Period 7 Overview

Henry Cabot Lodge

Conservative senator who wanted to keep the united states out of the league of nations Henry Cabot Lodge was a Massachusetts Republican senator who contributed to American imperialism through the Lodge Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. When Japanese investors wanted to purchase large portions of land within Mexico's Baja Peninsula, Lodge feared that the Japanese government would try to acquire the land through schemes and tricks instead. As a result, he presented to the Senate the notion of extending the conditions of the Monroe Doctrine to non-european powers, making it so that countries like Japan were unable to obtain land in the Western Hemisphere. This contribution to American Imperialism ultimately resulted in the angry feelings of the Japanese government and Latin American countries.

George Creed (propoganda example)

Specifically, George Creel was a notable American propagandist who urged Americans to "do your bit" in the war effort and promoted anti-german views. When America joined the war effort, American propaganda switched to idealize war goals, recruit men to join the army, urge the American people to save food, keep morale high and encourage people to buy government bonds. Significantly, propaganda would influence the American perspective of WW1 which would lead to America's eventual involvement in the war. Propaganda influenced the American conscience to see the War in a negative light and urged Americans to respond as a result.

Allied Powers (WWI)

Triple Entente: Britain, France, Russia, later US and Italy The Allied Powers refers to an alliance throughout WWI between the US, France, Italy, Russia and Great Britain. This relationship had been established primarily because of economic needs before the war. Previous to the beginning of WWI, the US had been in a business recession and began to prosper once again as a result of the demands for supplies from France and England, who had joined the war prior to America. Because of the combined power of the Allies, they were able to properly contest the attacks from Germany and their allies, allowing them to eventually win the war and draft the Treaty of Versailles. Because of the Allied Powers and their decisions when drafting the Treaty of Versailles, events in Germany following WWI would eventually lead to the beginning of WWII.

Henry Ford

United States manufacturer of automobiles who pioneered mass production (1863-1947). American businessman, founder of Ford Motor Company, father of modern assembly lines, and inventor credited with 161 patents. A revolutionary businessman who perfected the mass production of automobiles by assembly line in 1914, Henry Ford contributed to what made business in the 1920's so prosperous after other companies adopted this process. Additionally, as a result of his significant production of automobiles, he was able to change American society and several industries. Because automobiles became so popular, the railroad industry became less popular, and the industries that processed the raw materials needed to assemble cars grew significantly. Also, architecture throughout the states changed, as family homes now required garages, driveways, and neighborhoods were able to be further away from urban areas as transportation was no longer as major an issue.

Moral (missionary) Diplomacy

Woodrow Wilson's foreign policy to spread American ideals and institutions and democracy; said that the US had moral responsibility to deny recognition to any Latin American government it viewed as oppressive, undemocratic, or hostile Woodrow Wilson's opposed the (big stick and dollar) diplomacies. Instead, he called for a moral approach to foriegn affairs. This would be known as "Missionary or Moral Diplomacy." The goal of his policy was to demonstrate that the United States respected other nations' rights and would support the spread of democracy rather than self-interested imperialism. Therefore, his objective was for democratic governments in Latin America to be supported while more oppressive governments be opposed. An example of his diplomacy would be the Conciliation treaties which worked to negotiate treaties with latin american countries in an effort to promote peace. Significantly, Wilson's moral approach to foriegn affairs encouraged democracy on a global scale. Also, as the United States would grow from financial interests, the other countries would too.

Flappers:

Young women of the 1920s that behaved and dressed in a radical fashion; challenged social traditions with their dress and behavior carefree young women with short, "bobbed" hair, heavy makeup, and short skirts. The flapper symbolized the new "liberated" woman of the 1920s. Many people saw the bold, boyish look and shocking behavior of flappers as a sign of changing morals. Though hardly typical of American women, the flapper image reinforced the idea that women now had more freedom. Flappers were another part of the social changes brought about by the Jazz Age. Playing this role was also a significant way for women to step into the public sphere, taking a powerful stance and breaking away from the stereotypes placed on them by society. By dressing up in short flashy dresses and adopting the new "bob" hairstyle, the women of America gave power to themselves as they stepped out of the typical housewife idealized lifestyle. By living independently, getting jobs, smoking, drinking, driving, and living as any other young male adult would, Flappers set a different precedent for females, one that showed that women could be as rebellious as any man.

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire

a factory fire that killed 146 workers trapped in the building; brought attention to poor conditions; led to new safety standard laws The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire took place in 1911 within a garment factory located in New York City. Unfortunately, this tragedy took the lives of 146 people, mostly women. This terrible incident ignited a passion within Americans to advocate for women's activism, causing states to incorporate new measures to ensure the safety and wellbeing of their female laborers in factories. Though these were sufficient steps forward, this attempt to ensure the safety of female laborers consequently resulted in restrictions towards them taking on more physically demanding occupations, which were higher paying. Nonetheless, while the Triangle Shirtwaist Fire was indeed a horrible incident, it did lead to many good changes in the working environment for women in America and brought attention to their plights.

Zimmermann Telegram (1917)

a secret offer made by Germany to Mexico. Intercepted by British intelligence, a telegram to Mexico from Germany: proposed that Mexico ally itself with Germany in return for Germany's pledge to help Mexico recover lost territories: Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. This aroused the nationalist anger of the American people and convinced Wilson that Germany fully expected a war with the U.S. Helps lead U.S. toward war with Germany.-- declared war against Germany just over a month later. The Zimmermann Telegram was another significant cause in US involvement in WWI. On March 1, Britain intercepted a secret telegram from Germany to Mexico, proposing a deal through which Germany would help Mexico recover the lands taken by America, in exchange for their support in the War. This telegram was written by German foreign minister Zimmermann, explaining where the event received its name from. The Zimmermann Telegram incited extreme anger throughout the nation, and convinced Wilson that Germany was fully prepared to go to war with the United States, causing him to further prepare.

Scopes Trial (1925)

"Monkey Trial" over John Scopes's teaching of evolution in his biology classroom in violation of a Tennessee law; it pitted the Bible, fundamentalism, and William Jennings Bryan against evolution, modernism, and Clarence Darrow. Scopes was convicted, but fundamentalism was damaged and discouraged by the trial: pitted creationists against evolutionists. The Scopes Trial, also known as the Scopes Monkey Trial, was a court case which captured the debates (differences) between religious fundamentalists in the rural South and modernists in Northern cities. As a refresher, fundamentalists emphasize a literal reading of the bible whereas modernists aim to break classical and traditional norms. Before the trial, Tenessse, like several other Southern States, outlawed the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution in public schools. Laws reinforced this. Thus, when the American Civil Liberties Union persuaded John Scopes, a biology teacher to teach evolution to his students, he was arrested. He was tried in 1925. Clarence Darrow defended the modernist Scopes while William Bryan Jennings prosecuted for the fundamentalists. The trial was heavily publicized and followed by both newspapers and radio; as a result, the trial was followed by the entire nation. Scopes was convicted (but later his conviction was overturned). Laws banning the teaching of evolution remained on the books for years but were rarely enforced. Significantly, the court's decision violates American civil liberties like freedom of religion as well as the separation of Church and State (no national religion). Also, the trial speaks to a question still relevant in today's world relating to the relationship between religion and public school curriculum.

"Silent Cal"

"Silent Cal" was the nickname given to US President Calvin Coolidge, who took office in 1924 as a Republican. He received this nickname as he was known for using very few words in the public sphere. He once explained his reasoning for remaining silent when it came to politics by saying, "If you don't say anything, you won't be called on to repeat it." Because he had already created a standing with the Republican party as the vice president of the previous president Warren Harding, Coolidge gained overwhelming support for being the Republican candidate of the 1942 election. Calvin Coolidge was significant as his presidency only contributed to the shift in the economy that would lead to the Great Depression. By reverting back to laissez faire economics, larger corporations gained more power. He also vetoed the McNary-Haugen Bill to help farmers, who were significantly struggling, and did not allow for the bonuses for the WWI veterans.

National Defense Act

(June 1916) Increased the number of US soldiers in the army, navy and national guard. The National Defense Act was passed in June of 1916 after Wilson changed his mind regarding military preparedness. Initially, President Wilson was against the idea of calling for greater defense funding like republicans such as President Roosevelt. However, he made a different decision in 1915, and asked Congress to expand the military forces. After struggling with disagreement from the public, he was finally able to convince the Congress to pass the National Defense Act, which expanded the regular army to a total of almost 175,000. By passing this law, Wilson suggested to American citizens that joining in the war was a great possibility. This angered many people, especially Democrats, as Wilson had promised to prevent involvement in the war as the Democratic Candidate in the Election of 1916.

Boxer Rebellion

A 1900 revolt in China, aimed at ending foreign influence in the country. The Boxer Rebellion occurred in 1900 in China as a result of strong feelings of Chinese nationalism and xenophobia. It receives its name from a group of Chinese nationalists called the Society of Harmonious Fists, who attacked and murdered foreigners and their settlements. Because of the significant number of casualties, the US and other countries marched as a unit to Beijing in order to eliminate the rebels. The Chinese government was significantly weakened after having to compensate for the foreign casualties on top of resolving the issue with the rebels. The Boxer Rebellion is an example of tensions rising internationally as several nations start to imperialize.

Lusitania Incident (1915)

A British passenger ship that was sunk by a German U-Boat on May 7, 1915. 128 Americans died. The sinking greatly turned American opinion against the Germans, helping the move towards entering the war. The Lusitania was a British passenger ship that was attacked by German u-boats, causing many conflicts within the US, as several American passengers were aboard the ship. German justified the attack on the Lusitania by stating their intention was to interfere with the transportation of ammunition between their enemies in the war. However, this attack is one of the main causes of the US's end to their neutrality in WWI thus far. Because there was already a negative perspective of Germany among American citizens, the sinking of the Lusitania only reinforced these negative feelings, causing many to debate whether or not the US should enter the war. It is a clear cause for America's declaration of war against Germany, officially making them part of World War I as a part of the Allied powers.

Pragmatism

A balanced way of thinking that developed as a result of the contrasting concepts of evolution and transcendentalism, pragmatism offered a middle ground between the extreme challenge to the traditional way of thinking and the romanticized philosophy of transcendentalism. Pragmatism gave way to new ideas, encouraging Americans to seek more of a balance of morals, already established knowledge and facts, and other ideals. This philosophy was significant in the Progressive Era as it made it easier to contest "traditional" systems, finding new solutions by looking at problems through a practical lens in relation to the current state of the nation.

America First Committee

A committee organized by isolationists before WWII, who wished to spare American lives. They wanted to protect America before we went to war in another country. Charles A. Lindbergh (the aviator) was its most effective speaker. The America First Committee was established to mobilize public opinion against war. After many isolationists recognized how Franklin D. Roosevelt's policies reflected an alignment with Britain, they formed this committee and decorated it with significant speakers such as Charles Lindberg. The goal of these speakers was to warn the people of the dangers of reengaging in European affairs once more.

Anti-Imperialist League

A group of anti imperialists that advocated for isolationism. The anti-imperialists opposed expansion, believing that imperialism violated the fundamental principle that just republican government must derive from "consent of the governed." The League argued that such activity would necessitate the abandonment of American ideals of self-government and non-intervention—ideals Notable members: Andrew Carnegie, Mark Twain,

Schenck v. United States (1919)

A legal case in which it was ruled that government can limit free speech if the speech provokes a "clear and present danger" of substantive evils. Held that the clear-and-present danger principle should be used as the test of whether a government may limit free speech Schenck v United States justified the federal government's passing of the Sedition Acts by declaring that the restriction of the freedom of speech was valid if it represented a "clear and present danger" to public safety. This was significant as it demonstrated the stronger power of the federal government, which was now allowed to limit the rights of American citizens if they deemed it appropriate.

Harlem Renaissance

A literary and artistic movement celebrating African-American culture; A period in the 1920s when African-American achievements in art and music and literature flourished The Harlem Renaissance was the cultural explosion of unique African American music, art, and literature, roughly from the 1910's through the mid-1930's. The name "Harlem '' comes from the center of the movement, Harlem, New York, a black community which attracted and became famous for a high concentration of talented actors, artists, musicians and writers. Examples of artists during this time include Langston Hughes (Poet), Counte Cullen (poet), Duke Ellington (Jazz Musician), and Louis Armstrong (Jazz Musician). The movement rejected traditional European and white American approaches to the arts and instead celebrated black dignity, heritage, creativity, and pride. The works created during this time opened the eyes of millions of Americans to the daily injustices African Americans face; many of the themes of works created during this time revolved around African American heritage, discimination, prejudice, and overall hardship. The popularity of these artists gave African American culture a national platform to be heard and its popularity allowed it to be on equal footing with other American cultural traditions. African Americans were finding status as a result. Significantly, from this movement the concept of the "New" African American persona emerged which stressed racial pride, independence, a commitment to racial equality and the unwillingness to continue to be a second-class citizen. These ideas inspired the next generation who led the civil right movements. Ultimately, the renaissance gave a voice to African American culture.

Imperialism

A policy in which a strong nation seeks to dominate other countries poitically, socially, and economically. A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. Imperialism is the idea of using a large military presence and diplomacy to extend the influence of a country to foreign nations. America started to be significantly influenced by imperialism in the late 1800s. With the Mexican-American War and the Indian Wars, America had fulfilled Manifest Destiny. However, Americans were still hungry and wanted more land than what they already possessed. Industrialization gave the US another reason to expand their power, as they were in need of more natural resources, as well as new markets. Imperialism led America to annex two new states (Hawaii and Alaska) and hypocritically colonize several smaller nations in the name of democracy by means of war.

Rosie the Riveter

A propaganda character designed to increase production of female workers in the factories. It became a rallying symbol for women to do their part. Like in World War 1, as an increasing number of American men were recruited for the war effort, women were needed to fill their positions in factories. Rosie the Riveter is an iconic poster (woman factory worker flexing her muscle) with the text "we could do it!" The poster aimed to change the public opinion about women's work, and that woman being in the workforce was a patriotic responsibility. Also, Rosie's image encouraged women to join the WW2 effort and boosted morale among workers in the WW2 factories. Significantly, Rosie the Riveter stood as a symbol for women in the workforce, a symbol for women's independence, symbol of American feminism.

Ku Klux Klan (KKK)

A secret organization that used terrorist tactics in an attempt to restore white supremacy; promotes hatred and discrimination against specific ethnic and religious groups

Zoot Suit Riots (1943)

A series of riots in L.A. California during WW2, soldiers stationed in the city and Mexican youths. a series of riots in 1943 during World War II that exploded in Los Angeles, California, between white sailors and Marines stationed throughout the city and Latino youths, who were recognizable by the zoot suits they favored As a result of a sudden influx of Mexican immigrants into California,a series of violent riots occurred in the summer of 1943 in Los Angeles; white people and Mexican Americans would fight in the streets. The riots were the result of white resentment. During the riots, many Mexcian Americans would wear zoot suits which were seen as unpatriotic and wasteful because of their excessive use of fabric--which was being rationed at the time. Significantly, the riots demonstrated the tensions between white Califonians and Mexican Americans and illustrate the discrimination Mexican Americans face.

"Golden Rule" Jones

A significant person when it came to incorporating progressivism in American city life, Mayor of Toledo, Ohio, Samuel M. Jones introduced a program of municipal reform that improved education in the city. By establishing free kindergartens, night schools, and constructing more public schools, Mayor Jones lived out the "golden rule" using his wealth as a self-made millionaire to improve Toledo and delighted his citizens in 1897. Similar to this act of municipal reform in Ohio, people throughout the nation made similar changes in the following couple decades by controlling public utilities, and adopting commission plans of government, strengthening democracy in yet another way.

Bank Holiday

All the banks were ordered to close until new laws could be passed. An emergency banking law was rushed through Congress. The Law set up new ways for the federal government to funnel money to troubled banks It also required the Treasury Department to inspect banks before they could re-open. closed all banks until gov. examiners could investigate their financial condition; only sound/solvent banks were allowed to reopen During the early years of his presidency, President Franklin D. Roosevelt wasted no time in doing all he could to turn the economic crisis around. His relative idea to solve the problems of the economy using political solutions was known as the New Deal Philosophy. One of his first actions with this idea of the New Deal Philosophy was to close all the banks for a national holiday on March 6, 1933. FDR announced that banks were only to reopen after the government had done their due diligence in organizing and recovering the failing banks. During this Bank Holiday, the government inspected all of the banks, and only allowed the banks that had hope of succeeding once again to reopen. This allowed people to trust the banks once again, leaving their money with them, and strengthening the relationship between the people and that industry once more.

The Platt Amendment

Allowed the United States to intervene in Cuba and gave the United States control of the naval base at Guantanamo Bay. Legislation that severely restricted Cuba's sovereignty and gave the US the right to intervene in Cuban affairs. In 1901, Congress passed the Platt Amendment after gaining control over Cuba as a result of their victory in the Spanish-American War. Previously in 1898, Congress passed the Teller Amendment which acknowledged Cuba as a sovereign nation, but US troops remained in the country until Cuba agreed to the Platt Amendment. There were three main conditions stated in the Platt Amendment: to never sign a treaty with a foreign power that impaired its independence, to permit the US to intervene with Cuba's affairs, and to allow the US to maintain naval bases within the nation. The Platt Amendment was significant because it demonstrated the hypocrisy of America. Through the Platt Amendment, the US denied the right to democracy that they previously granted onto this nation, treating it more as a colony than truly respecting it as a sovereign, independent nation. This resulted in a strong cuban resentment towards American military, businesses, and government, leading to the Cuban Revolution in 1959.

Dorothea Lange

American photographer who recorded the Great Depression by taking pictures of the unemployed and rural poor. As a photographer for the FSA, Lange used her photography talents to record the great Depression, taking pictures of the unemployed and the rural poor. She did not stop documenting the suffering of people until her death in 1965, but her pictures from the 1930s are the most well-known. One of her most iconic photos is "Migrant Mother." This piece emphasized the plights of everyday Americans at this time. Because of this, Lange' photographs called attention to the condition of America's most needy which would lead to greater concern and action in those areas (especially to migrant workers and their deplorable conditions.) Significantly, Lange highlighted and brought attention to the struggles of everyday Americans during the Great Depression.

Direct Primaries

An election in which voters choose candidates to run on a party's ticket in a subsequent election for public office. an election in which voters choose candidates to represent each party in a general election Direct primaries were a system through which voters received more power in elections by being able to bypass party bosses and directly nominate candidates for elections. This system was developed by progressive governor of Wisconsin, Robert La Follette in 1903, and was eventually adopted in some way, shape, or form by the entire nation come 1915. Unfortunately, direct primaries were not 100% successful in limiting the power of party bosses, as politicians developed strategies to confuse voters. Some southern states even used direct primaries to restrict black americans from voting by issuing white-only primaries. However, direct primaries were another example of the Progressives taking a step in the right direction toward a greater democracy in America.

Reform: SEC

An example of a Reform in the first New Deal would be Stock Market Reform aka the SEC or Securities and Exchange Commission. This commision was set up to regulate stock market exchanges and prevent fraud by banks and corporations and is still around today. It enforces regulations to protect investors (buyers of stocks) from any illegal financial activities by banks and/or corporations. The commission did so by requiring full audits and financial disclosure by corporations. Significantly, the SEC is an example of the federal government expanding its control and ignoring previous laissez faire economic tendencies to regulate economic activity in an attempt to prevent another great economic depression like the Great Depression.

Frederick W. Taylor

Another contributor to the spread of pragmatism through the progressive movement was Frederick W. Taylor. However in contrast to James and Dewey, Taylor contributed not by spreading the way of thinking but by promoting it through his discovery that aligned with pragmatic ideals. Using a stopwatch to monitor the output of factory workers, he developed the scientific management system-- a way to organize people in the most efficient manner. Through the sharing of this system, the Progressive movement was able more strongly argue against the corruption of political bosses.

Jazz Age (1920s)

Another name for the 1920s or the Roaring Twenties. The decade was marked by rapid economic growth, rising prosperity for many people, and far-reaching social changes for much of the nation-- Jazz, a new genre of music developed by Creole musicians in New Orleans, became increasing popular during the period, and the style became synonymous with the decade. Popular among youth - desire to break tradition A new style of music introduced by African American musicians marked a new style and culture after being brought up north. Appealing to a predominantly youthful audience, listening to Jazz music became a popular pastime which simultaneously represented rebellion within American cities. However, the Jazz Age simply got its name from the popularity of Jazz music. Within the Jazz age were several other forms of social change which shattered the norms of society, similar to how Jazz music did. These included the new practice of listening to the radio to receive information, the glamorous life of entertainers based in Hollywood, and the change in the women of America.

Great Depression New Deal Programs

Another result of joining the war, Wilson established several temporary wartime agencies staffed by experts from business and government to ensure mobilization. Some examples of these programs included Bernard Baruch's sharing of contacts in industry, Herbert Hoover's taking control of the Food Administration, Harry Garfield's volunteering to lead the Fuel Administration, and many more. Because of Wilson's leadership in this effort, the US was able to remain economically stable to an extent during wartime. It is also an example of the effects of the Progressive Movement, as the government began to take control over several industries, demonstrating the end of trusts and monopolies in the American economy.

Recovery: AAA

As part of FDR's New Deal philosophy, Recovery was designed to help the economy bounce back from the depression. The first of several measures to address the fall in agricultural prices, (which had been causing hardship in America's farming industry), was the AAA or Agricultural Adjustment Act. This act created the AAA or Agricultural Adjustment Administration which worked to improve farm profitability. The agency encouraged farmers to reduce production--to reduce a surplus and boost prices--by offering to pay government subsidies for every acre they plowed under. These were paid for--by the government--from a tax on food processing. Although, in 1935 the AAA was declared unconstitutional by Supreme Court Decision (United States v. Butler). Significantly, the AAA is an example of the federal government expanding its control and ignoring previous laissez faire economic tendencies to regulate economic welfare in America's rural regions. This would be an attempt to prevent another great economic depression like the Great Depression.

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis. Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who is known for developing psychoanalysis. Among his discoveries is the idea of separating the human personality into three different parts which we still use today, the id, ego, and superego. His studies relate to the 20's, as he emphasized the connection between sexual repression and mental illness. His writings contributed ongoing theme of promiscuity of the Jazz Age, and influenced Americans to normalize premarital sex, allowing it to become part of the social changes brought this new modern age.

Red Scare (1919-1920)

Brief period of mass anti-communist paranoia in the U.S., during which a number of legislatures passed anti-red statutes that often violated the right to free speech. Fear among many Americans after World War I of Communists in particular and noncitizens in general, a reaction to the Russian Revolution, mail bombs, strikes, and riots. Shortly after the end of World War One, in 1919 the "Red Scare'' took hold in the United States. This was a nationwide fear of communists, socialists, anarchists, and other dissidents which took hold of the American psyche. The cause for which is largely attributed to the Palmer raids which were a series of unexplained anarchist bombings. Consequently, mass arrests of anarchists, socialists, and labor agitators based on limited criminal evidence occured (including Eugene Debs). Many Americans were afraid of any communistic ties, which caused Attorney General Mitchell Palmer to hunt down many suspected socialists and anarchists (with little criminal evidence), the formation of the KKK, and anti-foreigner acts. Significantly, during this time, the previous anti-german hysteria changed to an anti-communist one.

"Gentlemen's Agreement"

California was a very popular place for Japanese immigrants to arrive in America because it was the closest coast to Japan. Unfortunately, as a result of the mass amounts of immigrants coming in through California, many Americans in that part of the West Coast were xenophobic and anti-immigration. These feelings caused San Francisco to segregate Japanese Americans from other students, which was viewed as a major insult by the Japanese government. Thus, Roosevelt and the Japanese government came to an unofficial compromise to resolve this issue, where Japan would restrict the emigration to the US, and the US would remove the laws of segregation in California. This "Gentlemen's Agreement" was a significant example of how foreign powers were able to negotiate peacefully despite the roaring feelings of nationalism and imperialism.

Edward House

Colonel Edward House from Texas was the chief of foreign policy adviser sent by President Wilson to negotiate a peace settlement, taking him to London, Paris, and Berlin. House was sent because Wilson wanted to fulfill his promise of preventing involvement in the War. Unfortunately, House was unable to reach a peace agreement, as efforts at mediation were turned aside by the Allied Powers and the Central Powers. House was one of the last attempts at maintaining American neutrality, and because he failed, Wilson could not do anything but declare US commitment to an idealistic hope for "peace without victory."

Washington Conference (1921)

Conference of the major powers to reduce naval armaments among Great Britain, Japan, France, Italy, and the United States The Republican Presidents during the 20s attempted to establish and promote peace following the end of WW1. For the US, the goal was to scale back on defensive expenditures by arranging treaties of disarmament. The most successful of the disarmament conferences was the Washington Conference of 1921. Representatives from Belgium, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, and Portugal all came. THREE agreements to relieve tensions resulted from the discussions. (1) Five Power Treaty → Nations with the five largest navies (US, GB, JP, FR, IT) agreed to maintain certain ratios with respect to their largest warships and battleships. Also, the US agreed not to fortify its possessions of the Pacific. No limit was placed on the Japanese for this. (2) Four Power Treaty → The US, GB, JP, FR agreed to respect one another's territory in the Pacifc. (3) Nine-Power Treaty → All nine nations agreed to respect the open door policy ( trade in China open to all countries equally) by guaranteeing the territorial integrity of China. Significantly, the leaders discussed ways to relieve growing tensions in East Asia and sought to prevent the possibility of another war.

International Darwinism

Darwin's concept of the survival of the fittest applied to competition among nations/international relations. In the international arena, the US had to demonstrate its strength by acquiring territories overseas. A sort of continuing of the manifest destiny. Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory of the "survival of the fittest" is applied to international relations in a concept known as International Darwinism. Essentially, the term (and the belief in it) justifies the competition among nations to be the "best." These would be expressed in aspects like the size of a nation's military, international influence, and resources. Significantly, those subscribed to this belief in the US were expansionists who desired territorial expansion as means to compete in the international area. For ambitions of the United States becoming a significant world power to be fulfilled, territorial expansion was necessary. In fact, this concept connects to earlier periods where American superiority was seen as necessary to establish. This would all be on the backbone of international darwinism as a means to compete with other nations. America wanted to be (and still does want to be) #1.

Smith v. Allwight (1944)

During World War 2, some steps towards African American (everyday) equality were afforded. An example of this is the Supreme Court case Smith v. Allwight. It ruled it was unconstitutional to deny membership in political parties to African Americans as a way of excluding them from voting in primaries. Significantly, this ended the white primaries and expanded the protection of African American civil liberties. This is crucial because primaries determine a parties' candidate; without African Americans' votes, a true reflection of the entirety of the parties' desires cannot be achieved.

Federal Power; WPB, OWM and OPA

During World War 2, the United States federal government's power was expanded to new lengths, striding past expansion demonstrated in World War 1 and during the New Deal. Similar to World War 1, a number of special agencies were organized by the U.S. government in order to mobilize the US economic and military resources for war efforts. One of these agencies was the WPB or the War Production Board which was established (in early 1942) to manage war industries. Later in the war effort, the OWM or Office of War Mobilization was established. Another federal agency was the OPA or Office of Price Administration. This agency regulated almost every aspect of citizens' lives for the sake of the war effort. Actions by this agency included freezing prices, wages, and rents, and rationing commodities like meat, sugar, gasoline, and auto tires: these actions were to combat wartime inflation. Significantly, these agencies demonstrate the large extensions of power that the federal government utilized inorder to help wartime efforts.

Wilson's Fourteen Points

During the war, President Woodrow Wilson had an ambition to shape the peace settlement when the war ended. He never lost sight of this goal. In January of 1917, (while America was still at war,) he declared that American would insist on "peace without victory." The ideology behind this was that peace could produce a lasting sentiment whereas victory would mean that victory was forced upon. One year later, Wilson outlined a detailed list of war aims which he delivered before a joint meeting of Congress. These aims were known as the Fourteen Points. Wilson's intuition was to address the causes of WW1 so peace could be maintained for years to come. They emphasized Wilson's vision for stability and long-lasting peace in Europe, the Americas, and the rest of the World. Significantly, this ideological statement set the principles for peace during WW1. Some of these principles would later be used in the Armistice and the Treaty of Versailles to end WW1. This speech outlined a policy of free trade, end to secret agreements, reduction of arms, a league of nations, democracy, and self determination.

The Square Deal

Economic policy by Roosevelt that favored fair relationships between companies and workers Theodore Roosevelt's promise of fair and equal treatment for all The Square Deal was an economic policy introduced by President Theodore Roosevelt that favored fair relationships between companies and workers. The deal focused on three basic ideas: conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer protection. Notably, the federal government would promote public interest by dealing with both labour and business evenhandedly. This was Roosevelt's response to the first economic crisis of his presidency: the anthracite coal miners' strike of 1902. After an attempt to mediate the negotiations, Roosevelt resorted to threatening to take over the mines with federal troops if the demands--a nine hour work day and 10% wage increase--were met. Therefore, unlike his predecessors, Roosevelt favored neither business nor labour. Significantly, the Square Deal marked a change in the federal government's role/approach to regulating businesses as well as helped Roosevelt be elected for his second term by a landslide in the 1904 election. Importantly, the deal started a new principle that expected the federal government to intervene whenever a strike threatened the public welfare.

Reverend Josiah Strong

Encouraged spreading religion and values to "backwards people" Written by Reverend Josiah Strong, the book Our Country: Its Possible Future and Present Crisis (1885) acts as an insight into public perception of imperialism at the time. This book justifies imperialism and represents ideas of social darwinism and religious duty. Significantly, the book links Anglo-Saxonism to Christian missionary ideas. Specifically, the book stresses natural white supremacy and a duty to spread the benefits of America's "superior" civilization. As a result of reading this literature, an individual would be more likely to support US involvement in foriegn affairs and imperialization.

Bonus March

Event when WW1 veterans marched on Washington in 1932 demanding immediate payment of their bonuses which were to be given to them in 1945; this group was eventually driven from their camp city by the U.S army; Excessive force was used to disband these protesters, and because they were veterans and heroes of this country, Hoover's popularity plummeted because of it. In gratitude for their service in World War I, many veterans were promised a bonus payment from the government come 1945. However, once the Great Depression hit, many of those veterans demanded they receive their bonus at that moment, since they were in need of the money then. They protested peacefully by marching in front of the Capitol, eventually being joined by more veterans along with their wives and children. Despite this, the government refused to give the veterans their bonuses, and even resorted to aggressive methods to break up the protest. This was not a helpful event for the US government from a social standpoint, as the military was called to use tear gas on the veterans and break apart the shelters they built in the vicinity to continue to protest. The events regarding the Bonus March only worsened the reputation of President Hoover.

Conciliation Treaties

Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan negotiated treaties in which nations pledged to submit disputes to international commissions and observe a one-year cooling-off period before taking military action. Thirty of these treaties were negotiated. The Conciliation Treaties were a part of President Wilson's imperialism strategy of Moral Diplomacy. Influenced by the President's ideal, Wilson's secretary of state, William Jennings Bryan negotiated treaties with several different nations who promised to observe a military cooling off period for one year and to submit disputes to international commissions. The Conciliation Treaties numbered to about 30 total, a significant example of using diplomacy and negotiations to resolve conflicts internationally.

Election of 1932

FDR defeats Hoover in an election where the depression is the main issue Hoover vs. FDR; two competing ideologies - laissez faire vs. government intervention Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt, beat the Republican, Herbert Hoover, who was running for reelection. FDR promised relief for the unemployed, help for farmers, and a balanced budget. During this election, the disheartened Republican party renominated Herbert Hoover and the Democratic nominated Franklin D. Roosevelt. At the forefront of Americans' minds during this time was the Depression: Hoover had plumped in popularity while FDR brought the promise of a "new deal" for the American people. For these reasons, FDR won with a landslide victory. This election marked a realignment of American political parties. Notably, a New Deal coalition was formed by the Democrats which united groups to bring the Democratic Party to Power. (Franklin Roosevelt's) Democratic Party consisted of urban workers, northern black people, southern white people, and Jewish voters. Many of these groups had previously not been associated with the same party. Significantly, the political realignment which occurred during the election of 1932 would help shape future policies and elections. Also, the election acted as an affirmation that the majority of American people felt that large scale problems such as the Depression required the government's help but most importantly involvement. This election acted as a greenlight for an extension of the federal government's power.

Niagara Movement (1905)

Founded by W.E.B. DuBois to promote the education of African Americans in the liberal arts; end segregation & discrimination in unions, courts, & public accommodations; equality of opportunity called for universal male suffrage, civil rights, and leadership by the black intellectual elite. The Niagara movement helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1909. (NAACP) A movement led by W.E.B. Du Bois which focused on securing equal economic and educational opportunities as well as the vote for black men and women. The movement would later be disbanded and reformed as the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People). This organization's goal was to abolish all forms of segregation and secure equal rights for the education of the African American Youth. Significantly, the Niagara movement sent a powerful message of their condemnation of racial descrimination and call to end segregation.

Good Neighbor Policy

Franklin D. Roosevelt policy in which the U.S. pledged that the U.S. would no longer intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American countries. This reversed Teddy Roosevelt's Big Stick Policy. FDR's foreign policy of promoting better relations w/Latin America by using economic influence rater than military force in the region; intended to strengthen friendly relations with Latin America In order to maintain peace, Franklin D. Roosevelt declared that he would act by the "policy of the good neighbor" during his inaugural address in 1933. Under the "Good Neighbor Policy" Roosevelt planned to save the US money from agreements established during Taft's Dollar Diplomacy to support the country through the Great Depression, while also gaining the favor of their Latin American neighbors who were subject to the negative influence of Germany and Italy. He implemented the Good Neighbor Policy through several peace conferences with the countries of Latin America, negotiating with them regarding the policies established during the early 20th Century imperialism. These peace conferences were named the Pan-American Conferences.

Four Freedoms

Freedom of Speech, Religion, Want, from Fear; used by FDR to justify a loan for Britain, if the loan was made, the protection of these freedoms would be ensured Franklin D. Roosevelt's Four Freedoms speech to Congress, he justifies his intentions of further ending American neutrality and supplying Britain with money to purchase materials for their war efforts. Because he believed that Germany was threatening not only US security, but also democracy everywhere, he already explained to the people that he wanted America to be "the great arsenal for democracy." FDR further explains his thinking to Congress by saying the US is responsible for protecting the four freedoms of other nations as the great arsenal they are. These "four freedoms" he refers to are the freedom of speech, the freedom of religion, freedom from want, and freedom from fear.

Trust-Busting

Government activities aimed at breaking up monopolies and trusts. government activities seeking to dissolve corporate trusts and monopolies (especially under antitrust laws) Both President Roosevelt and President Taft acted as "trust-busters" during their administration; they prosecuted and dissolved trusts in order to preserve efficiency and low prices for American consumers. Spearheading this, Roosevelt was the first president to enact the Sherman-Antitrust Act (passed years prior in 1890). He directed his attorney to take antitrust action against 40 trusts like Standard Oil and the Northern Securities Company. Taking after his predecessor, President Taft was also a "trustbuster." He ordered the prosecution of almost twice the number of trusts. Significantly, Roosevelt and Taft's "trust-busting" presidencies marked a change in government involvement in the regulation of trusts and served as an exception to America's Laissez Faire economic scheme.

Nineteenth Amendment (1920)

Granted voting rights to women. This amendment granted women the right to vote. Womens' dedicated efforts on the homefront during World War 1 finally mustered enough support for Congress to support a women's suffrage amendment. After its ratification in 1920, women were guaranteed the right to vote in all levels. As a result, Chapman Catt, a key leader in the suffrage movement, organized the League of Women Voters to inform voters of candidates and issues. Significantly, the ratification marks progress guarantees women the right to vote. These votes (now double the US voting population) can influence the result of elections and legislation to better fit America's collective needs rather than just that of men. This amendment serves as a milestone in the battle to gender equality, lasting even today.

Propaganda

Ideas spread to influence public opinion for or against a cause. information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote or publicize a particular political cause or point of view. The United States' public opinion was shaped dramatically by the circulation of (specifically British) propaganda: recognizing the influence of the United States' public opinion, the British Government supplied American press with stories of German atrocities in the War effort to "advertise" the war. The propaganda was used to arouse an American pro-war sentiment and warn of the consequences of defeat.

Stimson Doctrine

In 1932, the policy declared in a note to Japan and China that the US would not recognize any international territorial changes brought about by force. It was enacted after Japan's military seizure of Manchuria in 1931. U.S. policy calling for the non-recognition of international territorial changes that were executed by force. The Stimson Doctrine was passed by the US in response to the Japanese violation of the Open Door policy. By marching troops into Manchuria during September of 1931, Japan demonstrated themselves as the greatest threat to world peace. Moreover, the League of Nations gave Japan nothing but a slap on the wrist despite the clear violations of the agreements established to keep peace, demonstrating their lack of control. However, taking action more strongly than the League of Nations had, the US Secretary of State, Henry Stimson, declared that America would refuse to acknowledge any newly acquired territories such as the recently captured "Manchukuo" as legitimate. The Stimson Doctrine increased tensions between the US and Japan, especially since the League of Nations issued a similar declaration soon after.

"Cash and Carry"

In 1939, FDR convinced Congress to alter the Neutrality Act slightly so that the US could still sell arms to belligerent nations so long as those nations came in their own ships and they paid in cash. While this change was technically still within neutrality, in reality it only benefitted Britain. Because the English naval forces controlled the Atlantic Ocean, they were the only nation with the ability to travel to America and purchase US arms. By pushing for the "Cash and Carry" policy, President Roosevelt made his bias towards British efforts more apparent, suggesting that if the US were to join the war, they would fight alongside the British forces.

"Big Stick'' Policy

In an attempt to build the US into a world power, broke the tradition of being non involved in global politics. From Roosevelt's motto ("speak softly and carry a big stick"), his decisive, aggressive, and bold foriegn policy was labelled the "big stick" policy by the press. Essentially, the policy focused on intimidating countries without actually harming them. An example of this would be Roosevelt's issuing of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. The corollary justified American intervention throughout the Western Hemisphere; it spelled out that America was not afraid to use military force. Also, The Great White Fleet's circumnavigation from 1907 to 1909 was a largely symbolic gesture of military power. Significantly, this policy focused on intimidation and aggression as a means to acquire and control imperialized countries. Roosevelt's efforts to promote peaceful solutions to international disputes won him the Nobel Peace Prize of 1906. (This was from work to settle the Russo-Japanese war.)

The Grapes of Wrath

John Steinbeck's novel about a struggling farm family during the Great Depression. The story follows the fortunes of a poor family as they travel from the Dust Bowl region to California. Gave a face to the violence and exploitation that migrant farm workers faced in America Shedding light on the struggles of farmers in the Dust Bowl, The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbech is a story of Dust Bowl victims who travel to California to look for a better life. Historically, the book acts as a depiction of the lives of people affected by the Dust Bowl during the Great Depression and the challenges they face in the process. The book both emphasizes the harsh realities of the Great Depression while also arousing sympathy for the struggles of migrant farmworkers. Significantly, the book captures the dismal plight of Dust Bowl victims (specifically the migrants) during the Great Depression.

Yellow Journalism

Journalism that exploits, distorts, or exaggerates the news to create sensations and attract readers. Based upon sensationalism and crude exaggeration. Yellow journalism was a common practice in the media, where writers, artists and reporters will exaggerate certain details in a story or sometimes completely lie in order to gain the interest of readers. This form of propaganda was essential in planting seeds of certain opinions into the American people. For example, Joseph Pulitzer posted false information on Spanish actions in Cuba, painting them as evil and inhumane, leading Americans to encourage Congress to intervene. Eye catching headlines or comics were all it took for readers to believe what they were seeing, especially because there was a lack of alternate sources to check the reputability of the media.

Muckrakers

Journalists who searched to find corruption or wrongdoing in industries and politics and exposed it to the public pointed out the abuses of big business and the corruption of urban politics; included Frank Norris (The Octopus) Ida Tarbell (A history of the standard oil company) Lincoln Steffens (the shame of the cities) and Upton Sinclair (The Jungle) People in the media who published investigations and in-depth stories of the corruption underneath politics were known as muckrakers. During the time period, the main sources of media were magazines, pamphlets, books. Unfortunately, muckraking saw its decline after a few decades of gaining a great amount of attention as writers found it difficult to find stories as eye catching as their previous story. Additionally, corporations grew more protective of their image once they were aware of muckrakers. Nevertheless, through these, authors were able to educate the public on the true interactions within the government, opening their eyes and promoting correction in these elite positions.

Quota Laws of 1921 and 1924

Laws passed to limit immigration. The Quota Laws are two laws which greatly limited the immigration of people of certain nationalities into the United States. People from "undesirable" parts of Europe in the South and the East (like Russia and Italy), were restricted in the amount of people that could immigrate to the United States. In the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, immigration was limited to 3% of the total number of immigrants already settled and surveyed in the 1910 United States Census. (This allowed a mac imum of 357,000 people to immigrate total). 3 years later, the 1924 Immigration Act was passed which set quotas of immigrants to 2% based on the Census in 1890 (before the arrival of most new immigrants) (undesirable immigrants). These included immigrants from Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, and Asia. Canada, Latin America, and Japan were excluded from these rules. Although there were quotas for all European and Asian nationalities the law directly restricted groups that were considered undesirable by nativistsBy 1927, the quota for southern and eastern europeans and asians was limited to 150,000. Significantly, these laws ended US policy of unlimited immigration (for Europe/not Asia). In a similar manner, the laws established the nation's first numerical limits on the number of immigrants who could enter the United States.

Pearl Harbour

Naval base in Hawaii attacked by Japanese aircraft on December 7, 1941. The sinking of much of the U.S. Pacific Fleet brought the United States into World War II. On December 7, 1941, Japanese planes bombed the U.S. Pacific fleet anchored at Pearl Harbour, Hawaii. Every ship was bombed in sight. In less than two hours, 2,400 Americans were killed, 1400 Americans were wounded, 20 warships were sunk or severely damaged, and approximately 150 planes were destroyed. As a result, on December 8, 1941, the United States promptly declared war on Japan and officially entered World War 2--Germany and Italy would declare war on the US three days later (following through in the Axis alliance). Notably, the attack on Pearl Harbour acted as a prominent reason for the United States entering World War 2. Also of note, the Japanese surprise attack significantly set back the United States' military (naval) strength in the Pacific.

The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti

Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, who in 1921 had been convicted in a Massachusetts court of committing robbery and murder. Liberals protested that the two men were innocent, and that they had been accused, convicted, and sentenced to die simply because they were poor Italians and anarchists. After six years of appeals and national and international debates over the fairness of their trial, Sacco and Vanzetti were executed in 1927. The case of Nicola Saccoa and Bartlomeo Vanzetti cocerns two italian immigrants who were tried, convicted and put to death for commiting robbery and murder in Massachusets.Although, American liberals--artists and intellectuals--protested the racist and nativist prejudices put against them because they were immigrants from an "undesirable country. Liberals protested that both men were innocent. In fact, before the execution of them in 1927, there were six years of appeals and national and international debates over the trials fairness. The controversy over their conviction is from the belief that the evidence against the men was flimsy and that they were only being prosecuted for their immigrant background and political beliefs. Therefore, this case is acted as an example of nativist tendencies, racial discrimination and unfairness in eh US legal system towards immigrats

Black Thursday and Black Tuesday

Oct. 24th and 29th in 1929. The Stock Market crashed losing over 30 billion in wealth. when the great stock market crash occurred. The crash was caused by a number of ailments: the decline of agriculture, the unregulated trade within the process of buying stocks, and the panic which led to bank foreclosures all over the United States. These two days in late October of 1929 marked the crashes of the stock market, contributing to the existing economic struggles within the US that eventually led to the Great Depression. Following the major boom within the stock market during the Roaring 20's, there was an immense amount of selling on one Thursday, causing prices to plunge. In a desperate attempt to revive the stock market, groups of people, specifically bankers, purchased several millions of dollars worth of stocks, saving it for a single day; however, it crashed once again on the Tuesday of the following week due to another large wave of selling that Monday. Because of this Black Thursday and Black Tuesday, the American economy went into further turmoil, becoming one of the causes of the Great Depression.

Venezuela Boundary Dispute

One of the most notable uses of the Monroe Doctrine was between Venezuela and the (neighboring) British territory of Guiana. The US argued that the Monroe doctrine was applied to this situation and if the British did not abritate, military force was necessary. The British reached an agreement about the dispute, deciding that US friendship was more important than the boundary dispute. Significantly, the event marked a turning point in British-US relations to turn away from their rivalry to a friendship. Most significantly, this friendship would be relied on in the years to come, including WW1.

18th Amendment (Prohibition) (1919)

Outlawed the sale, manufacture, and distribution of alcohol After years of the temperance movement gaining popularity, as well as war time efforts to conserve grain and maintain a sober workforce, the 18th amendment was passed: this enacted federal prohibition in 1919. (A nationwide ban on manufacturing and consumption of alcoholic beverages.) Also, the Volstead Act of 1919 was also passed which enforced the amendment. However, the federal ban did not stop the American people from drinking both in public and private illegally. In fact, it was fashionable to defy the laws, go to clubs, bars, and speakeasies to consume bootlegged alcohol. As a result, crime was on the rise: alcohol was smuggled from Canada, alcohol was being made in basements and garages, and city police and judges were bribed to look the other way. Even the President continued to serve alcohol in the whitehouse. Most repbulican publicly supported the 'noble experiment' of Prohibition. In private most drank though. The democrats were divided on the issue. The South is pro-Prohibition. The North is anti-Prohibition. Notably, organized crime became a huge business. There were fights for control of the lucrative bootlegging trade and (because of the) millions made from the sale of illegal booze. Eventually, these practices would seep into other facets of crime like prostiituion, gambling and narcotics. Significantly, the 18th Amendment was the only amendment ever to be repealed in US history. This was set in stone in December of 1933 with the passage of the 21sta amendment which officially repealed prohibition.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff (1930)

Passed under President Hoover, it raised tariffs up to sixty percent which became the nation's highest protective tariff during peacetime. Hoover & Republicans hoped it would help US economy, but instead it resulted in retaliatory tariff increases against the US by other countries. It deepened depression and increased international financial chaos. Herbert Hoover 1930 , charged a high tax for imports thereby leading to less trade between America and foreign countries along. It deepened depression and increased international financial chaos. In a poor attempt to revive the economy by protecting American markets, President Hoover passed the Hawley-Smoot Tariff in 1930, which immensely increased the tax rates on foreign imports. This proved detrimental to the economy instead, as European countries retaliated by enforcing higher tariffs against US goods, causing this change to do more harm than good. As a result of this decision, not only did the American economy suffer, but the competing tariffs caused a reduction in trade between all nations. This means that both the national and international economy suffered from the Hawley Smoot Tariff of 1930.

Relief: the Social Security Act (1935)

Perhaps the most significant of the New Deal's relief acts, the Social Security act would affect the lives of nearly all Americans at the time of its passage and for generations to come. The act itself created a federal insurance program from the automatic collection of payment from employees and employers (a small percent tax) in their working careers. This money would go to the Security trust fund which makes payments (give money to): retired persons over the age of 60, people who filed for unemployment, people who are blind or otherwise disabled, and dependent children and their mothers. Significantly, this act provided for the general welfare of Americans and acts as a preventative measure for America to not undergo a deep economic depression again. As a side note, this program was enacted under the Second New deal.

Huey Long

Political leader from Louisiana who criticized the New Deal An example of a critic to FDR's New Deal was Huey Long. Long was a demagogue, meaning he would appeal to the desires and prejudices of everyday people rather than using a rational argument. Thus, his proposed program, "Share our Wealth," was simple: it promised a minimum annual income of five-thousand dollars for every American family to lessen the effects of the Depression. This money would be from the taxing of the wealthy and addressed concerns about wealth distribution from the new deal. Long gained a prominent national standing by broadcasting on through nationwide radio addresses to spread his ideas about the redistribution of wealth. He, among conservatives, liberals, and other demagogues, acted as a critic of FDR's new deal policies. In fact, he challenged Roosevelt's leadership of the Demmocratic party just before his assination in 1935. Significantly, Long is an example of an opponent to FDR's new deal policies.

Dollar Diplomacy

President Taft's policy of linking American business interests to diplomatic interests abroad the use of a country's financial power to extend its international influence. As a mild expansionist, (Roosevelt's successor) William Howard Taft depended more on investors' money rather than military force. Taft promoted US trade, supporting American enterprises abroad. Because of the focus on investment/financial support, Taft's foriegn policy was known as "Dollar Diplomacy." For example, in 1911, to promote stability and US business interests, Taft secured American participation in a plan to invest in railroads in China. Another example of this diplomacy would be the US intervention in Nicaragua's financial affairs in order to salvage preexisting American investments and business. Significantly, Taft's diplomacy focused on protecting and extending US financial interest while at the same time promoting financial stability in that country. It focused on profits.

Relief: PWA & CWA

Relief in the New Deal's philosophy was aimed at providing temporary help to suffering and unemployed Americans. The PWA or the Public Works Administration answered this call and was part of the first New Deal. It allotted money to state and local governments for the building of roads, bridges, dams, and other public works. These construction projects sourced thousands of jobs and lowered America's unemployment rates while also providing salaries for thousands of American families to live off of. Still a part of the first new deal, the CWA or Civil Works administration was added to the PWA and other programs for creating jobs. Like the PWA, provided jobs for many Americans by employing them as labourers for temporary construction projects funded by the government. Notably, both the PWA and the CWA acted as crucial employment opportunities for American workers. Their families would now have money to live off of, which would fund their future and current endeavors (like finding a house rather than living in a shantytown). Significantly, this act addressed the high unemployment rates of the Great Depression and acted as a temporary relief for many American to "get back on their feet." Also, many of the works created by these programs are still used today.

Selective Service Act (1940)

Required that men between the ages of 21 and 35 register with local draft boards; marked the first peacetime conscription in United States history. Another policy created that suggested that the US would head to war soon was the Selective Service Act. Further pushing back neutrality, Franklin D. Roosevelt convinced Congress to allow for a draft. This was alarming to isolationists, as there had been drafts in the past during the Civil War as well as World War I; however, the country was officially at war when those drafts were issued. Therefore, while isolationists were extremely opposed to the Selective Service Act and Training, their efforts with the America First Committee and other programs to sway public opinion against war had failed, and the majority of the people supported the idea of engaging in foreign conflict once again, happy to serve their country. The Selective Service Act called on American men between the ages of 21 and 35, providing for their registration in the military. This program trained 1.2 million troops in only one year.

Election of 1940

Rossevelt (dem) vs. Wendell Wilkie (rep), Roosevelt wins ; FDR had to declare that he would not send Americans to war in order to win ; won in a landslide ; first time a president was elected for a third term The Election 1940 was significant as Franklin D. Roosevelt became the first and only president to serve three terms in office. While the decision was initially up in the air, FDR eventually stated that he would not turn down the Democratic nomination if it presented itself. Of course, the Democrats were happy to nominate the legendary president once more, and he ran against Republican candidate Wendell Willkie. Willkie was a newcomer to the political scene, earning the nomination through his experience as a lawyer and utility manager, as well as his charismatic personality. Roosevelt won with 54 percent of the popular vote due to his strong economic recovery enhanced by defense purchases, and his fear of war.

The Alaskan Purchase (1867)

Russia was paid $7.2 million for "Seward's Folly." The Alaskan Territory was bought from the Russian Government in 1867, (after the territory became too much of an economic burden for Russia because of the constant threat of a British takeover). The acquisition was orchestrated by William H. Seward, an influential secretary of state and powerful advocate for expansion. The Alaskan Territory costed 7.2 million dollars. As a result, most Americans initially thought that this was a waste of taxpayer money and a mistake, because of its lack of resources. It was nicknamed "Seward's Folly" and "Seward's Icebox." However, Alaska eventually gained value when oil, gold, and timber were found and utilized. Significantly, the purchase was an example of American Imperialism conducted through economics rather than aggression. Most importantly, the Alaskan Purchase acted as a springboard for an extension of the Manifest Destiny: it americans' the desires to be beyond the continental United States.

Strikes of 1919

Series of strikes and fear of revolution turned public opinion against unions. 60,000 unionist joined shipyard workers in a peaceful strike for higher pay-no violence. Police went on strike to protest the firing of a few police officers who tried to unionize National Guard to break the strike. US Steel Corp. struck; State and federal troops were called out and after considerable violence, the strike was broken in Jan. 1920. The Strikes of 1919 consisted of numerous stikes comprised of (in total) 4 million workers (⅕ of the nations workforce). These strikes shutdown industries such as the coal and steel industries as well as threaten civil liberties. The first major strike was in Seattle and it was a peaceful strike for higher pay. Troops were called in but no violence occurred. In September, Boston police officers protested the firing of a few of their colleagues for attempting to unionize. The National Guard was sent to break the strike. September also included a strike of the US steel corporation. Federal troops were called out and violence occurred.Significantly, the strikes of 1919 contributed to a public opinion turned against unions. This would affect working conditions since their advocacy from collective bargaining would be discouraged.z

Schechter vs. US (1935)

Supreme Court declared the NRA to be unconstitutional One of the ways FDR fulfilled his promises to enact relief, recovery, and reform was through the NRA, or the National Recovery Administration. Through this program, FDR wanted to guarantee reasonable profits for businesses, as well as fair wages and hours for labor. During the time this was established, the antitrust laws had been lifted temporarily, allowing the government to aid multiple industries. However, after 2 years of unsuccessful results, the Supreme Court also declared the NRA unconstitutional through this case, Schechter vs US in 1935. By dissolving the NRA, the federal government demonstrated an upholding of the antitrust laws, showing the effects of the Progresive Era.

The "Lost Generation"

The "lost generation" refers to the many writers during the 1920's who shared common themes of disillusionment post wartime. The "lost generation" refers to the many writers during the 1920's who shared common themes of disillusionment post wartime. Some of the most famous writers who fell under this umbrella were F. Scott Fitzgerald and his American Classic, The Great Gatsby, Ernest Hemingway, Sinclair Lewis, and the poems of Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot. Each of these writers produced works that criticized the sacrifices made for war, as well as the fraud and superficial change to society as brought about by money interests. For example, The Great Gatsby, focuses on a young man who participated in the not so uncommon business underground as a part of organized crime, in order to achieve wealth and riches to impress his first love.

Recovery: CCC

The CCC, or the Civilian Conservation Corps was another program initiated by Franklin D. Roosevelt, under the Three R category of relief. Through the CCC, young men were employed on federal lands, and their families were given monthly sums to help them stay afloat. By providing this financial relief for the unemployed, many Americans were able to get back on their feet during the Great Depression. This was able to help stimulate the economy by creating jobs in addition to the other relief programs that created demand for goods and services.

Double V Campaign

The World War II-era effort of black Americans to gain "a Victory over racism at home as well as Victory abroad." This was a slogan in response to continued African American discrimination and segreation. It stood for two victories for African Americans: one victory against facism abroad and one victory for equality at home. Significantly, the slogan acts as a demonstration of continued African American discrimnation continuing during war time as well as a demonstration of continued efforts by African American civil rights leaders to combat this inequality. Also, the slogan would influence public opinion among African Americans.

Insular Cases

These were court cases dealing with islands/countries that had been recently annexed and demanded the rights of a citizen. These Supreme Court cases decided that the Constitution did not always follow the flag, thus denying the rights of a citizen to Puerto Ricans and Filipinos. Determined that inhabitants of U.S. territories had some, but not all, of the rights of U.S. citizens. As a result of the Spanish-American War, the US gained control over several different foreign nations internationally, the most significant of these including Cuba and the Philippines. In order to address the question of whether the newly acquired territories also gained the American rights stated in the constitution, anti-imperialists and imperialists partook in a long series of Supreme Court cases between 1901 and 1903, known as the Insular Cases. Ultimately, it was decided that the American rights stated in the constitution are not automatically granted to the new territories. Instead, Congress has the power to decide whether or not to grant the constitutional rights to them. The Insular Cases are yet another example of hypocrisy from America, who claimed to be acquiring these new nations in the name of democracy, then denying them the right to democracy.

Neutrality Acts (1935-1937)

These were measures by Congress to keep the U.S. out of future European conflicts; passed to prevent American involvement in future overseas wars 1935: In the outbreak of war, all exports of American arms and munitions would be restricted for six months. 1936: Gave the President the authority to determine when a state of war existed, and prohibited any loans or credits to belligerents. 1937: Prohibited all arms sales to belligerents and established cash-and-carry rules for non-military goods. Anticipating the beginning of war in Europe, Congress, which was mostly isolationist among both parties, adopted a series of neutrality acts to ensure that the US would remain neutral. The Neutrality Acts included the Neutrality Act of 1935,36, and 37. The first Neutrality Act passed in 1935 gave the President authority over the shipment of arms, and the forbidding of US citizens traveling on hostile ships. The Neutrality Act of 1936 forbade the extension of loans to hostile nations. Finally, the Neutrality Act of 1937 forbade the shipment of ares to the opposing sides in the civil war in Spain. The Neutrality Acts are in a way, ironic, as some of them already establish alignment with certain groups, therefore breaking neutrality.

Fordney-McCumber Tariff

This tariff rose the rates on imported goods in the hopes that domestic manufacturing would prosper. This prevented foreign trade, which hampered the economy since Europe could not pay its debts if it could not trade. In 1922, the Fordney-McCumber Tariff was signed into law. It acted as a short term protective tariff for United States business interests by increasing duties on foriegn goods by 25 percent. Although, this was destructive in the long run: due to the tariffs, European exports decreased which caused their economies to be slow to recover from the war. Consequently, these nations had difficulty repaying their debts to the United States. In an effort to recover their own economies, European nations responded to the high tariffs by imposing tariffs of their own on American goods. Significantly, the lack of international trade weakened the world economy, and as a result left economies vulnerable. Thus, this tariff in particular is one of the reasons for the Great Depression.

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

Treaty that ended World War I - most important part was the forced blame on Germany and other allies; set stage for Hitler's rise of power in Germany in 1930s. The treaty of Versallies was a peace settlement imposed on Germany following the Allies (Italy, Britain, France, USA) victory in World War 1. Terms were drawn up at the Paris Peace Conference by the "Big Four." The highlights of the treaties terms include that Germany: be disarmed and stopped of colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific; cede territory to other nations like France and Poland; reduce the size of its military; pay war reparations to the Allied countries; and accept guilt for the war. The Treaty comprised only four of President Wilson's fourteen points. Significantly, the treaty weakened Germany and caused economic depressions and weakness within the country. This would eventually lead to hateful views of who caused Germany to fail in their efforts and well as a desire to "restore Germany to its former glory." Because of this, the treaty of Versallies was a significant cause for World War 2.

Alfred Thayer Mahan

US Admiral who encouraged the US to strengthen its naval power to become a world power. Written by US Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Influence of SeaPower Upon History (1890) was a book that significantly influenced the United States to become a dominant naval power. It argued that to fulfill the US's ambition to be a world power, it needed to become a strong sea power. For reference, most of its readers were prominent Americans and political leaders. Due to the persuasiveness of the book and the book's audience, naval strengthening measures were swiftly put in place. For example, Congress approved the construction (and financing) of modern steel ships. Ten years after the book was published, the United States would have the 3rd largest navy in the world. Significantly, the book also encouraged the acquisition of overseas territories. This was justified by the fact that American (navy) ships would need coaling and supply stations to expand their sea power around the globe. As a result, islands like Samoa and Hawaii (were seen as desirable and) were acquired. Also, the large built up military would contribute militarism, a significant cause for WW1.

The Jungle by Upton Sinclair (1906)

Upton Sinclair's novel that inspired pro-consumer federal laws regulating meat, food, and drugs This 1906 work by Upton Sinclair pointed out the abuses of the meat packing industry. The book led to the passage of the 1906 Meat Inspection Act. The muckraking book The Jungle by Upton Sinclair described Chicago stockyards and meatpacking industry with horrifying graphic depictions. Significantly, its publication incited a public outcry for Congress to enact regulatory laws. The public outrage was so severe that in the same year the book was published (1906), the Pure Food and Drug Act and The Meat Inspection Act were passed. The Pure Food and Drug Act granted the government broad powers to ensure the safety and efficacy of drugs (FDA) by forbidding the manufacture, sale, or transportation of adulterated foods and drugs. Similarly, the Meat Inspection Act provided binding rules for the sanitary of meat packing, that federal inspectors ensure the quality of the meat packing plants and the government inspection of meat products crossing state lines.

Election of 1916

Wilson was anti-war Hughes was pro-war. Wilson won by a little more than 3 percent vote. Hughes, Wilson, issues: Wilson ran for reelection for the Democrats on the call that he had kept the United States out of the war. Charles Evans Hughes was the Republican candidate who attacked the inefficiency of the Democratic Party. Wilson won the election, so was able to continue his idealistic policies. Despite Woodrow Wilson's strong Progressive track record, his chances for reelection did not seem strong: four years earlier, (in the election of 1912) Woodrow Wilson won the election only because of the divided Repbublican ranks between Taft conservatives and Roosevelt Progressives. However, in the election of 1916, the reunited republican party presented a strong candidate base for Charles Evans Hughes. This is because Roosevelt declined the Progreeives party's nomination and rejoined the republicans. In an effort to gain support, Democrats adopted the slogan "he kept us out of war." The peace sentiment, Wilsons example of progressive leadership in the first term, and Hughes' weakness as a candidate resulted in a victory for President Wilson and a reelection into his second term. Significantly, the combined democratic strength of the south and west overcame republican power in the East. Also, this election marked the collapse of the Progressive party after Roosevelt refused the Progressive nomination and insisted his supporters vote for Charles Evans Hughes, the moderately progressive Republican nominee.

New Freedom Policy

Wilson's policy that promised to enforce antitrust laws without threatening economic competition This term was coined by President Woodrow Wilson in his inaugural address where he pledged his commitment to new freedom. The commitment essentially promises to bring back conditions of free and fair competition to the economy by the triple wall of privilege: tariffs, banking, and trusts. Therefore, Wilson's economic policy was targeted towards (1) tariff reduction, (2) banking reform and (3) business regulation. (1)On the first day of his presidency, Wilson called a special session of congress to lower the tariff rate. To compensate for this lower rate, Wilson introduced the Underwood Bill which included graduated income tax. (2) Wilson also passed the Federal Reserve Acct in 1912. As a result, Americans (today) purchase goods and services using federal reserve notes (dollar bills). (3) Lastly, Wilso Introduced two new pieces of admiration to regulate businesses, these would be the Clayton Antitrust ACt (strengthened Sherman antitrust act, exemption for labour unions) and the Federal Trade Commission (new regulators to investigate and take action against any "unfair trade." Significantly, the execution of the New Freedom commitment demonstrates a federal interest in maintaining competition in the US market, causing this to be yet another exception to America's Laissez Faire economic scheme.

Korematsu vs. US (1944)

a landmark United States Supreme Court case concerning the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066, which ordered Japanese Americans into internment camps during World War II; justified by Military necessity (national security) After President Franklin Roosevelt signed executive order 9066, tens of thousands of Japanese Americans on the West coast (⅔ of them being citizens) were placed in internment camps. Fred Korematsu, born in Oakland, CA as an American citizen, was a civil rights activist who objected to the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. His Violation of an exclusion order requiring him to submit to forced relocation during World War II led to the 1944 Supreme Court case of Korematsu vs. US. This questioned the legality of executive order 9066. In the end, the court upheld the US government's internment policy as justified and constitutional during wartime. Significantly, the case sanctions racism and demonstrates the discriminatory hardships endured by Americans of Japanese descent during World War 2.

Federal Farm Board

agency intended to relieve prolonged hardships of American farmes; however, it backfired Agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture; it offered farmers insurance against loss of crops due to drought; flood; or freeze. It did not guarantee profit or cover losses due to bad farming. Enacted by Hoover. Although Hoover did a poor job at bringing the country out of depression, often pushing the economy into further struggles rather than pulling it back up, a couple of attempts did prove helpful; unfortunately, they were enforced or strengthened too late, leaving them unable to make a major difference in the end. One example of these "too little, too late" programs that Hoover established was the Federal Farm Board. While it was actually created before the start of the depression in 1929, it was not powerful enough to meet the needs of the economy until after the stock market crashed. As a result of the overproduction of agricultural goods, there was a surplus of crops leading to the plummet of prices. In order to correct this, the Federal Farm Board was in charge of holding extra goods temporarily, in hopes of stabilizing the prices. The program was too weak to make a dent in the overproduction of goods, however, and was unable to properly serve its purpose.

Selective Service Act (1917)

authorized the federal government to raise a national army for the American entry into World War I through the compulsory enlistment of people. This Act required all men between 21-30 years to register for the military. Each received a number, and draftees were chosen like a lottery. In contrast to the Union's civil war conscription, there was no way for men to "opt out" of this draft. To meet the growing demand for more soldiers and sailors in the American military, the Secretary of War (Newton D. Baker) devised the "selective service" program. This program was designed to conscript (draft) men ages 21-30 (and later 18-45) for possible induction into the military. In total, 2.8 million men were eventually called by lottery under the Selective Service Act. The draft provided over half of the total (4.7 million) Americans during the war (as there were about 2 million volunteer enlistees). About half of these men would make it to the western front. Significantly, the draft only selected white men who fit their criteria for possible conscription into the war effort. Like in the civil war, racial segregation still applied. Ignoring this factor, the Selective Service Act called for a more democratic method to ensure all groups in the population (that fit their criteria) would be called into service. This represents a change from the Civil War draft (by the union) which left poor populations the most vulnerable to conscription. Also, the Selective service Act increased the strength of the American armed forces.

The Federal Reserve

central banking system of the United States; regulates banks The Federal Reserve, which was introduced in 1914, continued to play a significant role in the decline of the economy through the 1920s. Because the government during this period favored a step back from the change brought about by the Progressive Era, they offered corporate tax cuts and loosely enforced, if at all, the antitrust laws the Progressives diligently fought to establish. By not strongly regulating banks and offering low interest rates to corporations, the Federal Reserve did nothing but unknowingly harm the economy. To make matters worse, this government issued establishment also tightened the money supply in the poorest moment.

Fireside Chats

informal talks given by FDR over the radio to keep the American peoples spirits up. It was a means of communicating with the people on how he would take on the depression. The term Fireside Chat refers to the announcements Franklin D. Roosevelt gave to the public while establishing his solutions to the Great Depression. Using an informal, friendly tone with the press, FDR comforted Americans during the crisis, contributing to his amazing legacy as a President as his policies were not the only part of his presidency that were essential to the survival of the Depression, but also his relationship with the people as he did his part to hold the nation together. By connecting with Americans on such a level, he was able to bring a sense of relief to the struggling nation.

William James and John Dewey

leading American advocates of pragmatism; defined "truth" in a way that many Progressives found appealing argued that the "good" and the "true" could not be known in the abstract as fixed and changeless ideals, rather, people should take a practical approach to morals, ideals, and knowledge James and Dewey were two important figures when it came to spreading the philosophy of pragmatism. By providing definitions of what should be considered "truth" and "good" in a way that appealed to progressives, they established their role as advocates of this philosophy in the earth 20th century. James and Dewey claimed that abstract and complicated thinking should not determine the definitions of "truth" and "goodness," rather, experimentation and testing should be used to find what works to create a sufficient functioning democratic society. William James and John Dewey greatly contributed to the success of the Progressive Era by promoting this way of thinking.

The Great Migration

movement of over 300,000 African American from the rural south into Northern cities between 1914 and 1920 Between 1910 and 1930, a large internal migration of African Americans from the South to seek jobs in the Northern cities occured. It is sometimes known as the Great Northward Migration or the Black Migration. Motivations to leave the South included: (1) deteriorating race relations, (2)destruction of their crops (by a bug), (3) a job opportunities from white men getting drafted into WW1. Significantly, the great migration is one of the most significant internal migrations in United States History. The migration also helped develop a new unifying culture surrounding black identity.

Lend-Lease Act (1941)

program under which the United States of America supplied the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, China, France and other Allied nations with vast amounts of war material between 1941 and 1945. President to offer military supplies to nations "vital to the defense of the US"; ended US neutrality (economic war against Germany) The Lend-Lease Act gave President Roosevelt authority to direct material aid to the war effort in Europe without violating the USA's official position of neutrality. Directed materials included ammunition, tanks, airplanes, trucks and food; the production stimulated the United States economy. Although the United States's official position was neutral, the act was directed to aid Great Britain in the war effort and to therefore support the Allied powers. So, the Lend-Lease Act also permitted Britain to obtain all the U.S. arms it needed on credit. Notably, the act abandoned the previous cash and carry requirement of the neutrality acts and enabled the United States to be the "great arsenal for democracy." Significantly, the Lend-Lease Act demonstrated that public opinion had shifted in favor of aiding Britain in the war effort.

Executive Order 8802

prohibited discriminatory employment practices by federal agencies and all unions and companies engaged in war related work. It established the Fair Employment Practices Commission to enforce the new policy. WWII measure that assured fair hiring practices in any job funded by the government During World War 2, some steps towards African American (everyday) equality were afforded. One example would be after Afrcian American civil rights leaders threatened to march on Washington. It is only then that the Roosevelt administration issued executive order 8802 which prohibits discimination in government and in businesses which received federal contracts. . Significantly, this order worked to eliminate racial discrimination in the U.S. defense industry and was an important step toward ending it in federal government employment practices overall.

Race Riots of 1919

racial tensions mounted, and race riots broke out in several cities. some of the worst violence occured in chicago, where 13 days of rioting in 1919 left 38 people dead and some 500 injured. U.S. soldiers were upset after coming back from WWI that African Americans had started replacing their jobs and started violent riots; caused by the Great Migration. The great migration of African American to northern cities increased racial tensions. This is because whites resented the African American competition for their jobs and housing. They saw them as a threat and therefore wanted to eliminate this threat. As a result, during the war race riots erupted across the United States. The largest was in East St. Louis Illnois and the worst was in Chicago. Tragically but significantly, violence occurred. In the South, the racial prejudice of Afircan Americans wasn't any better than in the north. Racial violence and lynching of African Americans by whites occured. Significantly, the riots capture the unequal reality African americans faced during this time (and still do). Even though they may be equal by federal law, segregation and social norms caused the deaths and injuries of thousands.

Florence Kelley

reformer who worked to prohibit child labor and to improve conditions for female workers; advocate for improving the lives of women and children An advocate for improving the lives of women and children. (Social Welfare). She was appointed chief inspector of factories in Illinois. She helped win passage of the Illinois factory act in 1893 which prohibited child labor and limited women's working hours. Florence Kelley was a social reformer who lobbied vigorously for the support of the settlement house movement behind groundbreaking state and federal labor legislation. Coming from a Hull House hereself, Kelley wrote a report of the awful conditions of sweatshops and their effect on women and children. Her report based the influential landmark legislation in Illinois that limited women to an eight-hour workday, barred children under fourteen from working and abolished tenement labor. Also, she prompted the passage of laws to protect women from long working hours. This connects to the supreme court cases of Lochmere New York (1905) and Muller v. Oregon (1908). Significantly, the promotion of such laws would keep women out of physically demanding but higher paid jobs, reinforcing the notion that women are unequal (inferior) to men.

Progressivism

those who favor progress toward better conditions in government and society movement that responded to the pressures of industrialization and urbanization by promoting reforms Due to the major industrialization, immigration, and urbanization in America, the nation underwent many changes. One result of these changes was the emergence of a diverse reform group who advocated for the universal improvement of American life. Because the goal of this movement was to build on the current state of America rather than establish completely different systems, it became known as progressivism, or the progressive movement. Sharing similar views as the Populist Party of the Gilded Era, Progressivism was acted upon mainly by limiting the power of large corporations, expanding democratic power -- largely through strengthening the federal government -- and improving social justice. Ultimately, progressivism improved the overall quality of American life.

NBC and CBS

two large radio networks Standing for the National Broadcasting Company and the Columbia Broadcasting System respectively, the NBC and the CBS were the top providers for radio stations that enabled Americans nationwide to receive the same information, and consume the same media. Whether it be listening to newscasts, keeping updated on the current baseball game or other sporting event, tuning into soap operas, trying their hand at a quiz show, or getting a laugh from a comedy show from the opposite coast, radio companies such as NBC and CBS made it possible for the media to change significantly. This also changed the newspaper industry, as news started to travel faster and to more people through the radio.

Espionage and Sedition Acts

two laws, enacted in 1917 and 1918, that imposed harsh penalties on anyone interfering with or speaking against U.S. participation in WWI; affected freedom of speech The Espionage and Sedition Acts were extremely controversial, as many believed they violated the American rights stated in the first amendment. For instance, the Espionage Act called for imprisonment up to 20 years for those who tried to rebel in the armed forces or obstruct the operation of the draft; many believed that this was a clear violation of the right to assembly. Additionally, the Sedition Acts prohibited anyone from speaking or writing anything that was not in favor of the war. This was passed with the intention of protecting the federal government against slander. However, this caused an even larger outrage as many believed that their rights to the freedom of speech, press, and assembly were violated through the passing of the SeditionActs.