Phil 115 exam 3

Summarize the coherence theory of truth, using an example

According to the coherence theory of truth, a belief is true if it "coheres" with a group of accepted beliefs that also "cohere" with each other. The coherence theory says that truth is a property of a related group of consistent and accepted beliefs, and a particular belief is true if it coheres with the group of accepted beliefs.

1. Explain why scientific knowledge is often equated with reliable knowledge.

Inductionism holds that scientific knowledge is based on sense observation: making particular observations, generalizing to general laws, and confirming the laws through additional observations.

Discuss what it means to say a person knows something is true.

Real knowledge is based on the logic, the laws, and the methods of reason. The best example of real knowledge, many rationalists hold, is mathematics.

Summarize the rationalistic views of the Indian philosopher Shankara

The Indian philosopher Shankara was a rationalist who held that our knowledge of ultimate reality is not acquired through our senses but through reasoning and meditation.

Explain what Berkeley means by "to be is to be perceived," and how he avoids solipsism

The claim that there is no world beyond my sensations could lead to solipsism, the view that nothing else exists besides my own mind and its contents. Berkeley avoided solipsism by saying that God exists and that He produces the sensations in my mind and maintains them even when I do not perceive them.

Explain how inductionism deals with the problem of competing generalizations.

. Some inductionists have pointed to the criterion of simplicity as a way of deciding among competing generalizations.

Explain George Berkeley's agreement and disagreement with John Locke.

Berkeley argued that Locke's primary qualities are as mind-dependent as Locke had claimed secondary qualities are.

Present a major criticism of this theory

Critics say that the correspondence theory wrongly assumes we can determine whether our beliefs correspond to an external reality; but our only access to an external world is through our senses and we cannot know whether our senses give us an accurate picture of an external reality because we cannot get beyond our senses to check this out.

Using examples, explain the three different ways in which a belief is said to be warranted

Gettier showed that knowledge is more than justified true belief by giving examples in which someone's belief is true and is justified, but the true belief is based on a falsehood. Philosophers are still unsure what more knowledge involves.

Summarize David Hume's arguments leading to skepticism.

. Hume accepted Berkeley's view that all we experience are our own sensations and ideas, which he called "impressions." Because all our knowledge is derived from sense impressions, he argued that if an idea is not derived from a sense impression, it is meaningless or nonexistent

Summarize Wittgenstein's early and later views on ideal language

. The older Wittgenstein argued that the meaning of a text does not depend on the "facts" it pictures, but on the meaning people give it as they use it in the many activities or "games" of life. Language can have many meanings if it is used in many different games.

List the five characteristics of a scientific theory, as stated in the text, and illustrate how they aid in differentiating science from pseudoscience.

. The scientific method seems to be distinguished from pseudoscience by the following: • (1) it is based on sense observation and rationality; • (2) it relies on the inductive method for its low-level laws; • (3) it proceeds by formulating hypotheses that can guide research, • (4) that are falsifiable, • (5) and that are widely accepted in the community of scientists; and • (6) its theories are accurate, consistent with other accepted theories, broad, simple, and fruitful.

Discuss the approaches of Aquinas, Schleiermacher, Dilthey and Luther regarding how a text, such as the Bible, should be interpreted

Aquinas, Luther, Schleiermacher, and Dilthey all accepted the correspondence theory of truth: A true interpretation is one that corresponds to what the author (God for Aquinas, the human author for the others) intended.

Present a major criticism of this theory.

Critics point out that in the past, societies accepted beliefs that we now know were false, such as "The sun revolves around the earth." So testing a belief by seeing if it coheres with our other beliefs will often mean testing it against false beliefs. Critics say that if truth is coherence with the beliefs of a specific individual or group, then truth will change, which seems wrong. But saying truth is coherence with an ideal system of all true beliefs seems to mean a belief is true if it is one of the true beliefs, and this is not helpful.

Discuss whether all three truth theories can be viewed as complementary.

Defenders of relativist theories argue that their views on truth are more tolerant, democratic, and inclusive than an objective theory such as correspondence. Although the theories to some extent can be seen as complementary theories about truth in different realms, our lives can force us to choose one or the other.

Define empiricism, and present the major contentions of empiricists.

Empiricism is the view that all knowledge about the world comes from or is based on the senses. impiricists claimed that the human mind contains nothing except what sense experience has put there. Thus, all ideas originate in sense experience. Consequently, empiricism teaches that true knowledge is a posteriori.

Analyze Gadamer's position on the problem of true interpretation.

Gadamer argued that when interpreting someone's words, one must rely on and be influenced by one's personal experience and the inescapable values and beliefs of one's culture. So, people in different times and cultures will interpret the words differently. A text has no single true interpretation, but there are many true interpretations depending on who is reading it and when and where it is being read.

Present several examples of inductive reasoning.

Galileos law of falling bodies,Gregor mendal's basic laws of heredity.

Define hermeneutics.

Hermeneutics is the study of the interpretation of words and actions.

Present criticisms of Kant's theory of knowledge

Hume argued that when scientists observe that sometimes in the pastone event caused another and conclude that this will happen everytime in the future, they cannot really know this conclusion is true.

Analyze the concept of "innate idea", using examples.

Innate ideasare ideas that are present in the mind from birth:we are born with them. or example, the concepts of geometry. But, at birth, these ideas are hidden away in the depths of the mind or memory, so the young infant is not consciously aware of them. As the person grows up, these ideas can slowly emerge into the person's awareness.

State Kant's agreement and disagreement with Hume.

Kant tried to show that, as empiricists claimed, our knowledge begins with the senses, but as rationalists claimed, the mind is a source of knowledge of universal laws.

Define a priori, giving an example of an a priori claim which is about the world and an a priori claim which is not about the world.

Knowledge acquired by reasoning alone is a priori: It is not acquired through sense experience, and it is necessarily true and indubitable. Examples are mathematical truths and the laws of logic.

State the fundamental epistemological problem which arises with all sensory knowledge claims.

Knowledge acquired from the testimony of others ultimately depends on someone's sense perception.

Summarize Thomas Kuhn's consideration of the role paradigms play in scientific knowledge.

Kuhn argued that science is a social activity in which a community of scientists accepts a "paradigm" consisting of theories and methods of discovery and proof, which are periodically overturned by scientific revolutions that establish new paradigms.

Explain Locke's theory of knowledge, including his distinction between primary and secondary qualities.

Locke argued that there were no ideas that all humans share, so no "innate" ideas that all people have when they come into the world. Instead, at birth the mind is a tabula rasa, or blank slate, that only experience can fill. Locke claimed that primary or measurable qualities such as weight, size, and shape are really "in" the objects we perceive, whereas secondary qualities such as colors, tastes, and sounds are not "in" the objects we perceive but are sensations in us that objects cause us to have. Because our experiences of primary qualities are "copies" of the primary qualities that are really in objects, these experiences are reliable indicators of the world "outside" us.

Define a posteriori, giving an example.

Pertaining to a knowledge that is empirically verifiable, based on inductive reasoning from what is experienced.

Define rationalism, and present the major contentions of rationalists.

Rationalists claim that not all knowledge of the world around us is acquired through sense observation. For example, mathematical knowledge is acquired by reasoning alone without observation of the world, yet it tells us how the world works.

Summarize the approach and conclusions of Rene Descartes concerning knowledge, including his notion of "clear and distinct ideas."

Skepticism, Descartes was driven to this point by the many intellectual, scientific, and religious upheavals that his world was undergoing. Notice he suggests that in dreams things do not seem as "clear and so distinct" as they do when we are awake. Do you think this "clarity and distinctness" indicate a clear difference between your own dreaming and being awake? Do you think you can tell whether you are in a dream by checking to see how "clear and distinct" things seem to be? Is it possible that you could be dreaming right now?

Explain the conceptual relativist view of scientific truth, including its position on the standard theory of matter.

The conceptual relativist view of scientific theories is based on Kuhn and the coherence theory of truth. It says that communities of scientists accept research methods, programs, theories, and values that form a "conceptual framework" that is true by definition. New findings or beliefs are true if they fit in with the community's conceptual framework.

Discuss the implications involved in the choice between a relative and objective theory of truth.

The correspondence theory of truth says truth depends on an objective reality, but the coherence and pragmatic theories say truth depends on what a group accepts. Such relativist theories imply that beliefs accepted by any group are true and as valid as any other beliefs, no matter how racist, superstitious, nonhistorical, or biased.

Summarize the correspondence theory of truth, using an example

The correspondence theory says that a proposition is true when it agrees with or corresponds to a fact. Take the proposition that "Water boils at 212 degrees Fahrenheit at sea level." The correspondence theory says this is a true proposition because it corresponds with the fact that in the real world, water boils at 212 degrees Fahrenheit at sea level. The correspondence theory assumes, then, that there is a real world whose existence does not depend on our beliefs, thoughts, or perceptions. That is, it assumes that a real world exists whether or not we believe it, think about it, or perceive it. This independent world or reality contains facts. And a belief, statement, or proposition is true when what it states corresponds with a fact in this real independent world.

8. Explain how the hypothetical method brings in a new element to the scientific method. 9. Summarize Karl Popper's contribution, the falsifiability criterion, to the scientific method.

The hypothetical method and Popper's falsifiability criterion imply that scientific theories are only probable. They are always open to revision based on new evidence or a new interpretation of existing evidence. A scientific hypothesis may predict certain events, and these events may occur as the hypothesis suggests. But it is always possible that other predictions of the hypothesis, not yet tested, may turn out to be wrong. A scientific hypothesis, like a generalization, always goes beyond the limited facts or observations that it was formulated to explain. For this reason, it is always open to refutation; it is always merely probable, never certain.

Explain the instrumentalist view of scientific truth, including its position on unobservable, theoretical entities.

The instrumentalist view of scientific theories is based on the pragmatic view of truth and says a theory is acceptable if it lets us make accurate predictions about experiments and observations. Theories are invented, not discovered. It is not literally true that the unobservable entities of the theory exist, but acting as if they do lets us make successful predictions.

. Discuss the implications of Kant's view that the mind organizes incoming sensations.

The mind arranges the sensations that come from its senses into orderly structures or patterns. Transcendental idealism holds that the world that appears to be around us is a world that our mind constructs. Because the mind arranges everything we perceive according to its own rational rules or laws, the mind can know these laws that govern everything we perceive.

Summarize the pragmatic theory of truth, using an example.

The pragmatic theory of truth holds that there are no absolute and unchanging truths; a statement is true if it is useful to believe—that is, if it aids us individually or collectively in the struggle for survival, if it passes the tests of science, or if it meets the needs and interests of our human nature.

Explain the realistic view of scientific truth, including its position on unobservable, theoretical entities.

The realist view of science is based on the correspondence theory of truth and says a theory is true if the entities, properties, and relationships that it describes correspondto real entities, properties, and relationships in the world. Theories are discovered, not invented. The aim of science is to provide accurate descriptions of the universe. Theories allow accurate predictions because they are true; they are not true because they allow accurate predictions.

Briefly summarize the standard theory of matter.

The standard theory of matter is a scientific theory that holds that everything is composed of four kinds of particles held together and acted upon by four forces; the Copernican theory says that the earth and the planets revolve around the sun. The question is in what sense these theories are "true."

Explain the traditional characterization of knowledge as warranted true belief.

The traditional view of knowledge says that it is justified true belief.

2. Summarize the approach of inductive reasoning, including the three features contributed by John Stuart Mill

These were rules for determining which generalizations the facts and observations of the scientist supported. 1.The accumulation of particular observations. Scientific method begins with the collection of as many observed facts as possible about the subject we are investigating. 2.Generalization from the particular observations. Scientific method then proceeds by inferring general laws from the accumulated particular facts. 2.Repeated confirmation. Scientific method continues to accumulate more particular facts to see whether the generalization continues to hold true. The more particular instances of a "law" we find, the more confirmation the law has and the higher its probability.

Present a major criticism of this theory.

True ideas are those that we can assimilate, validate, corroborate and verify." An idea is validated or verified if as a consequence of believing the idea we find we are led to experiences that are "progressive, harmonious, satisfactory."

Summarize the hypothetical method, using an example

Whewell's "hypothetical method" view of science says reason formulates generalizations and broad theories that are tested by sense observations and experiments. Popper added that they must be capable of being falsified by observable events.

Explain the three main problems of inductionism

generalizations always go beyond finite observations, and many generalizations can fit any finite set of observations. So, sense observations by themselves cannot select the correct general laws. Also, great scientific theories are not mere generalizations. Reason must play a role in science.

. Discuss the implications of the fact that the broad and fundamental theories of science (such as Darwin's), are not established by induction alone.

so contrary to the view that science is based on induction, Darwin's scientific theory was not a generalization based on a few sense observations.

Discuss what it means to say a person knows something is true.

urgent questions about how we acquire knowledge, how we know the truth, and whether science gives us truth.