck 4)Failure to external - stable factors - task difficulty 5)Failure to external control - e.g those areas which players cannot control 6)Self serving bias 7)Attribution re-training

The leader of a team has an important role to ensure that the players work together. Explain the term autocratic leader and outline when the autocratic style of leadership should be used (3)

3 marks for 3 of: A. (Autocratic leader) - makes all the decisions/no input from the team/focused on completing the task/not concerned about inter-personal relationships B. (Situation) - limited time available C. (Situation) - complex/dangerous task D. (Situation) - large number of people/performers E. (Situation) - clear/specific goals F. (Situation) - decisions need to be made quickly G. (Situation) - inexperienced so need to be told what to do /experienced so they are willing to

Elite performers have to maintain high levels of motivation to perform at their optimum level. How can a coach use attributions to maintain high levels of motivation following a defeat (3)

3 marks for 3 of: A. never attribute failure to internal-stable factors/ability B. self-serving bias C. (attribute loss to) internal-unstable factors/effort D. (attribute loss to) external-stable factors/task difficulty E. (attribute loss to) external-unstable factors/luck F. (attribute loss to) controllable factors G. Attribution retraining

Explain the term evaluation apprehension and describe a named cognitive stress management technique used to improve performance levels (4)

A. (evaluation apprehension) performer only influenced by an audience or crowd if they perceive they are judging their performance B. Thought-stopping C. Use of cue/action/word D. Re-directs attention to positive thoughts E. Example - key word - focus F. Self-talk/positive self-talk G. Use when negative thoughts occur H. Replace with positive statements about performance I. Example - nerves are good before the race J. Imagery/visualisation/mental rehearsal K. Formation of mental pictures of good performance/imagine in a calm place L. (Internal) - creating the feeling of the movement/sensations M. (External) - seeing themselves completing the movement N. Attentional control O. Changing the focus of attention to detect only relevant cues/improve selective attention/alter perceptual field P. Broad/external - used during games to detect fast changing situations and identify the best option Q. External/narrow - used to concentrate on specific objects or tasks, possibly with limited number of cues R. Narrow/internal - used to mentally rehearse a skill or task S. Internal/broad - used to analyse performance and plan future strategies and tactics T. Goal Setting U. Targets must be SMART/SMARTER V. Specific - to the sport/performer W. Measurable - quantitative/objective X. Accepted/agreed - by performer and coach Y. Realistic/achievable - within performance capability

Explain the term self-efficacy and outline the impact of positive vicarious experiences on the performer (4)

A. (self-efficacy) level of self-confidence of a performer in a specific situation B. (Vicarious experience) watching/observing a demonstration or others performing a task C. Allows modelling/copying to occur D. Builds confidence/belief in own ability when task is seen completed successfully E. More effective if model is of similar ability to the performer

What do you understand by the term learned helplessness and what strategies may a coach use to prevent this from happening? (3 marks)

1. Learned helplessness . idea that failure is inevitable/examples 2. Possibly leading to idea of giving up even when success is possible/examples 3. Coach to enable player to achieve success/play weaker opposition/examples 4. Encourage view that success due to stable/internal factors . ability/examples 5. That failure due to unstable/external factors . effort or luck/examples. 6. Learned helplessness can be global and/or specific.

People who fail in sport may at some time experience learned helplessness. Explain what this means. (3 marks)

1. Learned helplessness . strong reaction to failure/leading to given up/avoidance behaviour 2. Even if success is possible 3. Caused by attributing failure to ability/internal factors 4. Ability is stable/unchanging 5. Therefore failure becomes predicted for the future/inevitable 6. Can be global or specific/equiv 3 marks

After a competition, games players may explain their success or failure using a variety of factors called attributions. Some attributions may be damaging to the player's future performances through the development of learned helplessness. What are the four main groups of 'attributions'? (2 marks)

1. Luck 2. Effort 3. Task difficulty 4. Ability

What are the four groups of attributions? (2 marks)

1. Luck 2. Effort 3. Task difficulty 4. Ability

Discuss whether cohesive groups are always more successful. (3 marks)

1. Not clear whether success leads to cohesion or cohesion leads to success 2. Usually cohesive groups lead to success 3. Exceptions usually involved where joint goals override personal dislikes 4. Task cohesion greater than social cohesion 5. Many other factors involved in success apart from cohesion/e.g personality/ability/leadership are involved in success apart from cohesion.

An ice-skating squad may be regarded as a group and will often have a leader. Describe how, according to Chelladurai's multidimensional model (1980), effective leadership leads to good performance outcomes and member satisfaction. (3 marks)

1. Occurs when - required behaviour from/by situation 2. Actual behaviour of leader 3. Preferred behaviour of performer 4. All match/are congruent.

Discuss the effect that the presence of an audience may have upon the level of performance for a novice performer and an elite performer. (4 marks)

1. Presence of an audience increased arousal/anxiety 2. Can lead to either social facilitation 3. Or social inhibition 4. Increase in arousal will cause the dominant response 5. Novice - not well-learned - poorer performance 6. Elite - well-learned - improved performance 7. Complex skill more difficult to perform/simple skill easier to perform 8. Will also have an impact if they feel the crowd is evaluating them/evaluation apprehension 9. The importance of the crowd will also dictate the level of arousal

In terms of attribution theory, explain what is meant by self-serving bias. (2 marks)

1. Self-serving bias . attributing successful outcomes to themselves/internally/ suitable e.g. 2. And attribution unsuccessful outcomes to others/externally/suitable e.g 3. Tendency/bias to want to protect own self-esteem 4. Feel better if winning is down to your own efforts/losing outside your control 5. Coach and performer might attribute performance differently.

In terms of attribution theory, explain what is meant by self-serving bias and learned helplessness. (4 marks)

Sub max 2 marks 1. Self-serving bias - blaming success on internal factors/failure on external factors 2. Maintains self-esteem/feel better about themselves Sub max 3 marks 3. Learned helplessness - failure is inevitable 4. Eventually give up/stop trying 5. Attributed failure to internal factors/success to external factors 6. Can be specific or global

Rugby Union is a team game and most successful teams have effective leaders. It has been said that 'effective leadership is a dynamic interactional process'. What do you understand by the term dynamic interactional process? (4 marks)

A. Effective leaders should change style of leadership B. Leader has preferred style C. Situational preference/situation demands a certain style D. Team members demand a certain style E. Performer.s satisfaction/performance best when all preferences match/congruent F. Task-oriented/autocratic leader . focuses on team performance G. Relationship-oriented/democratic leaders develop/person orientated/concerned with inter-personal relationships H. Some members have traditional preferences/loath to change/suitable examples.

Explain how the self efficacy of a performer may be improved (4)

A. Performance accomplishments/success from previous performances/reminding performer of previous success/or equiv B. Avoid failure this can hinder self-efficacy C. Organise successful events/gradually increase task difficulty/make task easier D. Vicarious experiences/watching successful performances E. More effective if performers are of similar ability F. Verbal persuasion/encouragement/positive feedback/reinforcement from coach G. Emotional arousal/stress management techniques/mental rehearsal/establish set routines H. Set goals/targets/performance goals rather than outcome goals I. Avoid social comparison with other performers J. Use attributions correctly/attribution retraining/encouraging selfserving bias

Elite performers have to develop high levels of self confidence to optimise their performance What do you understand by the term learned helplessness? (3)

A. Performer perceives failure is inevitable/only option B. No control over the situation C. Causes avoidance behaviour/no task persistence/giving up is the only option/lack of effort D. Caused by attributing failure to ability/internal stable factors E. Global/general learned helplessness - general sporting situations, eg not good at water sports F. Specific/Situational learned helplessness - specific situations, eg not good at diving in the pool

What do you understand by the term 'learned helplessness' and what strategies may a coach use to prevent this happening? (5 marks)

Learned helplessness - idea that failure is inevitable/examples 2. Can be applied globally or to specific situations 3. Normally caused by player attributing wrong factor to failure e.g. an internal and stable reason rather than external and unstable 4. Possibly leading to the idea of giving up even when success is possible/examples Strategies to overcome 5. Coach to enable player to achieve success/play weaker opposition/examples 6. Encourage view that success due to stable /internal factors - ability/examples 7. That failure due to unstable/external factors - effort or luck/examples 8. Attribution retraining

After a competitive match, players may explain their success or failure using a variety of factors called attributions. Weiner (1972) classified these attributions into four groups, and split the groups into two dimensions. What are the two dimensions of attributions? (2 marks)

1. Internal/external/causality 2. Stable/unstable/stability

The crowd can affect elite performers either positively or negatively. At the 2008 Wimbledon Tennis Championships, the British player Andy Murray commented after winning one match. "You know, the crowd were awesome, they got behind me, I mean, more than they have ever before. I think to finish the set like that really got the crowd going. It shifted the momentum of the match hugely" Explain the concept of social facilitation and how it can affect performance. Outline the possible strategies which the performer and coach may use to limit any negative effects that may occur. (14 marks)

1)Social Facilitation - the influence of others and the effect on performance. 2)Social Inhibition - the negative effect of the audience 3)Audience - watching at event or at home 4)Co-actors - performing same task but not in competition 5)Competitive co-actors - in direct competition 6)Social Reinforcers - direct influence e.g coach 7)Linked to drive theory 8)As arousal increases so does performance - dominant habit 9)Experienced players perform better 10)Novice players perform worse 11)Evaluation Apprehension suggests only others have influence if performer feels they are being judged. 12)Baron's Distraction-Conflict Theory - suggests performers should focus on task not crowd. POSSIBLE STRATEGIES: 1)Mental Rehearsal 2)Train in front of others 3)Improve selective attention 4)Reduce the importance of the match 5)Avoid social comparison with coach, teachers. 6)Encourage team mates to be supportive 7)Use stress management techniques 8)Goal setting 9)Use attributions correctly 10)Ensure skills are overlearnt.

Describe the different types of attribution that may be used by athletes. (4 marks)

1. (Ability/ internal and unstable) . how good a performer you are and attributions such as .I.m not very good at tennis., or .our team had too strong a middle for them. 2. (Effort/internal/unstable) . how much commitment put into performance and statements such as .we were psyched-up to go all-out for that game., or .I tried as hard as I possibly could. 3. (Task difficulty/external and stable) . attributions concerning the opponents, such as .they were the league leaders. and attributions to the task itself, e.g., .the moves we tried were just too complicated.. 4. (Luck/external and unstable) . chance, random events and environmental factors, e.g. .we got all the breaks., or .they had the ref on their side..

Performers may attribute their success and/or failure to various factors. What do you understand by the term attribution retraining, and when would it become necessary? (3 marks)

1. Attribution training - changing the reasons given for failure 2. Incorrect attributions affect performer's persistence/performance/ expectations/satisfaction/cause learned helplessness 3. Work with individual to change/improve techniques 4. Encourage performer to attribute success to internal factors/ability/effort 5. Help performer change attributions for failure as being due to external unstable factors/luck/task difficulty 6. Attribute failure to controllable factors

Team game players often look to their leader to assist their performance. Distinguish between emergent and prescribed leaders. (2 marks)

1. Emergent - from within group/elected (do not credit emerge) 2. Prescribed - selected by someone outside the group/imposed.

Team game players tend to play and train as a group in order to improve their performances. What do you understand by the term group cohesion? (3 marks)

1. Forces tending to keep members within a group 2. Forces preventing disruption of a group 3. Forces tending to foster commitment to group norms/values 4. Task cohesion 5. Commitment to task 6. Social cohesion 7. Commitment to social goals of group

Name and explain the stages that lead to group formation. (4 marks)

1. Forming . getting to know each other/each other.s roles 2. Storming . stage of conflict/rebellion trying to establish roles/status 3. Norming . become co-operative/cohesive/work together/same norms/values/accepting roles 4. Performing . primary aim is group success/common goal/roles and relationships effective/role acceptance.

Explain how the size and structure of a group may affect its cohesiveness. (3 marks)

1. Generally the larger the group the greater the productivity 2. But group can get too large 3. Leading to formation of sub-groups or cliques 4. And loss of productivity 5. Breakdown in co-ordination strategies/ Ringleman effect 6. Poorly-led or disorganised groups may perform worse than smaller groups 7. Social loafing 8. Reduction in commitment/motivation 9. Reduced cohesiveness if obvious/known participants 10. Cohesion is better if they have similar status.

Sufferers of learned helplessness may require attribution retraining. Explain what attribution retraining is and suggest why it is effective. (3 marks)

1. Idea of realising that failure is not inevitable/teaching appropriate attributions Sub max 1 mark 2. Allow performer to achieve success 3. Attribute success to stable/ internal/ability/controllable factors 4. Attribute failure to unstable/external factors/luck/task difficulty/effort/ 5. Improve self-esteem/confidence/feel/good/motivation

Competitors at the 2004 Athens Olympics who did not get beyond the heats may eventually suffer from learned helplessness. What do you understand by the term learned helplessness and suggest the likely cause of it? (3 marks)

1. Inevitable/expectation of failure 2. Loss of motivation/leading to giving up 3. Global/specific sub max 2 4. Attribute failure to stable/internal factors/ability 5. Suitable e.g./keeps losing to same competitor

Discuss the idea that leaders need to be adaptable in their approach. (6 marks)

1. Successful leadership dependant on interaction 2. There are a variety of leader characteristics/styles 3. e.g. autocratic/democratic/laissez-faire 4. Best to adapt style to situation/group/members characteristic/ 5. Individuals vary in preferred style of leadership 6. And in expectations of leadership role 7. e.g. task orientated/autocratic preferred in team sports/groups 8. e.g. person orientated/democratic preferred in individual sports/moderately favourable situations 9. Situation varies in terms of demands it makes of leader/state of group (age/size/gender)/dangerous/least favourable 10. Task orientated/authoritarian approach needed when quick decisions needed/short preparation time available/least or most favourable situation.

The members of a sports team are usually led by a captain, manager or coach. Fielder (1967) suggested that such leaders had one of two types of leadership style. Identify Fielder's two leadership styles and describe the situations in which each type of leader would be most effective. (4 marks)

1. Task-orientated/autocratic (not command style) 2. Relationship/person-orientated/democratic 3. Task-orientated/autocratic best in very favourable or very unfavourable situations 4. Example related to point 3/winning/doing well/being successful/supportive parents/good facilities/discipline structure/strong leadership position 5. Relation-orientated best in moderately favourable situations

Some weightlifters appear to perform well in front of an audience, while others seem to perform badly, "choking" under the pressure. Use social facilitation theory to explain this observation. (7 marks)

1. Theory from Zajonc 2. Presence of audience causes increased arousal 3. Increased drive/arousal means performer tries harder/drive 4. Increased likelihood of learnt dominant response 5. Effects depend on stage of learning 6. Early/cognitive stage . negative effects/social inhibition 7. Performer not fully developed appropriate response to demands 8. Later/associative/autonomous stages . performance enhanced by presence of audience 9. Enhancement effect more likely if simple task/gross skill 10. Impairment effect more likely if complex task/fine skill 11. If they think they are being judged negative effect is enhanced 12. This is known as evaluation apprehension.

'In order to be effective, leaders need to be sensitive to the characteristics of the group members.' Explain how leadership styles should be adapted depending on the different characteristics such as age, gender, size and skill levels of a team. (4 marks)

1. Younger teams . relation-orientated preferred/democratic/person orientated 2. Older teams . autocratic/task-orientated/authoritarian/command 3. Female teams . democratic style/person orientated 4. Males . autocratic style/command style 5. Highly skilled prefer relationship-orientated 6. Weaker players prefer task-orientated 7. Larger . autocratic/command style 8. Smaller . democratic

Spectators can have an impact on the quality of an individual's performance. Explain the difference between the terms social inhibition and evaluation apprehension. (2)

2 marks for 2 of A. (social inhibition) the negative influence of others/audience on performance who are present at the time B. (evaluation apprehension) the negative influence of others if the performer feels they are being judged

Using examples, explain why a leader, when choosing a leadership style, needs to consider the characteristics of the group they are leading. (2 marks)

2 marks for 2 of: 1. Larger group - task - orientated/autocratic or smaller group - relationorientated/ democratic 2. Younger teams - relation-orientated/democratic or older teams - autocratic/task-orientated 3. Female teams - relation-orientated/democratic or males - task orientated/autocratic style 4. Elite/highly skilled prefer relationship-orientated/democratic or novices/weaker players prefer task - orientated/autocratic

Fiedler (1967) suggested that the effectiveness of leaders depended on the situation and the style of leadership. Describe the two styles of leadership identified by Fiedler and the situation in which each is most effective. (2 marks)

2 marks for 2 of: 1. Task-orientated/autocratic and relationship-orientated/personorientated/ democratic 2. Task-orientated/autocratic - most and least favourable and relationshiporientated/ person-orientated/democratic - moderately favourable

Identify three characteristics of a good leader and explain the difference between an emergent leader and a prescribed leader. (3 marks)

3 marks for 3 of A. Characteristics (any 3 from) confident/organised/inspirational/good communicator/knowledgeable/visionary/good decision maker/ interpersonal skills/approachable/ determined/empathy/charismatic/motivational/ equiv. B. Emergent leader - group approval/elected by the team C. Prescribed leader - appointed by external authority to lead the group

Leaders and coaches have an important role in developing the performance of their players. Outline the role of a leader and explain the difference between a prescribed leader and an emergent leader. (3)

3 marks for 3 of- A. (role of a leader) direct behaviour/influence others/ motivation/goal setting/provide guidance/provide feedback or equiv. B. (prescribed leader) appointed by an external authority to lead the group C. (emergent leader) appointed by the group /approved by the group

The effectiveness of these styles depends on whether the situation is favourable. What factors determine the 'favourableness' of the situation? (3 marks)

3 marks for 3 of: 1. Quality of leader's relationship with group 2. Leader's level of authority 3. Resources available eg facilities/equipment/time 4. Demands of task/environment/danger

Discuss the suggestion that 'home field advantage' will always improve the performance of the home team. (4 marks)

4 marks for 4 of (Sub max 2) Agree A. Home support tends to improve performance/social facilitation effect/boost self-efficacy/lower levels of anxiety B. More matches won at home than away/during early rounds of competitions/Olympic & World medals by host nation C. Home teams tend to play more attacking styles/ tactics/functional aggressive behaviour (accept reverse answer) D. Proximity effect/closeness of crowd has negative effect on visiting teams E. Larger crowd/hostile crowd has a negative effect on visiting teams F. Away team commit more fouls/can become anxious/over-aroused due to crowd or unfamiliar surroundings Disagree G. Increased pressure from the home crowd H. More important the game the greater the pressure/ choke effect/championship choke I. Performers become more self-conscious at home causing over-arousal J. Players place more pressure on themselves at home matches due to expectations K. Social inhibition for the home team L. Evaluation apprehension for the home team

How can a coach help a performer to increase their self-efficacy? (4 marks)

4 marks for 4 of: 1. Performance accomplishments 2. Previous/experience success 3. Vicarious experiences 4. Observing others succeed (of similar ability) 5. Verbal persuasion 6. Being convinced that they can manage 7. Emotional arousal 8. Interpretation of their own levels of arousal 9. Goal setting/targets 10. Use of performance goals 11. Attribute successes internally/ability 12. Use of positive self-talk 13. Use of visualisation/imagery/imagining doing it yourself/mental rehearsal

How would a captain use knowledge of self-serving bias to motivate their team? (4 marks)

4 marks for 4 of: A. (self-serving bias) correct use of attributions to protect self-esteem/ self-efficacy/self-confidence/avoid learned helplessness B. Attributing success to internal - stable factors/ability C. Attributing success to internal - unstable factors/effort D. Attribute failure to controllable factors E. Attributing failure to internal - unstable factors/effort F. Attributing failure to external - stable factors/task difficulty G. Attributing failure to external - unstable factors/luck

Outline the characteristics of a favourable situation and name the style of leadership that should be used when this occurs. (4 marks)

4 marks for 4 of: A. Task-centred/task-orientated/autocratic leadership style Sub max 1 mark B. Leader respected by group C. Leader has good relationship with group D. Group highly motivated E. Group high ability/highly successful F. Clear task/goal/roles G. Good support network H. Good resources/equipment/facilities

Outline the strategies a coach may use to reduce the negative effects of an audience on performance (5)

5 marks for 5 of A. Train in front of others B. Improve selective attention and cut out the effect of the audience C. Reduce the importance of the event D. Avoid social comparison with others/teach/ coach in a non-evaluative environment initially/verbal encouragement/ persuasive communication E. Encourage team mates to be supportive F. Mental rehearsal/imagery/visualisation G. Other Named stress management and relaxation techniques H. Goal setting I. Use attributions correctly/accept suitable examples J. Ensure skills are over-learned/highly skilled/autonomous phase/performance accomplishments/ensure success

All teams will experience victories and defeats. Explain how the coach of a team can use knowledge of Weiner's Attribution Theory to maintain the motivation of a team following defeat and outline other strategies that can be used to avoid learned helplessness (14)

Use of attribution theory A. (explanation of attribution) - perceived reason for success or failure or equivalent B. Locus of causality/locus of stability/locus of control C. Never attribute failure to internal-stable factors/ability D. Applied example e.g. 'lack of skill' E. (attribute loss to) internal-unstable factors/effort F. Applied example e.g. 'try harder next time' G. (attribute loss to) external-stable factors/task difficulty H. Applied example e.g. 'opposition too strong' I. (attribute loss to) external-unstable factors/luck J. Applied example e.g. 'referee decision' K. (attribute loss to) controllable factors L. Applied example e.g. 'our tactics weren't right' M. Self-serving bias N. Attributes success to internal factors and defeat to external factors Strategies to avoid learned helplessness O. (explanation of Learned Helplessness) failure is inevitable/perceived lack of control of the situation P. General or global learned helplessness - failure is inevitable in all sports or equiv. Q. Specific learned helplessness - failure is inevitable in certain situations or equiv. R. Develop self-efficacy/self-confidence/self-esteem S. Attribution retraining T. Avoid social comparisons U. Goal setting /Set performance/process/task orientated goals rather than outcome goals V. Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery W. Provide opportunities for success X. Positive feedback/reinforcement/peer support Y. One-to-one attention Z. Observe demonstrations by others of similar abilities/vicarious experiences AA. Positive self-talk/thought stopping