Pharm Sci 310 Exam 3
innate resistance
(insensitivity) - all of bacteria of specific type can not be affected by a drug
endogenous steroid hormones
- Are small lipophilic hormones based on cholesterol - Activate intracellular receptors that act as hormone-regulated transcription factors - Glucocorticoids regulate inflammation and metabolism - Mineralocorticoids regulate fluid and salt balance - Sex steroids regulate reproductive physiology, bone density, muscle mass, etc.
exogenous EPO drugs for anemia include
- Darbepoetin alpha (Aranesp) - Peginesatide (Omontys)
GnRH antagonists and example
- Degarelix (Firmagon) - suppress the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (reduced LH and testosterone production due to negative feedback) - treats prostate cancer
acetylcholinesterase inhibitors EXAMPLE DRUGS
- Donepezil (Aricept) - Rivastigmine (Exelon) - Galantamine (Razadyne) - Tacrine (Cognex): liver toxicity, not generally used - some are also FDA approved for dementia in PD
5 alpha reductase inhibitors and example
- Finasteride (Proscar, Propecia) - mechanism is to block conversion of testosterone to DHT - used for topical treatment for male pattern baldness, used for BPH and lower urinary tract symptoms, reduce prostate size by 25% - adverse effects: decreased libido and erectile dysfunction - attractive alternative to transurethral resection of the prostate (surgery)
androgen receptor antagonists and examples
- Flutamide, Enzalutamide, Bicalutamide - mechanism of action is to competitively inhibit the binding of endogenous androgens to the androgen receptor - approved for the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer
rDNA based insulin marketed as Humulin was the first FDA approved rDNA based drug
- Genentech partnered with Eli Lilly and Company for the clinical trials needed to prove rDNA based insulin could be used in place of natural insulin - FDA approval was awarded in 1982 - small number of amino acid changes have been made to create different drugs (lispro, aspart, glulisine)
glutamate receptor partial antagonist to treat AD
- Glutaminergic excitotoxicity - Memantine (Namenda) [moderate to severe AD]: glutamate NMDA-type receptor non-competitive partial antagonist. This will help with the right amount of NMDA R opening and closing. This may have actions at other receptors too. Given in combination with AChE inhibitor (Namzaric) - side effects: dizziness, headache, confusion, and constipation
histamine receptors
- H1, H2 (reduce acid), H3 (narcolepsy), H4 - different expression patterns - different downstream signaling mechanisms - selective antagonists (and agonists) have been identified
GnRH agonists and example
- Leuprorelin (Lupron) - suppress the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (reduced LH and testosterone production due to negative feedback) - treats prostate cancer and some breast cancer
Histamine Type 1 hypersensitivity reactions
- The stimulus is not in itself harmful but still promotes an immune response (allergen): evokes the production of a specific type of protein (IgE antibody) by cells of immune system, subsequent exposure to allergen causes mast cell activation and histamine release
what are anabolic steroids
- a group of small cholesterol-based drugs related to the endogenous androgenic endocrine hormones including the male sex steroid testosterone - many negative side effects are also associated with abuse of these drugs
antibiotic
- a naturally derived substance antagonist to growth of other microorganisms - can be used to refer to drugs that target bacteria or other drugs that target other microorganisms - lay use: antibacterial drug
H1 antihistamine uses
- allergic diseases - sedation (primarily 1st generation) - anti-emetic/ anti-motion sickness (primarily 1st generation) - anti-muscarinic effects (primarily 1st generation) - local anesthesia (pain relieving) (primarily 1st generation from blocking Na+)
diabetes mellitus type 1
- an autoimmune disease that destroys the islet beta cells in the pancreas, which are the cells that produce insulin - body can no longer produce insulin which causes hyperglycemia or elevated blood glucose - cause is uncertain: combo of environmental exposures and genetic susceptibility
1st vs 2nd generation H1 antihistamines
- antagonists - vary in half lives: long half lives can cause a sedation "hangover" in the morning 1st generation - tend to be more lipid soluble and more likely to enter CNS - tend to have more effects at other non-histamine NT receptors, especially muscarinic - can also block Na channels in sensory neurons: acts as a local anesthetic - cost less - Diphenhydramine (Benadryl) and Doxylamine (certain types of unisom) 2nd generation - tend to be substrates for P-glycoprotein transporter in the blood-brain barrier: they are pumped out of the CNS if they happen to get in - they are more peripherally selective - more actions in PNS - cost more - Cetirizine (Zyrtec) and Loratadine (Clartin)
abuse of anabolic steroids
- bodybuilders and athletes use them for enhanced performance (strength, muscle mass, recovery from hard efforts) - others use them to improve their appearance/ physique - lead to increased strength and muscle mass with or without exercise - side effects: cardiovascular problems, liver damage, cancer risk, infertility, acne, mood/behvaior changes, early mortality
irreversible dementia
- caused by an incurable condition - causes: stroke, alzheimers, lewy body
antibiotic utility is threatened
- clinical resistance has occurred (bacteria resistant to actions of antibiotics) - a significant number os nosocomial-aquired infections are caused by resistant bacteria (MRSA)
H1 antihistamines and anti-muscuarinic effects
- contributes to anti-emetic effect and acute distonias caused by antipsychotics - potential side effects
AD diagnosis
- currently can only be definitively diagnosed at autopsy - rule out normal age related changes, other possible causes of dementia - can perform PET imaging for Aβ
hypogonadism in men
- decreased energy, decreased libido, gynecomastia, decreased muscle mass, decreased facial hair growth - low plasma testosterone levels (<3.0) - androgen drugs not FDA approved for use in aging men that dont meet the definition of hypogonadism
progression of diabetes type 1
- destruction of islets of langerhands may take months to years - as insulin production drops, blood glucose will increase from normal value of 70-120 mg/dL to 200 mg/dL where glucose will then be lost in the urine - once blood glucose is above the renal threshold, symptoms can come on rapidly and severly - usually symptoms arise in younger children, but can occur in adulthood: frequent urination, extreme thirst, extreme hunger and eating but weight loss, fatigue, breath smells like alcohol - untreated will cause coma or death
Ginkgo Biloba prevention for AD
- extract from ginko tree is used as a supplement - suppkements can not be labeled as a treatment, prevention, or a cure - ginko have antioxidant actions which can impact Aβ aggregation - long term study found that ginkgo did not reduce the overall rate of dementia or AD incidence in elderly individuals, no effect on the rate of progression to dementia
Penicillin discovery
- first drug to treat bacterial infections - discovered by Alexander Fleming - noticed colonies of staphylococcus bacterial growth and how it was not growing as much near a penicillium rubens mold - scientists at UW were involved in mutagenizing cantaloupe strain and screening for even better producers - developed strain that produced about 9X more than original one from cataloupe
Genentech
- founded in 1976 by Robert Swanson and Dr. Herbert Boyer - first company to market rDNA-based insulin - did this by separately introduce into bacteria a plasmid encoding the B chain and a plasmid encoding the A chain into E Coli
what are mast cells
- have granules that contain histamine and other chemicals that can be releases - have a really high affinity receptors of IgE antibodies - found throughout the body, especially in places in the skin to sense foreign invader's, lungs, intestines, near blood vessels and peripheral nerves
influenza C
- human major host - mild or no symptoms
Aducanumab (Aduhelm)
- imaging with Florbetapir F-18 (Amyvid) : drug allows plaque to be detected in CAT imaging - Radiopharmaceutical consisting of radionuclide fluorine-18 bound to florbetapir - florbetapir bind plaques and F-18 is detected by PET imaging - dose dependent: increase dose = increase reduction of plaque = reduction in tangles - risks: amyloid related imaging abnormalities (ARIA) = edema, microhemorrhage
Baloxavir marboxil (Xofluza)
- inhibitor of one of the subunits of influenza virus RNA polymerase complex - blocks viral RNS synthesis - for influenza A and B - 12 years + - not recommended for pregnant people, hospitalized, complicated illness - single oral dose since long half life - side effects = diarrhea and bronchitis
androgen receptors
- intracellular receptors that allows DHT to bind and activate it - when bound by androgens, enters the nucleus and acts as a transcription factor - it is present in many cell types in both males and females
testosterone
- major male hormone produced by the testis - circulating levels of testosterone in males are 10-20X the circulating levels in females - triggers male development - stimulates spermatogenesis in adult males - triggers secondary male sex characteristics in many tissues (muscle, hair, bone, brain, vocal cords) - must be converted to DHT in target tissues by 5 alpha reductase since DHT is a more potent activator of the androgen receptor
history of alzheimers disease
- most common type of dementia - studied by Alois Alzheimer on a 51 year old women Frau Auguste
what does insulin do
- one part of the system that maintains blood glucose in narrow range - after a meal, glucose level goes up --> triggers body to secrete insulin and signals to many cells in the body to take glucose out of the blood to have reduced glucose in the blood --> important for health
acetylcholinesterase inhibitors to treat AD
- only modest impacts on cognitive function and behavior, DO NOT impact disease course - not all patients will see benefit - cause side effects- primarily due to effects in the periphery (nausea, diarrhea, loss of appetite) - increases in aggressive behavior observed in small number of patients
testosterone or other androgenic drugs for hypogonadism (reduced testes function)
- oral administration typically not used because oral testosterone is subject to high first-pass metabolism by the liver - injectable testosterone is used every 2-4 weeks
acquired resistance
- organism changes in a way that makes drug stop being affective - involves genetic mutations - they pick up pieces of DNA carrying resistance genes (ex. conjugation delivery of plasmids)
refinements that made rDNA easier I: plasmids
- plasmids are small circular pieces of extra-chromosomal DNA that replicate in bacteria - plasmids are easy to manipulate in vitro - plasmids are easy to re-introduce into bacteria like E coli
influenza B
- primarily a human disease - generally milder disease than A - two lineages: B/Yamagata, B/Victoria - thought sequence of viral genome changes more slowly than influenza A
influenza D
- primarily infect cattle - not known to infect humans
Dementia
- progressive deterioration of memory and cognitive function - not a single disease
types of rDNA based drugs
- rDNA-based versions of human proteins like insulin or erythropoietin (EPO) - synthetic proteins that combine pieces of human proteins with other sequences as in the anti-cancer drug Herceptin - rDNA-based micro-organism proteins that act as vaccines like Gardasil for HPV - rDNA-based vectors for gene therapy
how can you catch a blood doping sport cheater
- recombinant EPO is present in blood and urine in users - the recombinant EPO is manufacturered in hamster cells which give it a slightly different glycosylation pattern than human EPO - tests can identify recombinat EPO based on this difference in carbohydrate modifications
H1 antihistamine sedation
- sedation is most common with 1st generation H1 antihistamines - intensity varies from drug to drug, patient to patient - tolerance may occur - children and sometimes adult occasionally experience excitation
influenza virus (A and B)
- segmented RNA genome - 2 surface proteins: hemagglutintin (used to bind to R on surface of cell before getting in) neuraminidase (mature virus release from cell)
What is histamine
- small signaling molecule found in many tissues - produced by mast cells and basophils in the gastric mucosa (stomach) - produced by certain central nervous system (CNS) neurons (NTs)
Combo Estrogen/Progesterone Pill
- suppresses GnRH, LH, FSH secretion and follicular development - goal: inhibit ovulation, alter tubal peristalsis needed for transport of both egg/sperm, alterations in endometrial receptivity, alterations in cervical mucus secretions
reversible dementia
- theoretically can treat underlying cause and reverse dementia - causes: vitamin B12 deficiency, thyroid issues
Insulin- recombinant DNA drug
- this is a normal hormone produced in the body in the pancreas by islets of Langerhans cells - as an endocrine hormone, insulin circulates throughout the body and acts as a ligand for the insulin receptor which is expressed by many cell types - endocrine hormones make good drugs because they function normally if they are delivered into the bloodstream by circulating in the whole body
medical antagonism of androgen action
- treatment of prostate cancer - treatment of bengin prostatic hyperplasia and associated lower urinary tract symptoms - treatment of male pattern baldness - certain conditions in women that cause excess androgen production (infertility)
things that histamine released by mast cells can cause
- urticaria (hives) - allergic conjunctivitis (inflammation and redness of the eye) - hay fever - allergic asthma - food allergies - severe, systemic allergic reaction (anaphylaxis)
influenza A
- wild waterfowl are natural reservoir - can infect humans, pigs, domestic birds, horses, cats, dogs - multiple subtypes (H1N1, H3N2, H5N1) - can cause pandemic flu
medical uses of anabolic steroids
-Hormone supplementation in cases of deficiency (e.g. genetic disease affecting hormone synthesis) -Treat muscle loss associated with trauma or disease (e.g. HIV, renal dialysis, some anemias) -Female-to-male gender reassignment -Anti-aging therapy (controversial) -Male contraception (experimental)
influenza life cycle
1) Entry into host cell and disassembly of the infectious virus particle 2) Replication of the viral genome 3) Synthesis of the viral proteins by the host cell translation machinery 4) Reassembly of these components into progeny virus particles and exit from host cell
approved drugs to treat AD
1. Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors - (3 drugs available in US) 2. Glutamate receptor partial antagonist - (1 drug) 3. Aβ targeting antibody (immunotherapy) - controversial
how can we fight pathogens
1. antiseptics: toxic for internal use but can be applied to skin (ethanol) - non selective 2. disinfectants: compounds to toxic even for topical use, but used to clean surfaces (bleach) - non selective 3. vaccines: prevent disease by amounting an immune response against pathogen before seeing it 4. antimicrobials: protecting against microorganisms have to think of targets so we can hurt the pathogen, but not the host cells
AD continuum
1. brain changes (plaques and tangles) but no symptoms (pre-clinical) 2. brain changes and mild cognitive impairment (no significant impact on daily life, but still have some memory issues) 3. brain changes and dementia (memory, thinking, and behavioral impairments severe enough to interfere with daily life
insulin action on target cells
1. insulin binds to receptors and activates receptors 2. take glucose out of blood into cells and using it in some way (GLUT 4 goes to surface of cells) 3. glucose goes into skeletal cells and utilize it for cellular energy or store it for energy during fasting states - without insulin, glucose builds up outside cells in the bloodstream
IgE Mediated Allergen Response
1. person is exposed to an allergen 2. signals to the immune system to get the B cells (antibody producing cells) to make IgE antibodies that recognize the allergen 3. IgE antibodies bind to receptors on mast cells 4. Mast cells with a ton of IgE on its surfaces, causes cross linking of IgE 5. causes mast cell to release its granules (contain histamine) 6. histamine leads to vasodilation, leaky blood vessels, stimulation of sensory nerves
steps of testosterone binding to receptors
1. testosterone dissociates from carrier protein then it can enter the cell 2. 5 alpha reductase converts testosterone to DHT 3. binds to the androgen receptor 4. DHT and receptor complex can enter the cell nucleus 5. androgen-response element can have transcription altered 6. creates biological responses
one mechanism of resistance: expression of b-Lactamases
A series of enzymes that cleave the b-lactam ring Some newer semi-synthetic drugs in these antibiotic families are less susceptible to b-lactamase activity b-lactamase inhibitors can be used with b-lactam drugs to help circumvent this resistance mechanism example: Augmentin (amoxicillin/clavulanate potassium)
Issues with b-lactams
Allergies to penicillins which in some patients extend to cephalosporins as well Not effective against all types of bacteria (but true of all antibiotics!) Some patients do experience side effects, but rare- they are relatively non-toxic drugs Resistance
b-lactams: REVIEW
Characterized by containing a specific b-lactam structure Penicillins and cephalosporins are two b-lactam families These drugs inhibit enzymes that are involved in cell wall synthesis: PBP (transpeptidase) Bacterial resistance to these drugs is a clinically relevant issue (b-lactamases a major contributor) b-lactamase inhibitors used to prevent resistance Widely used antibiotics (spectrum varies)
Early vs. Late Onset Alzheimer's
Early: - 5-10% of all AD - diagnosed before age 60-65 - approximately half of causes are familial- inherit a mutant gene: APP, PSEN1, PSEN2 - some cases have no obvious cause - increased risk for early onset AD in downs syndrome Late: - most common type of AD - diagnosed after age 60-65 - may be influences by genetic factors (ex. APOE4) - may be influences by environmental factors, lifestyle, and even trauma
immunotherapy for AD
Goal: get the body to clear Aβ Hypothesis: an lab engineered antibody would prevent worsening of plaques, could lead to clearance of plaques and potentially reverse disease Antibody: a protein complex made and used by the immune system to neutralize foreign invaders. Each antibody recognizes a specific protein sequence (antigen or epitope) Aducanumab (Aduhelm) - antibody that binds small Aβ oligomers and fibrils in plaques - antibodies bind to Aβ very tightly --> communicates with macrophages to eat Aβ and get rid of it
Bacterial Cell Wall
Gram positive: simple cell wall structure Gram negative: complicated cell wall structure
AD neuropathology
Gross findings: Cortical atrophy -cortical atrophy is caused by cell death and loss of neurons. shrinking on the outside of brain Histological features: plaques and tangles - Amyloid Plaques: contain primarily aggregated (fibrillary) forms of beta-amyloid (also known as Aβ). Smaller soluble Aβ oligomers are thought to be the most toxic and promote the most cell death. They may block neurotransmission and trigger inflammation - Neurofibrillary tangles (NTFs): contain primarily abnormal tau Not unique to AD: observed in brains non-demented and Parkinson's patients
bacterial resistance
In the hundreds of millions of years that antibiotics have been produced by some subsets of bacteria and fungi to act on their neighbors, evolutionary pressure has been at work for the bacteria under attack to devise resistance mechanisms to survive. • The clinical use of antibiotics produces an intrinsic selection for heritable resistance in bacteria • Potential factors speeding up emergence of resistance: -over prescribing -not taking complete dose -using broad spectrum antibiotics when narrow spectrum ones would have killed the target organism -inappropriate prophylactic (preventative) use -surgery versus anthrax scare -antibiotic use in livestock
TARGETING THE CELL WALL-WHY
Most bacteria (mycoplasmas excepted) have a cell wall while mammalian cells do not Cell wall assembly is a complex process-many enzymes that can be targeted They work when cells are actively growing: Why? When they are actively growing they are needing to synthesize new cell wall Our focus today- b-lactams (e.g., penicillins and cephalosporins) peptidoglycan is a complex structure that involves proteins and sugar molecules, highly cross linked helping protect against bacteria - site of action of Beta- lactams = transpeptidases (help make cross link structure) - if blocked, do not finish cell wall synthesis
Neuraminidase inhibitors
Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) - active against influenza A and B - recommended by CDC for hospitalized patients and complicated progressive illness - orally bioavailable - approved in people 14 days+ - taken for 5 days - side effects = nausea, vomiting, headache - recommended for pregnant people
b-lactams-spectrum
Penicillins vary drug to drug Cephalosporins generally have broader spectrum of action than penicillins (overall more resistant to beta-lactamases) Concern for ESBL (extended spectrum beta lactamase) expressing bacteria
H1 receptors
Periphery - in periphery H1 found primary on smooth muscle, vascular endothelium and sensory nerves - peripheral H1 receptors stimulation results in: smooth muscle in intestine, bronchi, uterus (contractions), vasodilation and edema at smooth blood vessels, sensory nerve stimulation CNS - increases wakefulness, role in inhibiting appetite, regulates emesis
what are viruses
They have a genome that harbors the genetic information they need to make more copies of themselves once they enter a susceptible cell - can either be DNA or RNA - viruses are very different from eachother - >400 different viruses known - vaccines available for some - first vaccine = smallpox vaccine
Anemia is
a diseased state caused by reduced blood hemoglobin concentration - fatigue, breathlessness, paleness, increased cardiac output, sweatiness - caused by genetic disorders, autoimmunity, premature birth, iron deficiency, vitamin B12 deficiency, chemotherapy
beta lactams are
an antibiotic that doesnt allow the bacteria to finish cell wall synthesis by inhibiting transpeptidases
androgenic vs anabolic
androgenic= promote male characteristics anabolic= promote protein synthesis/ build lean muscle mass
recombinant DNA (rDNA) is
artificial DNA created by joining two or more pieces of DNA that are normally not found together in nature - allows for new types of drugs to be manufactured
Bacterial translation: a target for many antibiotic families
bacterial ribosomes read a mRNA to translate it into protein. different enough from human ribosomes to be drug targets - target for many families
infectious diseases
caused by small microorganisms - pathogens are the organisms that can cause infectious diseases - ex. viruses, bacteria
macrolides and Azithromycin
chemical family of antibiotics that block bacterial translation - Azithromycin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic. concentrates in tissues and can be slowly released from them. once daily dosing and shortened duration of treatment. if taken with aluminum and zinc it can delay absorption and reduce peak serum concentrations. prolongs QT interval. resistance is a concern, efflux.
failure to produce or respond to insulin leads to hyperglycemia
consequences: - ketoacidosis : buildup of certain molecules in the blood called ketone bodies and lowers pH - decreased level of consciousness or confusion - dehydration due to glycosuria and osmotic diuresis - acute hunger and thirst - long term health problems from chronic hyperglycemia include heart disease, kidney disease, eye damage, nerve damage
antiviral drugs
drugs for viral disease when either there isnt an effective vaccine or someone is already infected and you need to help them get over the virus - there are no broad-spectrum antivirals available since viruses are very different from each other - work best is started soon after illness begins, can lessen symptoms, may reduce risk of complications, may reduce risk of death
both functions of the testis are controlled by
endocrine signals from the hypothalamus/ anterior pituitary - GnRH (hypothalamus) --> FSH and LH (anterior pituitary)
certain types of anemia can be treated by
exogenous EPO drugs with similar activity - manufacture must use mammalian cell culture for production - carbohydrate modifications are added as EPO moves through the endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus - these drugs are delivered by intravenous or subcutaneous injection
influenza reassortment
happens between A + A or B + B, but not As + Bs
Blood doping
increases oxygen uptake which increases power output UP TO A POINT - normally the curve eventually flattens out since it is not sustainable - However the VO2 Max will increase by about 12% with blood doping. people blood dope to perform better and be more sustainable. blood viscosity will also increase which can lead to clotting, heart attack, stroke, pulmonary embolism
Abiraterone (Zytiga)
inhibits CYP17A1, an enzyme involved in androgen synthesis (testosterone), given to castration-resistant prostate cancer patients.
what is the role of erythropoietin
it is produced in the kidney and circulates as a endocrine hormone. Signaling by the erythropoeitein receptor (EpoR) stimulates cell proliferation and differentiation in the erythroblast lineage 1. EorR activates the JAK/STAT signal transduction pathway 2. STAT dimers activate transcription of key genes in the erythroblast lineage
what is the cholinergic hypothesis for neuronal death in AD
loss of neurons that make Ach is primarily responsible for cognitive decline in AD. there are 3 current drugs available in the US for AD function by blocking acetylcholinesterase and increasing acetylcholine levels
H1 antihistamine emesis/motion sickness
motion sickness involves both H1 and muscarinic receptors - there are H1 and muscarinic receptors multiple places in the brain --> 1st generation antihistamines used to treat this - 1st generation antihistamines can be used to prevent vomiting from chemotherapy or radiation therapy and also morning sickness
Alzheimers Dementia in the US
prevalence: - ages 65-74 = 3% - ages 75-84 = 17% - ages 85 and older = 32% - people under 65: 200,000 (pre-senile or early-onset) - By 2050, it is predicted over 13.8 million people in the US will suffer from Alzheimers dementia - estimated financial cost of alzeimers: $277 billion - great social and psychological costs as well
Epoetin (Procrit, Epogen, EPO)
rDNA derived version of the human hormone erythropoietin - erythropoietin is a hormone that stimulates the formation of red blood cells - EPO used to treat certain types of anemia: anemia is when you do not have enough capacity to transport oxygen in blood due to deficit of RBC
solution to the risks of human and animal derived drugs
recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology - rDNA technology uses molecular biology techniques to produce biomolecule-based drugs - can be naturally occurring proteins or synthetic designs - manufacturing typically in a factory setting where it is straightforward to achieve FDA-mandated Good Manufacturing Practices - contamination risks for rDNA drugs are very low compared to human or animal-derived products - human proteins used as drugs often have very high specificity for their targets so they can produce a very specific medical outcome with few side effects
antivirals can be used for chemoprophylaxis
take an antiviral before to prevent getting sick
where is the site of testosterone synthesis
testosterone synthesis occurs in the testis by Leydig cells - When a signal binds to the LH receptor on the Leydig cells surface, it promotes testosterone production
what is recombinant technology and how did it come to be
the work by Paul Bergs laboratory made possible by the isolation of a whole different series of enzymes that can chemically modify DNA - endonuclease: cleaves DNA in the middle of the polymer - exonuclease: enzyme that cleaves nucleotides from the end of the polymer - terminal transferase: enzyme that adds nucleotides randomly to the end of the polymer - DNA polymerase: enzyme that synthesizes complementary sequence DNA using a template strand - DNA ligase: enzyme that covalently joins two pieces of DNA
today antibiotics can be used to
treat and chemoprophylaxis (use antibiotics to prevent infections)
insulin from 1920s-1980s
was isolated from animal sources such as cows, pigs, horses - may contain pathogens (virus, bacteria) since you could not sterilize preparation since it would destroy the protein to use as a drug - difficult to control health status of donors and other aspects supply chain - finite supply of raw materials available
Bacteria
• Prokaryotic (no nucleus)• At the molecular level, bacteria are very diverse! • Can be classified by their shape • Can be classified by their metabolism (anaerobic, aerobic) • Can be classified by the type of cell wall (or absence there of)
