Philosophy

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What is Syllogism?

"A speech in which certain things having been supposed, something different from those supposed results of necessity because of their being so."

Ideas are...

- Imperfect - Ever-changing - Finite - Maths + Philosophy

What makes a state "just"?

- The existence of Socio-political classes. - Education - Collective property (for rulers)

a good will

According to Kant, nothing can be called "good" without qualification except _____.

not add any additional property to it

According to Kant, to say that something exists is to

god

Aquinas says the first efficient cause of everything is

false

By the lights of cultural relativism, cross-cultural moral disagreement is not possible.

How did Plato give a life tribute to Socrates?

By... - Education - Traveling and leaving Athens - Academy (from 387 on) - Dialogues and Myths - Socrates the character.

Opinion can be?

Changed

Behe says that an irreducibly complex biological system would be a powerful challenge to

Darwinian evolution

That our moral opinions are conditioned by upbringing, circumstance, etc., is usually construed as evidence for what ethical viewpoint or challenge to morality?

Ethical Relativism: One Big Argument

Who is a philosopher?

Everyone

What does Aristotle consider the highest good for man?

Exercising reason (i.e., doing philosophy).

Theism

Fideism agrees with _______ only on the question of fact about the SB.

the soul

For Socrates, an unexamined life is a tragedy because it results in grievous harm to

Sound Arguments

Have valid forms and have all true premises. Include the famous five.

What does Mill consider a higher pleasure?

One which almost all who have experience with it prefer

What is an agnostic?

One who doubts whether or not God exists.

What is a compatibilist?

One who holds that freedom and causal determination are compatible

What is a rationalist?

One who holds that knowledge can be had apart from experience

What did the Delphic Oracle tell Socrates?

Question: "Who is the wisest of mortals?" Answer: "Socrates is the most wise."

aesthics

Questions that constitute the beautiful & the ugly

What is Aristotle's most famous invention?

Syllogism

What is another name for the happiness calculus?

The felicific calculus

Philosophically speaking, to what do accidents refer?

Those things said of a substance which are not essential

According to your text and the instructor's comments, what is the goal of metaphysics?

To ask and attempt to answer the most basic questions about the universe

Purpose of Arguments

To convince or persuade others, discover truth, increase stock of true beliefs and remove false beliefs

The key to identifying an argument in context is to first identity the conclusion then look for the premises.

True

This classic argument, "The Bible says that God exists; the Bible is true because God wrote it; therefore, God exists", is an example of begging the question.

True

True-False: The core of the moral argument turns on whether or not a person affirms that morality is absolute/objective.

True

Opinion is?

True or false

Knowledge is constantly?

Unchanging

The blue pill (The Matrix)

Will leave us as we are, in a life consisting of simple belief, blind faith, unexamined habits. We choose this pill if we believe that we do not need (/or there is no) truth.

Categorical imperative

You shall not kill.

A soft determinist would probably define freedom as

a power of acting or not acting according to the determinations of the will.

According to Held, care is both

a practice and a value

William Paley was a proponent of what kind of argument for God's existence? What kind of teleology does he employ? (Hint: Know the difference between "wider" and "narrow" teleology".)

abduction: specific things within the Universe for example: the human eye, or a watch His teleology was Cosmological, believing in a Universal Design

Ethical altruism claims that we ought to

act in the interests of others as well as self.

Claiming that Nietzsche's philosophical views are wrong because he died in an insane asylum is an example of

ad hominem.

"Beauty is in the eye of the beholder" is a(n)____________claim.

aestheitcs

Relativism is consistent with...

affirming the Nazi morality

A sound argument is a valid argument with

all true premises.

According to Kant, the Categorical Imperative is______.

an act as if you can universalize your principle to all human beings

Aristotle defines a compulsory act as

an act whose origin is from outside the agent.

In philosophy, one who doubts whether or not God exists is called

an agnostic

A group of statements in which one of them is meant to be supported by the others is

an argument

In philosophy, one who denies the existence of God is called

an athiest.

What is a "theodicy"?

an attempt to show why God permits Evil in the world

A cosmological proof differs from an ontological proof in that

an ontological proof is a priori; a cosmological proof is not

According to Socrates, a clear sign that a person has _______ is his or her exclusive pursuit of social status, wealth, power & pleasure.

an unhealthy soul

Ethical relativism claims that

any morality is as correct as any other.

The fallacy of rejecting a statement on the grounds that it comes from a particular person is known as

appeal to the person

Critics of the divine command theory have argued that the theory implies that God's commands are _____

arbitrary

Why does Kierkegaard reject objectivity and rationality in religious faith?

because subjectivity is truth, and God is unknowable rationally.

Solomon points out that Descartes' arguments concerning the possibility of human knowledge in the Meditations are sometimes criticized as

begging the question

The fallacy of ______ is trying to prove a conclusion by using that very same conclusion as support.

begging the question

Claiming that Kant's philosophical views are correct because only his views are endorsed by the Critique of Pure Reason by Kant, is an example of

begging the question.

Plato's theory of metaphysics can be described as two-tiered, the two tiers being

being and becoming.

When it comes to fear, the vice is

both cowardliness & rashness

James maintains that the desire for a certain kind of truth can

bring about the special truth's experience

According to Behe, the gradual accumulation of mutations

cannot evolve a biological system

Compatibilism means that

causal determinism is compatible with freedom.

Fatalism is the view that

certain events are decreed for individual humans and will come to pass without respect to antecedent conditions.

Psychological egoism

claims that we always act out of self-interest.

All teleological ethics places an emphasis on ____________.

comformity to duty

Words such as consequently, therefore, and as a result are

conclusion indicator words

All the following are true of Locke's memory theory of self-identity except that

consciousness is irrelevant to self-identity.

Moral theories that say that the rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences are _____

consequentalist

Ethical theory open to exceptions:

consequentialist ethical theories utilitarism

Who said, "Man's life is a line that nature commands him to describe upon the surface of the earth, without his ever being able to swerve from it"?

d'Holbach

All of the following are soft determinists except

d'Holbach.

Leibniz likens evil to

dark patches in a painting.

Non-Consequentialist theories:

deontological ethics a duty based ethics Kant's ethics

St. Thomas's first proof is

dependent on the concept of motion.

Aristotle says all human beings..

desire to be happy.

Cultural relativism claims that

different moralities are observed by different cultures.

A problem for the God command theory of ethics is that

disputes arise concerning God's will.

In St. Thomas's third proof, he

distinguishes necessary from contingent being.

What would an ethical egoist do if the Nazis came looking for Ann Frank?

do whatever it takes to enhance their own well-being

According to Kant, the most important thing is to...

do you moral obligation.

One difference between dogmatic and natural theology is that

dogmatic theology depends on revelation, but natural theology does not.

Telos is defined as the ________ of a thing (see Miller chapter 17).

end or purpose of a thing

Mill says that the ultimate end of utilitarianism is an existence as free of pain as possible and as rich as possible in

enjoyments

Moral theory

explains why an action is right or wrong

A theist is one who believes that God is identical to the universe.

false

A valid argument must contain all true premises.

false

"Affirming the Consequent" is a ___________.

formal fallacy

How many different levels of predestination can be identified?

four

Mackie says that religious experiences are

generally indistinguishable from experienes with a known psychological or physical cause

When it comes to money, Aristotle thinks the virtue is

generosity

Paley maintains that the key difference between the "contrivance" of a watch & that of nature is that the latter is ________.

greater & much more complex

Knowledge is best defined as

justified, true, belief.

A priori

knowable without resource to sense experience

For Socrates, the soul is harmed by lack of

knowledge

What would a utilitarian do if the Nazis came looking for Ann Frank?

lie and conceal her location

"Have you stopped beating your wife?" involves the informal fallacy of

loaded question

The four main divisions of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and

logic

The study of correct reasoning is called

logic

Mill and d'Holbach would probably disagree with one another

on human moral responsibility.

What is the basic definition of "skepticism"?

one who doubts, disbelieves, or disagrees with generally accepted conclusions; a doubting or disbelieving state of mind

A deductive argument can be distinguished from an inductive argument because

only a deductive argument can guarantee the truth of its conclusion.

Skinner's attitude toward hard determinism may best be characterized as

optimistic.

Know that you know nothing

or wisdom as the awareness of one's own ignorance.

Representational realism is the view that

perceptions are in our minds, but are perceptions of the external world.

Kant maintains that_____.

persons have intrinsic dignity.

Hard determinism may accept all the following except that

some human behavior is spontaneous and uncaused.

secondary substance

something like a genus or species

Divine command theory

states that ethical principles come from God

The fallacy of misrepresenting a person's views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed is called the

straw man fallacy

According to Aristotle, the virtuous human being is the one who

strikes the mean

Feminist ethics

takes our feelings seriously

What would Kant do if the Nazis came looking for Ann Frank?

tell them the truth as to her whereabouts

Aristotle's ontology consists in

ten categories—one of substance, nine of attributes.

primary substance

that of which one may predict things and which has a specific nature

A skeptic is one who denies

the possibility of knowledge.

Gaunilo objects to the ontological proof because

the same argument could be used to prove a perfect island.

For Socrates, an unexamined life is a tragedy because it results in grievous harm to

the soul

epistemology

the study how we know the world and what is truth

Ontology is best defined as

the study of being as such.

logic

the study of correct reasoning

The word epistemology is derived from two Greek words meaning

the study of exact knowledge.

Cosmology

the study of the universe

Cosmology is best defined as

the study of the universe.

axiology

the study of value, including both aesthetic value & moral value

philosophical method

the systematic use of critical reasoning to try to find answers to fundamental questions about reality, morality, and knowledge.

Epistemology is best defined as

the theory of knowledge.

Ethical egoism

the theory that everyone ought always to look after his or her own self-interest

Descartes' two substances are

unextended mind and extended body.

Rowe's story of the dying fawn in the forest is meant to show that there is______.

unnecessary evil in the world.

Jeremy Bentham

utilitarian associated with crass hedonism

Cultural relativism and ethical subjectivism imply that nothing is intrinsically

valuable

Held says that the ethics of care

values emotion

For Aristotle, vice is

veering into excess or defect

Ethical egoism claims that

we ought to act for ourselves.

Virtue of Care

what feminists ethics emphasizes

Ethics is about..

what we should do.

enumerative induction

when we arrive at a generalization on a number of samples we are offering

A moral theory explains ____

why an action is right or wrong

Freud considers religion as

wish fulfillment.

conclusion indicator words

words such as: consequently, therefore, & as a result

Socrates

"An unexamined life is not worth living"

Death is one of two things

"Either it is annihilation, and the dead have no consciousness of anything," - A deep sleep is quite peaceful, more so than most of our waking days. "Or it is really a change: a migration of the soul from this place to another." - If he were to enter Hades, he would hav the opportunity to meet all of the great past thinkers and heroes. And here he could finally ask them the same questions that he asked the men of Athens!

All natural living things (="SUBSTANCES") have a halo-morphic composition:

"Form ("morphe") + "Matter" ("hyle")

Socrates life mission

"Let no day pass without discussing goodness and all the other subjects about which you hear me talking and examining both myself and others.. Life without this sort of examination is not worth living."

How did Socrates think of himself

"Most ignorant"

What was Augustine to the Christians?

"The Christian Plato"

Modus Ponens

"The affirming mode," basic argument form.

Modus Tollens

"The denying mode," basic argument form.

According to Albert Camus, what must a person do in the face of evil (see Miller chapter 13 pages 327-330)?

"We must recognize evil in all it's horror and irrationality, but we must not accept it. Human dignity lies precisely in our struggle against evil, in living in constant revolt against it's reign"

Monism is the view that ____________.

"all is God, you are God and one is good--ONE"

How did Aristotle define virtue?

"as a midpoint between two extremes"

The conclusion

("C") states the point being argued for (and there may be intermediate conclusions before the main conclusion).

The Premises

(Indicated as "P1", "P2", "Px") states the reasons being advance in support for the conclusion.

Descartes on External World Skepticism

(foundationalist) He says that knowledge should be built up from a foundation of rock-solid certainty by principles that are indubitable. Belief acquired through the senses cannot be used for the foundation, because the senses are capable of deceiving.

What are some reasons or evidence that may provide support for ethical relativism?

- "one big argument" says that ethical views are largely (or completely?) conditioned by circumstances such as upbringing, education, peers, society, evolution, etc. - "Cultural Differences Argument" says observes that moral differences, disputes, and confusion on moral topics abound, which implies, therefore, the relative nature of ethical judgments.

Delphic Oracle

- A seeker - Fortune teller of the greek times.

Number 3 Augustine The Problem of Truth (=God):

- Absolute TRUTH exists Because we live in a non-ideal world, in a very imperfect one, and we ourselves are faulty. - So faith and revelation mist supplement a faltering human reason in knowing truth. Find truth in.. - Inside Mane - Implanted there by God - An act of reasoning - Faith, will and love

Trial and Death of Socrates (399BCE)

- Chose death over exile. - The search for the "good life."

Ho do you do philosophy?

- Confront - Become familiar / de-familiar - Read the philosophers - Grapple issues by yourself - Use philosophical language - Be rational, logical and clear - Be critical, imaginative and creative.

What are the (new) specific charges against Socrates brought by Meletus at this trial?

- Corruption of the youth - Impiety

Cosmos - Aristotelian Cosmology

- Finite, circumscribed by the perfect Prime Mover - Celestial spheres moved of a circular regular motion, produced by the Gods (and mechanically imparted to inner spheres). - The skies are made of the perfect fifth element, Aether (Quintessence).

Deductive reasoning

- Holds to a very high standard of correctness - Succeeds only if its premises provide absolute and complete support for its conclusion.

Inductive reasoning

- Holds variable standard of correctness (always less than 100%). In his sense, induction is more "modest" than deduction. - Succeeds whenever its premises provide some legitimate evidence or support for the truth of its conclusion.

Augustine - The Fall: Turning point

- Human will to disobey - Satan - "First freethinker" - The doctrine of Original Sin - Common destiny of mankind ^ All human beings are fallen man, a crucial concept for Augustine's unified understanding of history ^Man is so perverse that there cannot be any hope regarding the earthly history and institutions.

Planets - Aristotelian Cosmology

- In movement (only apparently erratic), carried around by being embedded in rotating spheres made of an aethereal quintessence, like jewels set in orbs around the earth.

Why is philosophy practical?

- It affects what you do in life. - It analyzes why you do things. - It defines who you are.

The study of principles of correct reasoning is?

- No guarantee that one will always arrive at the truth, (since the beliefs with which we begin are sometimes in error). - To ensure that no additional mistakes creep in during our progress.

Education

- Open to all - Balanced (between music, gymnastics and mathematics. (because it helps ensure that the three components of the soul are in harmony with each other. - Selective (leading a few to study dialectics, aka the Socratic method of asking and answering of philosophical questions.

Things are...

- Perfect - Unchanging - Eternal - Sense perception

Platonic astronomy

- Plato thought the universe was constructed with geometric simplicity, elegance and endless motion. - In Plato's astronomical scheme, a spherical earth lies at the center of the heavens, on whose inner surface that stars are embedded like bright nails. - Celestial deities moved uniformly in perfect circles about earth. - Celestial bodies, belonging to the super-terrestrial dimension, out to move of the same uniform circular motion, endlessly. ^ Plato's claimed that these apparently irrational movements could be explained by supposing that each planet moved on not one but several circular tracks (a combination of orbits) - This might result in the creation of a regular, geometrical model of what looked like highly irregular behavior.

Augustines - A universal Theology

- Sees history as a linear sweep - The concept of creation completely negates the idea of recurrence - History, being directional, linear, and finite, negates the eternity of the world as is. - History completes itself in harmony with the divine law (as do ethics, politics, etc.): it is teleological, has a universal meaning.

Ancient Greek greatest (philosophical hits...?

- Socrates - Plato - Aristotle

Earth - Aristotelian Cosmology

- Stationary sphere in the center of the universe - Made of Earth and Water (and Fire and Air)

The conviction and alternate penalties

- The Jury votes: Socrates is found guilty by a margin of some 30 votes. - The penalty proposed is death by hemlock. - Socrates has the opportunity to propose an alternate penalty. - The penalty - he argues - should be something he deserves: that is..free meals for the rest of his life!

What does Augustine seek to lay out in his 'Confessions'?

- The mistakes he had made in the past (e.g.: a theft, adolescent lust, an illegitimate sone, pride, ambition, etc.). - The unhappiness resulting from them - His path of conversion to Christianity.

Theology is the study of..?

- The nature of God - God's relation to the world - Religious belief, theory, practice and experience.

Both the Ideal State and the Ideal Man must be...?

- Well-balanced - Orderly, separate and specific - Based on excellence

Plato (427-347 BCE)

- Young pupil of Socrates - Writes about what is going on - mostly in defense of Socrates

Philosophy is..?

- a "good of the mind," with indirect effects on the world. - An invaluable "uncertainty" that keeps alive a speculative interest in the world. - An encouragement to question everything, and to merely accept dictates of customs and habits.

What is the definition of teleology? F.R. Tennant was a proponent of what kind of teleology? What does theistic evolution affirm? (Hint: Know the difference between "wider" and "narrow" teleology".)

- defined: derived from the Greek Word "telos" or "end" or "god" and means the study of, or belief in purpose or design that pervades all reality - F.R. Tennant believed in Theistic Evolution/wide teolology which means that ... - affirms: that God uses evolutionary processes to bring desired effect; there must've been an Intelligent design; the Universe could not have just arisen by chance

The Teleological Argument draws its strength from what aspect(s) of the universe? In other words, from what feature of the universe does the Teleological argument derive its evidence? What kind of inductive reasoning does it use?

- from the Fine-Tuning of the of the universe using the inductive method of analogy, which is concluding things similar in several respects

According to Augustine, what is the ontology (nature or being) of evil? According to Augustine, who or what created evil? For Augustine, is evil a "created thing"? Why or why not?

- he denies that evil is a thing or substance - instead he believed that evil is a privation of goodness - he believe dthat evil is real but has no positive ontological status - evil can neither be created, neither is God the creator of Evil - EVIL IS A PRIVATION OF GOODNESS

What are the various forms or types of skepticism discussed in the book and class lectures?

- iterative: meaning "over and over again" - common sense: healthy incredulity about unlikely or preposterous claims - philosophical: doubt about cherished philosophical ideas; God, substance, the external world - absolute: the denial of knowledge itself

Greek statuary: showcasing ideological priorities.

- masculan - fighting stance - naked - powerful

"Act-oriented" ethics focuses on ___________ and "character-oriented" ethics focuses on ______________

- results - good things

What is Intelligent Design? What is the notion of "fine tuning" in the universe discussed in class and how is it evidence for design in nature, as well as, evidence for a "creator" or God?

- specific constants which are necessary for the Universe to exist in the way it is; - Fine Tuning is "if one dial is moved just a little there is no universe" for example, the earth being at the exact Angle it is in relation to the Sun. We would burn otherwise...evidence for a God because it says there must be some one/thing which made it all happen

Christianity in the Roman Empire

-64-304 c.e.: Persecution of Christians - 313 c.e.: Edict of Milan by Emperor Constantine - 380s c.e.: Edict of Thessalonike by Theodosius

What are the main differences / similarities in Plato's and Aristotle's philosophies?

..

Utilitarian division into 2 groups

1) act-utilitarians 2) rule-utilitarians

Aristotle's thoughts on happiness

1) an end in itself 2) the chief good 3) a flourishing human existence

Hume on the Problem of Induction

1) generalizing about the properties of a class of objects based on some number of observations of particular instances of that class (example: the inference that all swans we have seen are white, and therefore all swans are white, before the discovery of black swans. or all ravens are black) 2) Presupposing that a sequence of events in the future will occur as it always has in the past (example: that the laws of physics will hold as they have always been observed to hold). Hume called this the principle of uniformity of nature. (need to add to make inductive reasoning true)

good arguments must have...

1) solid logic 2) true premises

Hume's critique of the teleological arguments maintains that.....

1) what is true of part of the universe is not necessarily true of the whole universe 2)The universe is just as much like an organism as it is like a machine 3)a number of diving beings could have collaborated in creating the world

What a theodicy constitutes:

1)Free will defense 2) Evil is an illusion 3) Good can be drawn out of evil

Subjective relativism is not...

1)something objective for all individuals or persons 2) never changes from person to person 3) something trans-personal

Augustine - What is the "City of God"?

1. A refutation of the pagans' charges that Christians are responsible for the fall of Rome. 2. An outline the doctrine of the two cities (Earthly and Heavenly), how they came about, how they will end. Last Judgement: Separation of the two cities and the eternal punishment of the damned in Hell (a very real place) Triumph of the city of God: The saved will be given eternal happiness and will become immortal.

Diagramming argument method general structure is..?

1. A single premise in support of a conclusion. 2. Several premises in support (either dependently or independently) of a conclusion. 3. Several conclusions following from a single premise.

What are the various kinds of deductive arguments/syllogisms?

1. Categorical: x are y, y are z, therefore x are z 2. Disjunctive: either ___ or ____ 3. Hypothetical (if/then) if _______ then_______

The ideal State (Top to bottom)

1. Guardians (ruling class) 2. Auxiliaries (military, policing and administrative class) 3. Workers (the agricultural, production and manufacturing class)

What are the two different forms of inductive arguments?

1. Method of Generalization 2. By Analogy

The ideal Man (Top to bottom)

1. Reason 2. Spirit 3. Appetite

An organized ideal world (top to Botton)

1. Supreme Good 2. Ideas-Values 3. Mathematical Ideas 4. World of "Things"

What are the four circumstances affecting a pain or pleasure in the first instance?

1. intensity 2. duration 3. certainty/uncertainty 4. propinquity/remoteness

Which premise of the paradox of freedom would a compatibilist definitely reject?

3

What does the (basic) syllogism consist of?

3 terms: 2 are premises and 1 is a conclusion.

"Philo" + "Sophia"

= Love of wisdom

Both the Ontological and Moral Arguments use what kind of reasoning: a priori or a posteriori?

A Priori

How is morality best defined?

A basic set of rules governing actions

What does Hume mean by a bundle?

A bundle of ideas and impressions

Statment

A declarative sentence; one which attempts to state a fact (as opposed to a question, command, exclamation, etc.)

Euthyphro's Dilemma

A difficult choice first posed by Plato, between morality being based on divine command (good because God says so, which makes morality seem arbitrary) and morality being independent of God (which makes God irrelevant to morality).

What is a telos?

A goal or purpose

true

A good deductive argument is said to be sound.

false

A good inductive argument is said to be strong.

What does Kant consider to be the one thing in the world, or even out of it, which is unqualifiedly good?

A good will

an argument

A group of statements in which one of them is meant to be supported by the others is

How does Aristotle define moral virtue?

A habit or trained faculty that achieves excellence through moderation.

What does Aristotle mean by virtue?

A human excellence cultivated by habit and guided by reason.

What name does Kant give to a subjective principle of action?

A maxim

why an action is right or wrong

A moral theory explains _____.

What does Kant call his assertion about God?

A postulate of practical reason

the socratic method

A question-and-answer dialogue in which propositions are methodically scrutinized to uncover the truth is know as

Socratic Method

A question-and-answer dialogue in which propositions are methodically scrutinized to uncover the truth.

If God were all-powerful & all-knowing, but not all-good, we would have a god that is_____.

A supremely evil being.

Aristotelian Cosmology

A systematization of prior nations - Earth - Cosmos - Planets

What is a fallacy?

A typical mistake in reasoning.

What is a sound argument?

A valid argument with all true premises.

Klepsydra

A water clock

for its own sake

According to Aristotle, we always desire happiness ______.

cannot evolve a biological system

According to Behe, the gradual accumulation of mutations

a practice and a value

According to Held, care is both

necessary

According to Hick, a certain amount of evil in the world is

hedonistic paradise

According to Hick, the divine purpose could not be forwarded in a world that was designed as a

shows purposefulness

According to Paley, we must conclude that a watch had an intelligent designer if the watch

false

According to Philo, since the universe is perfectly ordered, the existence of a deity is likely.

few component laws

According to Swinburne, the simplicity of a scientific theory is a matter of its having

What is Kant's first formulation of the categorical imperative?

Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law.

Philosophy is an..

Activity - Understanding it, doing it, participating in it.

Reid on External World Skepticism

Advocates a "common sense" response to skepticism. Although the skeptical hypotheses cannot be refuted, we have no reason to think that it is true. Our common sense views are allowed to stand unless there are good reasons to abandon them, and skepticism does not constitute a good reason.

What is the first premise in the paradox of freedom?

All human behavior is causally determined.

Hume

All knowledge is divided into relations of ideas and matters of fact.

Physicalism

Also called materialism, according to which all substances, states, and events are physical substances, states, and events, without any separate mental realm. (opposition to dualism)

true

An argument is not synonymous with persuasion.

Sound

An argument which is invalid can never be _______ .

What is an inductive argument?

An argument whose true propositions give reasonable grounds for accepting the truth of the conclusion.

What is a theodicy?

An attempt to explain why there is evil and suffering in the world.

Disjunctive Syllogism

An either/ or choice. (Either P or Q or both). Denying either term of a disjunction (either or P or Q) allows one to affirm the other disjunct, but an invalid form of this argument exists as well. Ex. Either Macbeth or his wife is mad. Since Lady Macbeth is obviously not mad, Macbeth must be mad OR Either Macbeth or his wife is mad. Lady Macbeth is obviously mad, so Macbeth is not mad.

What is a consequentialist ethics?

An ethics that considers outcomes or consequences as the primary determinant of the morality of an action.

In the last stage of his doubting, what does Descartes posit as a possible reason for his deception?

An evil demon

false

An important criterion of adequacy for moral theories is consistency with our conscience.

Aristotle implies that all living things have...

An inborn nature, each seeking their end conforming to a design ordering the Universe (+teleological" view)

exists only in the understanding

Anselm assumes that a being that exists in reality in greater than a being that

True

Aquinas thinks that an infinite series of causes is repugnant to reason.

Cogent Arguments

Are strong and have all true premises

Gettier on Knowledge and Justified True Belief

Argues that justified true belief is not sufficient for knowledge. (1) justified true belief is necessary for knowledge; and (2) justified true belief is sufficient for knowledge. Then argues that justified true belief is NOT sufficient for knowledge -- so (2) is wrong.

What is the free-will defense to the problem of evil?

Argument against the problem of evil based on the claim that evil is the result of misuse of free will.

Hypothetical Syllogism

Argument used in tracing a causal chain of consequences (Like the domino theory). Ex. If I get an A on the midterm, I will ace the course. Furthermore, if I ace the course, I will graduate with a 4.0. So, it seems that if I get an A on the midterm, I will graduate with a 4.0.

God(s): supreme Final cause

Aristotle believed that there has to be something which is fully actual, purely form, not depending on anything else for existence, consisting in eternal contemplation of the best (= itself). This, he calls God(s), which thereby: - exists necessarily - are FINAL cause (s) of EVERYTHING - Are the prime UNMOVED MOVER, (causing the movement of other things not as an efficient cause.)

practice and habit

Aristotle believes that moral virtues can best be acquired through

true

Aristotle says that virtue is a mean lying between two vices

Virtue Ethics

Aristotle's ethical theory

When did the Greeks estimated the circumference of the Earth?

Around 240 B.C.

When did philosophy begin?

Around the 6th c. BCE

How does eliminative materialism see mental talk?

As a holdover from folk psychology.

What is the best way in which to think of a Platonic form?

As a pattern

Some Premise indicators are..?

As, since, for, because, given, that, etc..

Evidence

Atheism and theism agree on the question of _______ about the SB.

Why does Descartes believe in the reality of the external world?

Because he thinks denying it entails that God is a deceiver.

Why does Augustine consider all existing things to be, to some extent, good?

Because if something is corruptible, it can get worse (actually be corrupted). To get worse implies to become less good. Hence, it must have some good initially.

According to Kant, why should we do our duty?

Because it is our duty

Why does Kant feel that suicide is wrong?

Because it treats someone as a means to escape painful circumstances

Why does Kant feel that making a false promise is wrong?

Because it would make promising contradictory if it became a universal law of nature

Why did philosophy begin?

Because of its peculiar historical and political conditions.

Why are utilitarian ethics usually considered consequentialist?

Because utilitarian ethics are concerned with outcomes

Why can Locke's epistemological views be criticized as impure?

Because, contrary to his thesis, he posits entities by intuition.

Darwinian evolution

Behe says that an irreducibly complex biological system would be a powerful challenge to

What does Aristotle mean by happiness?

Being fully human—flourishing.

On which of the following do Berkeley and Hume differ?

Belief in God

What are the differences between Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill's interpretations of utilitarianism (a.k.a. social hedonism)? How do they each justify or account for their interpretations?

Bentham: quantitative interpretation of the greatest happiness and propounded a hedonic calculus to assist in its determination Mill: pressed for a qualitative interpretation of the "greatest" happiness and urged it to be the only widely experienced individual in a position to extol the superiority of the qualitative pleasures--for example, of the mind

Which of the philosophers in Column 1 above denied material substances?

Berkeley

Which of the philosophers in Column 1 above are phenomenalists?

Berkeley and Hume.

Which of the philosophers in Column 1 above claim that "Esse est aut percipi aut percipere"?

Berkeley.

Intrinsic

Both Alexander and Paley hold that a miracle might have _______ probability.

According to Aristotle, what are the extremes of the virtue of wittiness?

Buffoonery and boorishness

How does soft determinism solve the paradox of freedom?

By accepting premises 1 and 2 but rejecting 3

How does hard determinism solve the paradox of freedom?

By accepting premises 1 and 3 but rejecting 2

How does Hume argue against Thomas's fifth proof?

By arguing from the imperfections of the world

Knowledge can be?

Cannot be changed

Which of the following would a soft determinist accept?

Causal determinism is compatible with moral responsibility.

Locke

Causal theory of perception

On what does Hume ground matter-of-fact reasoning?

Cause/effect relations

Knowledge is sufficient to provide?

Certainty backed by reason

Opinion is insufficient to provide?

Certainty not backed by reason

Which of the following issues would one most likely encounter in ontology?

Change and individuation

Opinion is always?

Changing

Define and explain the difference between natural theology and revealed theology

Christian FAITH is REASONABLE in 4 different ways 1. The Christian Faith affirms that there is an objective source and foundation for knowledge, reason, and rationality. The created order (nature) is good and knowable 2. Christian truth-claims do not violate the basic laws/principles of reason 3. The Bible itself encourages the attainment of knowledge, wisdom, and understanding, and promotes such intellectual virtues such as discernment, testing, and reflection 4. The truths of the Christian Faith correspond to, and are supported by such things as evidence, facts, and reason

Unreasonable

Clifford holds that it is always _______ to give assent without adequate evidence.

What does deontological mean?

Concerned with duty.

What does "results of necessity" mean..?

Conclusion

Augustine's early life is known through his autobiography called?

Confessions

Things

Copies

arbitrary

Critics of the divine command theory have argued that the theory implies that God's commands are _____.

valuable

Cultural relativism and ethical subjectivism imply that nothing is intrinsically

false

Cultural relativism implies that moral progress is possible.

The statement, "Is he (God) willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then is he impotent. Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent. Is he both able and willing? Whence then is evil?" was propounded by what philosopher?

David Hume

If the author of the argument believes that the truth of the premises definitely establishes the truth of the conclusion, then the argument is...?

Deductive

From which Greek word is deontological derived?

Dein?

P.F. Strawson on Induction

Denies that induction in general needs justification. He says that part what it means to be rational is that one uses induction.

With what kind of ethical system is Kant associated?

Deontological Ethics: Duty

What is the difference between utilitarian and deontological ethics? According to deontological ethics, actions should be motivated by ___________.

Deontological ethics talks about the rightness of actions and is defined by either conformity to duty; utilitarianism talks about Actions should be motivated by "results''

Which of the philosophers in Column 1 above are representational realists?

Descartes and Locke.

Substances; Mind; Body

Descartes holds that any concept of the self is a composite of two _______ : a _______ and a _______ .

Another philosopher who uses the ontological proof is

Descartes.

What is the difference between virtue ethics and utilitarian ethics? What is the main focus of each system? What are the criteria for a "right" or "good" action, in other words, what helps you decide right from wrong action

Difference between the two: virtue ethics focuses on what is truly right and utilitarian ethics focuses on the use and outcome of each one...action based versus character Right and Wrong Actions can be determined by different criteria depending on

Form (morphe)

Distinctive Essence: - Real and profound - Nature of a substance - Intrinsic - "Actuality"

How does dualism contrast with monism with respect to persons?

Dualism holds that there are two substances, monism only one.

What are Aristotle's four kinds of cause?

Efficient, material, formal, and final

Which of the following pairs of views most nearly coincide with Hume's?

Empiricism and phenomenalism

According to Aristotle, which of the following actions/passions admits of no mean?

Envy

Myth of Er (Myth of Remembrance)

Er son of Armenia was killed in battle after ten days after his body was unaffected by decay and brought home to be buried and on the twelfth day he returned to life and said: - Upon death, our souls reach the eternal world of Forms - Before we were born, from there they came - Each soul must choose (freely) its next destiny - Once the choice is ratified, the souls drink forgetfulness and begin another life. Conclusion: HUMAN KNOWLEDGE IS REALLY ONLY A PROCESS OF REMEMBRANCE.

The Cosmological Argument- Aquinas

Everything was caused by the previous, at some point there has to be an infinite thing (God) that caused everything. "Every event and every object has a cause. So there has to be a first cause, which must be God."

What does Hume regard as foundational for our notion of causation?

Experience

What does the Greek word "apologia" mean?

Explanation

Altruism

Extreme _______ places any interest of the other above any interest of mine.

T/F A theodicy means a rejection in the believe in God in the face of evil

FALSE

T/F According to Aquinas, nothing can cause God but God himself.

FALSE

T/F Anselm defines God as the greatest being

FALSE

T/F Aquinas believes that it is possible for something to move itself.

FALSE

T/F Aquinas maintains that God must move himself in order to move anything else

FALSE

T/F If none of the tradition arguments for the existence of God are convincing, then this demonstrates that God does not exist.

FALSE

T/F If the cat is on the mat she is sleeping; the cat is not on the mat so therefore she is not sleeping is a valid form of argument

FALSE

According to the class lectures how should one define or understand "faith"? Describe the relationship of Faith and Reason as discussed in class.

Faith Defined: an activity of the will; the capacity to place trust in something; a means to trusting and thereby knowing something, one will look for something to trust in; Biblically, it is "Confident trust in a reliable, reasonable, and viable source" Reason Defined: an activity of the mind; the capacity for thinking and rationality; a means to discover knowledge

A good inductive argument is said to be strong.

False

According to Philo, since the universe is perfectly ordered, the existence of a deity is likely.

False

An important criterion of adequacy for moral theories is consistency with our conscience

False

By the lights of cultural relativism, cross-cultural moral disagreement is not possible

False

Cultural relativism implies that moral progress is possible

False

If we believe some proposition X then that proposition is necessarily true because we believe it.

False

Knowledge

For Socrates, the soul is harmed by lack of

Knowledge

For Socrates, the soul is harmed by lack of _________.

equally plausible

For subjectivists, everyone's moral views are

What is an IDEA to Plato?

Forms, universals, characterized by being perfect, unchanging, objective entities, independent of our minds, wills or thought processes, yet intelligible.

How does Augustine account for the origin of evil?

From a misuse of free will

true

From the fact that cultures have divergent moral beliefs on an issue, it does not logically follow that there is no objective moral truth.

Aquinas says that the first efficient cause of everything is______.

God

Aquinas says the first efficient cause of everything is

God

What does Descartes consider the ultimate guarantor of human knowledge?

God

Deism is the view that _____________ .

God created the world and let it be

omnibenevolence

God's characteristic as all-loving.

omnipotence

God's characteristic as all-powerful.

Concerning the problem of evil, what solution does the prophet Isaiah offer?

God's ways are inscrutable (Isaiah 55:8-9) "For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways, declares the Lord. As the heavens are higher than the Earth, so are my ways higher than your ways, and my thoughts than your thoughts"

What allows Berkeley to account for different perceivers sharing common experiences of objects?

God.

According to Aristotle, what do we choose for itself, but not for the sake of something else?

Happiness

What is the thrust of Kant's objection to the ontological proof?

He claims that existence is not a property.

The "Socratic Problem"

He did not write philosophical texts. - The knowledge we have is from secondary sources only.

How does Anselm claim that the fool can say in his heart what cannot be thought?

He distinguishes thinking of a thing from thinking of words.

Why does Hume consider induction worthless?

He doesn't.

Why is Berkeley called an objective realist?

He is not called an objective realist.

What is Descartes doing with his wax example?

He is trying to prove that we can know some things apart from experience by an intuition of the mind.

Which of the following statements most nearly reflects Rousseau's attitude toward psychological egoism and original sin?

He probably rejects both.

What duty does Socrates undertake as a result of the Oracle's words?

He set out to find someone wiser than he was.

values emotion

Held says that the ethics of care

Pass the test of the Categorical Imperative

Helping others when you can

manifestations of human sin

Hick believes that such evils as poverty, oppression, persecution, and war are

What is Hume's fork?

His division between relations of ideas and matters of fact

At the end of his argument, Descartes declares that there is one thing he cannot doubt, and which serves as a bedrock truth. What is it?

His existence

Which of the following philosophers first posed the problem of interaction for Descartes' view?

Hobbes

Smart and Identity Theory

Holds the view that every mental state is numerically identical to a physical state. He also attacks behaviorism and dualism.

What is the problem of the interaction of substances?

How can an unextended substance act on an extended one?

What is the major problem with Hume's bundle theory?

How do we distinguish bundles, separate my bundle from yours, without begging the question?

What is the chief concern of logic?

How the truth of some propositions is connected with the truth of another.

Nonexistent

Hume holds that the substantival persisting self is _______ .

Which of the philosophers in Column 1 above questioned the foundations of matter of fact reasoning?

Hume.

The renowned philosopher who lived and worked in the Greek city of Alexander in the fifth century was

Hypatia

To judge reasoning we must always think....?

Hypothetically

The existentialist claims that

I am responsible for everything except for the fact that I am responsible.

What does Descartes mean by cogito?

I think-that is, experience cognitive activity.

The deepest refutation of the charges

IS that Socrates' whole life has been a service to the city - in response to the will of the gods.

Aristotle's criticism of the Platonic Forms

If FORMS are "transcendent" - so separate and else from things, then: - How can FORMS be the causes and essence of Things without BEING IN them? - How do we explain that Things that imitate eternal FORMS, change and grow and perish? Conclusion: - Sensible Things are in fact NOT SEPARATE from Forms. - FORMS EXISTS but are in particular THINGS (=IMMANENT)

Augustine 5: The problem of Go(o)d and evil

If God is all-good, and everything God created is equally all-good, how then does Evil arise?

More

If NDE's are the result of cerebral anoxia then they ought to occur _______ often than they actually do.

Modify

If NDE's are veridical, then we must _______ our account of the reliable sources of knowledge.

Constructive Dilemma

If P implies Q, R implies S, and P or R are true, then Q and S is true as well. Ex. If I am running, I am happy and if I am sleeping, I am dreaming and I am running or sleeping are true, than it must also be true that I am happy or I am dreaming

What does Berkeley mean by "Esse est aut percipi aut percipere"?

If it is neither perceived nor perceiving, it does not exist.

What is Leibniz's law of the indiscernibility of identicals?

If two things are identical, then they must have all properties in common.

What does Leibniz's law of the indiscernibility of identicals claim?

If two things are identical, they must have all properties in common

Reductio & Absurdum

If you assume that a set of statements is true, & yet you can deduce a false or absurd statement from it, then the original set of statements as a whole must be false.

Hypothetical imperative

If you want a job, you should go to college.

deontological ethics

Immanuel Kant's ethical theory

premises

In an argument, the statement being supported is the conclusion, and the statements supporting the conclusion

premises

In an argument, the statement being supported is the conclusion, and the statements supporting the conclusion are the

Statistical

In arguing against miracles, Hume holds that all probability is _______ .

Where did philosophy begin?

In classical Greece

essential and inevitable

In the moral life, feelings are _____.

Collective property (for rulers)

Including goods. wives, children and land.

If the author believes that their truth provides good reasons to believe the conclusion true, then the argument is..?

Inductive

Knowledge is the result of?

Instruction

What are the differences between the intellectual problem and emotional problem of evil?

Intellectual Problem: concerns the rational compatibility of God and evil and their co-existence; lies in the province of the philosopher and/or theologian Emotional Problem: concerns the emotional weight and/or burden in a person's life; lies int he province of the pastor or cousenlor, family member or trusted friend

What are the four circumstances that Bentham identifies as affecting the value of a pleasure or pain in the first instance?

Intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity

George is a human being. George is 100 years old. George has arthritis. Therefor, George will not run a four-minute mile tomorrow. (Valid or invalid)?

Invalid, based on the declared premises.

Argument

Is a (finite) set of statements, some of which-the Premises- are supposed to support, or give reasons for, the remaining statement-the Conclusion.

Pascal's Wager

It is better to wager everything on God's existence than to be a skeptic. Believing results in greater benefits than not believing. "There are two alternatives. Either God [the Christian God] exists [and is the only god]; or God does not exist [and there are no other gods]. If God exists, then if you believe in him you will go to heaven; if you don't believe, you will go to hell. If God doesn't exist, then if you believe you have the comfort of a spiritual life; if you don't believe, you won't be as happy. Either way, you should believe in God."

Which of the following is a problem for the no-self view of self-identity?

It is contradicted whenever we refer to ourselves.

Name one problem for ethical relativism.

It is self-refuting; or, it puts Hitler on a moral par with Mother Theresa.

What is a problem for the conscience theory of morality?

It makes morality subjective.

Sophists

Itinerant philosophers who turned to a practical approach the use of philosophy, earning their living by teaching rhetoric and argumentation. - For this, they became associated with teaching people slick rhetoric and "unjust logic" to avoid responsibility and obligation.

bring about the special truths experience

James maintains that the desire for a certain kind of truth can

What is the meaning of Socrates' metaphor of the gadfly?

Just as a gadfly agitates a horse, so Socrates, by stirring up debates in the marketplace, was sent by the gods to prick the Athenians into paint attention to important matters, preventing theCity from becoming sluggish, careless and intolerant (thinking it knows something when it doesn't.)

Which one is the end-goal of an ideal community for Plato?

Justice

a universal law

Kant says that when trying to decide whether an action is morally permissible, we must ask if we can consistently will that the maxim of our action should become _____.

What criticism did Mill lodge against Kant's ethics?

Kantian ethics seem deontological but his arguments amount to consequentialism.

What are innate ideas for Plato?

Knowledge of the world of Being that is already in us at birth.

"Any proposition is either true or false" is the Law of

Law of Excluded Middle

Which philosopher replies to the arguments against innate ideas?

Leibniz

Who holds the theory of pre-established harmony?

Leibniz

Two early modern philosophers who focused on the independence of substance were

Leibniz and Spinoza.

meta-ethics

Literally 'beyond ethics', hence a study of the meaning of moral language such as 'good' and 'right'.

What are the differences between a living option and a dead option?

Living option: - Believable to you -truth -just because you think something is a living option, it does not mean it is false Dead option: -Not believable to you -not aware to it -just because you think something is a dead option, it does not mean it is false

Which philosopher argues against innate ideas?

Locke

Which of the philosophers in Column 1 above are empiricists?

Locke, Berkeley, and Hume.

All pigs can fly. Anything that can fly can swim. So all pigs can swim. (Valid or invalid)?

Logically valid argument.

generally indistinguishable from experienes with a known psychological or physical cause

Mackie says that religious experiences are

What is the second premise in the paradox of freedom?

Man is morally responsible for some of his behavior.

What is the third premise in the paradox of freedom?

Man is never morally responsible for behavior which is causally determined.

Aristotles's 4 causes

Material Cause: Matter Efficient Cause: Producer Formal Cause: Form Final Cause: Goal

What does eliminative materialism hold?

Mental talk is just a holdover from folk psychology.

Property Dualism

Merely says that mental properties are distinct from physical properties, and does not require that mind and body be two distinct types of substance.

enjoyments

Mill says that the ultimate end of utilitarianism is an existence as free of pain as possible and as rich as possible in

Which of the following most nearly represents Spinoza's view of mind and body?

Mind and body are two attributes of the one substance, God.

Ideas

Models

Divine Command Theory

Moral goodness derives from God's commands or from the divine will.

Modified Divine Command Theory

Moral goodness derives from the character of God, and particularly his love.

consequentialist

Moral theories that say that the rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences are _____.

Cosequentialist

Moral theory that says the rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences.

What are two kinds of evil?

Natural Evil: the evil that results from natural causes such as disease, accidents, or famine Moral Evil: the evil that results from human will such as murder, exploitation, and war

Cosmologists

Natural philosopher who -seeking natural (and not supernatural0 explanations for material processes - brought it to the extent of rejecting many explanations through the old gods.

Who is speaking in Socrates speech in the Apology? Is it really Socrates?

No, it is Plato's speech. - It should not be considered as a word-for-word reproduction of what Socrates said.

Daisy bought one ticket in a fair lottery with 10.000 tickets. So Daisy is not going to win the lottery.

Not deductively valid, but the conclusion is inductively strong.

What are the charges against Socrates?

Of being a Cosmologist and a Sophists.

Memory; Reason

Of the reliable sources of knowledge the least reliable is _______ ; and the most objectively reliable is _______ .

God is a...?

Omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, perfect goodness, and eternity, necessity, and incorporeal existence.

Never

On the view of Aquinas the self can _______ be directly known by an intellectual intuition during this life.

The red pill (The Matrix)

Opens up endless possibilities, but also unknown ones.

There is no form without matter, and no matter without form

Or nothing is "unformed matter" or "unmannered form"

"Understand, to believe. Have faith, to understand"

Or the relationship between Reason and Faith

Standard form:

P1 P2 Px Conclusion (C) Example P1: All F are G P2: X is F Px Conclusion (C): X is G

True

Paley says that if we found a watch and examined it closely, we would naturally infer that it had a maker -- even if we had never seen a watch made.

reason can decide nothing

Pascal believes that when it comes to the question of God's existence

you win infinite happiness and lose nothing

Pascal says that if you bet that God exists, and he does in fact exist

Religious

Pascal's wager is unlikely to appeal to anyone with a _______ interest in the question of the existence of a SB.

Opinion is the result of?

Persuasion

True

Philo declares that this world might have been the faulty product of an inexperienced deity.

Socratic method, or elenchus

Philosophical inquiry in which the questioner explores the implications of others positions, to stimulate rational thinking and illuminate ideas. - The method is dialectical and oppositional: the defense of one point of view is pitted against another. - involves one-to-one conversation. - Involves some irony and indirect communication.

The Value of Philosophy - B. Russell

Philosophy is an expansion of knowledge. - People judge others without really knowing them. - Any amount of knowledge, know matter how small can help a person grow and expand there own thoughts.

Matter (hyle)

Physical Nature: - of a substance - Natural "potentiality"

"What are the uniform and ordered movements by the assumption ion which the apparent movements of the planets can be accounted for?"

Plato's question (in Timaeus) to his students.

"Astronomy compels the soul to look upwards and leads us from this world to another."

Plato, The Republic

What are the two sovereign masters under which, according to Bentham, nature has placed mankind?

Pleasure and pain

What does "things supposed" mean..?

Premise of the argument

What are the main elements in an argument?

Premise, Evidence/Inference, Conclusion

What are primary qualities?

Properties in bodies which produce ideas in our minds resembling real features bodies have independent of observation.

Nobody

Pure Agnosticism agrees with _______ on the question of fact about the existence of a SB.

What are the two circumstances that Bentham identifies as affecting the value of a pleasure or pain in subsequent instances?

Purity and fecundity

Necessary; Sufficient

Quine, Place, and Adler agree that brain states are _______ conditions for mental states, but only Quine and Place hold that brain states are _______ conditions for them.

Descartes

Rationalism

The just Soul

Reason (mind and intellect): seeks Truth and its excellence. Spirit (will and volition): seeks honor and its excellence. Appetite (desire and emotion): seeks material goods - eg: safety, food, family, money...and their excellence.

Russel on External World Skepticism

Rejects skepticism. He says that the best explanation for the character of our sense dates that there are persisting physical objects that cause the sense data.

A philosopher who accepts the conscience theory of morality is

Rousseau.

true

Rowe says that most philosophers who have considered Anselm's argument have rejected it because they believe it tries to define something into existence.

Which of the following philosophers would most nearly agree with logical behaviorism?

Ryle

Who said, "I am responsible for everything, in fact, except for my very responsibility"?

Sartre

Pseudo

Scientific exploration of the causes of things.

A philosopher is a person

Seeking wisdom (not one who has necessarily found it.)

What did Aristotle believe we must study?

Sensible, material things, as our knowledge of reality derives from the observation and perception of CONCRETE PARTICULARS (precisely because FORMS are IMMANENT).

Which of the following is a primary quality?

Shape

Fideism

Skeptical Agnosticism agrees with _______ on the question of evidence.

What is Kant's second formulation of the categorical imperative?

So act as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end withal, never as means only.

Aristotle's Criticism

Socrates focused too much on ethical matters and neglected the world of nature.

inferences to the best explanation

Some design arguments are framed as

What, for Aristotle, is a secondary substance?

Something like a genus or species

What does Locke call substance?

Something; I know not what.

By the 5th century B.C., it was widely accepted that the Earth is a ..?

Sphere

Berkeley

Subjective idealism

Straw Man Fallacy

Substituting a person's actual position or argument with a distorted, exaggerated, or misrepresented version of the position of the argument. Ex. Zebedee: What is your view on the Christian God? Mike: I don't believe in any gods, including the Christian one. Zebedee: So you think that we are here by accident, and all this design in nature is pure chance, and the universe just created itself? Mike: You got all that from me stating that I just don't believe in any gods?

Personal; Introspection

Such properties as knowing, willing, understanding, are distinctively _______ , rather than narrowly mental, because they cannot be known by _______ .

What is the logical tool Aristotle invented to help him do ontology?

Syllogism

"The Myth of Sisyphus" - Albert Camus

Sysyphus has to push a rolling rock to the top of a hill for eternity. - Even though he is suffering and in pain he feels happiness and victory. Thus giving off the message that even in the darkest of times there is still light, hope, and happiness.

T/F An argument of this form--if p, then q; p; therefore, q--is called modus ponens.

TRUE

T/F If the cat is on the mat she is sleeping. The cat is on the mat therefore she is sleeping is a valid form of arguing.

TRUE

Purpose

Telos

Rejected

Thanissaro holds that any concept of the self should be _______ insofar as it involves suffering and clinging.

What was Socrates' final interpretation of the meaning of the oracle?

That Socrates was the most wise in the He was AWARE OF HIS OWN IGNORANCE.

What is the one thing that Descartes cannot doubt in light of his cogito argument?

That he exists.

What does Socrates claim?

That he is a blessing from the Gods.

What is the principle of utility?

That principle which approves or disapproves of every action according to the tendency which it appears to have to increase or decrease happiness

What does Socrates believe about the people?

That they have misunderstood his true activities and intentions.

What is natural theology?

That which can be known about God through reason and the senses.

Apriori

The "Stone Problem" is an argument for _______ Atheism.

Greek "Cyclic history"

The Ancients understood the natural world as a cycle of life and death, in eternal rotation; ascent and descent, a progress and regress. - History has no purpose, no direction (cyclical), no fundamental unity, no universal meaning; - It has a large place for chance, necessity and fate. - Man is caught in this cycle, at the mercy of the course of history.

Weak; Strong

The Chinese Room Argument is designed to support _______ AI and to disprove _______ AI.

Realist; Nihilist

The Ethical _______ agrees with the Ethical _______ that if there are ethical facts, then at least some of them obtain independently of anyone's opinion or authority.

Gualino's critique of Anselm is called

The Lost or perfect island critique

Pyrrhonian; Montaignian; Probability

The _______ skeptic calls for suspension of judgment on all our beliefs, while the _______ skeptic allows us to retain our beliefs - provided we do not claim them as knowledge - by appeal to the maxim that "_______ is the guide of life."

Inductive; (Perception; Introspection; Memory; Reason)

The _______ skeptic holds that we cannot know that the past and present are reliable guides to the future from _______ , _______ , _______ or _______ .

Evil

The appeal to the reality of _______ constitutes the most historically influential argument in favor of atheism.

James says the religious hypothesis says two things. What are they?

The best things are the eternal things; and we are better off even now believing this.

Which of the following is a problem for the body theory of self-identity?

The body changes over time.

What is hedonism?

The claim that pleasure is the ultimate good

What is hedonism?

The claim that pleasure is the ultimate good.

What does Nietzsche mean by "God is dead"?

The concept of the Christian God is not worthy of belief.

Justice is...?

The condition in which each citizen does well what he/she is best suited for, in cooperation with others, under the rule of the Wisest.

What does Rousseau call the "divine instinct, immortal voice from heaven"?

The conscience

Mathematizable; Intentional

The contemporary Argument from Design appeals to the observability of _______ order as evidence for the presence of _______ order.

Sustaining

The contemporary Cosmological Argument appeals to the SB as a _______ cause of the existence of the cosmos.

What method should be used to understand the inner workings of an argument?

The diagramming method.

The Problem of Evil- Antony

The difficulty of reconciling the existence of suffering and other evils in the world with the existence of God. The logical argument from suffering: "No wholly good, omnipotent being would allow suffering. But there is suffering. So there is no wholly good, omnipotent being." The evidential argument from suffering: "Probably, no wholly good, omnipotent being would allow suffering. But there is suffering. So probably, there is no wholly good, omnipotent being." -rejects the free will defense

What does logic study?

The distinction between correct reasoning and incorrect reasoning (independently of our agreements on matters).

Explanation; Confirmation

The evidentiary relation from "there is a cat in the corner" to "I seem to see a feline color patch" is one of _______ ; and the evidentiary relation from "there is a cat is the corner" to "all Feinstein rooms have cats" is one of _______ .

begging the question

The fallacy of ______ is trying to prove a conclusion by using that very same conclusion as support.

straw man fallacy

The fallacy of misrepresenting a person's views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed is called the

appeal to the person

The fallacy of rejecting a statement on the grounds that it comes from a particular person is known as

Socrates (469BCE-399BC)

The first Philosopher

In Plato's allegory of the cave, the sun serves as a metaphor for what?

The form of the good

logic

The four main divisions of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and

According to the Benevolence Principle, one ought to act so as to promote ____________.

The greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people

Plato's "The Republic" or the Ideal Community - A Utopia

The ideal community can only exist if the rulers become philosophers or vice verse, if the philosophers become the rulers.

What is a valid argument?

The impossibility of having true premises and a false conclusion

What was the widespread misconception that the ancients Greeks thought about the Earth?

The it was flat.

true

The key to identifying an argument in context is to first identity the conclusion then look for the premises.

What does Bentham mean by the duration of a pain?

The length of time the pain lasts

Observation

The methodological insufficientist claims that _______ provides no adequate evidence on way or the other about the question of fact in regard to the existence of a SB.

What does Locke mean when he compares the mind to a tabula rasa?

The mind is like a blank sheet of paper-it has no content initially.

How does Kant define duty?

The necessity of acting from respect for the law

Which of the following people would be happiest in Aristotle's estimation?

The philosopher

If the premises are true, are we locked into the conclusion?

The premises and the conclusion of a valid argument can all be false.

Hypathia

The renowned philosopher who lived and worked in the Greek city of Alexander in the fifth century was

Which of the following are accepted by both Locke and Berkeley?

The self

What is the Academic skeptic's position? What is wrong with Academic Skepticism?

The skeptic claims absolute denial of knowledge itself and that we cannot know anything. This violates the law of Non-Contradiction AND is self-refuting (cannot claim to know what is not known)

What does Descartes mean when he claims that the soul is unextended?

The soul is not in space

Aesthetics

The study of beauty and art

Ontology

The study of being as such

logic

The study of correct reasoning is called _______

Epistemology

The study of knowledge

How is ethics best defined?

The study of moral principles

Ethics

The study of moral value (right and wrong)

Metaphysics

The study of reality

metaphysics

The study of reality in the broadest sense, an inquiry into the elemental nature of the universe and the things in it, is known as

Logic

The study of right reasoning

Value - Theory

The study of value

metaphysics

The study of what lies beyond physics - the unmeasurable, the non-empirical as in the first principles of things, or abstract ideas, or beliefs about being, nature and existence.

What did Plato come up with?

The theory of ideas

What is occasionalism?

The view that God directly causes interaction on the occasion of a mental event

What is empiricism?

The view that knowledge is founded on sensory experience

Interactionism

The view that mental and physical events are distinct but interact with each other (this was Descartes's view)

Parallelism

The view that mental and physical events are separate and do not interact, but merely occur in parallel (like two wound-up clocks chiming at the same time)

Dualism

The view that mental events and physical events are distinct.

Substance Dualism

The view that mind and body are two distinct types of substance (Descartes again).

What is phenomenalism?

The view that perceptions are in the mind, without any reference to the external world.

Epiphenomenalism

The view that physical events can cause mental events but mental events are causally inert.

What is direct realism?

The view that the external world is perceived directly

pluralism

The view that there are many sources of value, with the problem of how to choose between them (linked with ethical relativism).

What is rationalism?

The view that we can know things apart from experience by an intuition of the mind.

Some Conclusion indicators are...?

Therefore, hence, thus, so, we may, infer, consequently, it follows that..

The Cosmological and Teleological Arguments are what kinds of arguments—a priori or a posteriori? What kind of "theology" do they employ—natural or revealed theology?

These arguments are both A Posteori because they are based on evidence derived from sense experience. These are based on Natural Theology [and revealed?]

true

This classic argument, "The Bible says that God exists; the Bible is true because God wrote it; therefore, God exists", is an example of begging the question.

Socrates' final speeches

To those who voted for his death. - The jurymen will be blamed, bearing the responsibility for his death. He prophesies - His own reputation will benefit from their ill treatment of him.

Which of the following usually count as secondary qualities?

Touch

A good deductive argument is said to be sound.

True

According to Miller's text, awareness of morality comes through sense experience.

True

According to the class lectures, belief and truth are both necessary and sufficient to constitute knowledge

True

An argument is not synonymous with persuasion.

True

Aquinas thinks that an infinite series of causes is repugnant to reason.

True

Aristotle says that virtue is a mean lying between two vices

True

From the fact that cultures have divergent moral beliefs on an issue, it does not logically follow that there is no objective moral truth

True

Knowledge is always?

True

On behalf of God's existence, St. Thomas' Five Ways are all based on the Bible

True

Paley says that if we found a watch and examined it closely, we would naturally infer that it had a maker -- even if we had never seen a watch made.

True

Philo declares that this world might have been the faulty product of an inexperienced deity.

True

Rowe says that most philosophers who have considered Anselm's argument have rejected it because they believe it tries to define something into existence.

True

In logic in general we must separate..?

Truth issues from reasoning issues - Particularly when judging arguments to be valid or invalid.

objective truth

Truth that is independent of our beliefs; moral truth derives from natural features of the world which are empirically measurable or derived from shared characteristics of human beings, such as desires, experiences or a common nature.

Which of the following is the origin of substance?

Two Latin words meaning to stand under

Causation

Two-clocks theories imply that _______ between mind and body is never observed but projected into existence.

serve his or her own self interest

Universal ethical egoism is the theory that everyone ought always to

The Polis

Urban planning as a display of cultural values

Ethics and aesthetics can be viewed as subfields of

Value-theory

"A man is the measure of all things" is an expression of what kind of ethical system?

Virtue Ethics

What ethical theory did Jesus most closely adhere to?

Virtue epistemology: character and inner virtues; character, commands (love God, love neighbor); consequences

moral states

Virtues are

Hume contends that morality would lose its regulatory force on human conduct if we were to lose two qualities. What are they?

Warm feelings for virtue and disgust for vice.

Which of the following beliefs did Descartes hold concerning innate ideas?

We are born with them.

ONLY by being faithful to principles of virtue and justice

We can live a good life

What is the first question Augustinian asks?

What is God?

The second problem Augustinian dealt with was the problem of time.

What is Time, actually? What is eternity? More then one time? Past, present, future - The present of past things, is the memory. - The present of present things is direct perception - The present of future this is expectation Time is inherent in the created intellect It is a creation of created things.

What is the problem of self-identity?

What makes a person the same person over time

What is the problem of self-identity?

What makes a person to be the same person over time?

Inductive Arguments

When an argument claims merely that the truth of its premises make it likely or probable that its conclusion is also true, it is said to involve an inductive inference.

Deductive Arguments

When an argument claims that the truth of its premises guarantees the trite of its conclusion, (it is said to involve a deductive inference.)

For Descartes, when is an intuition most likely to be wrong?

When not clearly and distinctly perceived

enumerative deduction

When we arrive at a generalization about an entire group of things after observing just some members of the group, we are making a(n) _______

Impossible

William James maintains that it is ________ in practice to remain purely and neutrally agnostic on the question of the Supreme Being.

How did philosophy begin?

With Greek philosophy "schools"

conclusion indicator words

Words such as consequently, therefore, and as a result are

"If you studied hard you will pass the test. But since you didn't, you won't." Discern the validity of this argument.

You can get lucky and pass a test without studying.

axiology

______ is the study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral value.

Aposteriori

_______ Atheism maintains that the nonexistence of a SB can be proved by appeal to reliable sources of knowledge, but is not strictly a truth of reason.

Ethical absolutism is probably

a better response than ethical relativism, since it is not self refuting.

In the excerpt from Dostoyevsky, Ivan exemplifies unjust suffering by relating a story of

a child torn to pieces by a general's dogs.

St. Thomas's second proof is

a cosmological proof.

telos

a goal or purpose

According to Kant, nothing can be called "good" without qualification except _____

a good will

an argument

a group of statements in which one of them is meant to be supported by the others

Marx considers religion

a human invention.

Kierkegaard likens the motivation for accepting Christianity to

a leap of faith.

Counterexample

a particular case that refutes a general claim. The discovery of a black swan refutes the general claim that all swans are white therefore is a counterexample to that claim

a priori versus a posteriori

a priori may be known independent of any experience other than the experience of learning language in which the proposition is expressed. a posteriori is known on the basis of experience. Ex. the proposition that all bachelors are unmarried is a priori, and the proposition that it is raining outside now is a posteriori.

A paradox is best defined as

a self-contradictory conclusion drawn from seemingly acceptable premises.

An argument is best defined as

a set of propositions from which a view may arise or be defended.

Nietzsche considers the New Testament as

a sin against the spirit.

Hume would best be considered

a soft determinist.

Biconditional

a statement of the form "P if and only if Q" or some related form, usually written in symbolic logic as "P ← → Q"

St. Thomas's fifth proof is

a teleological proof.

Kant says that when trying to decide whether an action is morally permissible, we must ask if we can consistently will that the maxim of our action should become _____

a universal law

deductive arguments

arguments intended to give logically conclusive support to their conclusions so that if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true

inductive arguments

arguments that are supposed to give probable support to their conclusions

Part of the task of philosophy is to

arrive at general truths about almost everything.

______ is the study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral value.

axiology

When we arrive at a generalization about an entire group of things after observing just some members of the group, we are making a(n) _______

enumerative deduction

"In order to know God one must experience him" is a(n) _________________ claim.

epistemological

For subjectivists, everyone's moral views are

equally plausible

In the moral life, feelings are _____

essential and inevitable

The best definition for causal determinism is that

every event has a sufficient natural cause.

"Metaphysical naturalism" is the view that states

everything relates to nature

According to Augustine, for God,

evil does not exist.

Kant objects to the ontological proof because

existence is not a real property.

According to Sartre, what is the central tenet or focus of existentialism?

existence precedes essence we are condemned to be free..to be free means to be unconditioned by any moral law or eternal laws

How does existentialism and humanism relate to one another?

existentialism is a challenge to traditional morality, the rules and ways of thinking that we normally associate with right and wrong humanism is the exaltation of humanity as the source and criterion of all value and meaning

Anselm assumes that a being that exists in reality in greater than a being that

exists only in the understanding

Anselm assumes that a being that exists in reality is greater than a being that ___________.

exists only in the understanding

A valid argument occasionally has true premises and a false conclusion.

false

An argument is a boisterous or loud exchange of opinions

false

An ontological proof is an argument based on design.

false

Aristotle considers sentiment as foundational for ethics.

false

Descartes is a direct realist.

false

Eliminative materialism seeks to reduce the mental to the physical.

false

Ethics is the study of knowledge.

false

Hume believes that the order and perfection in the world appealed to by the teleological argument is obvious.

false

Hume contends that reason is essential for deriving moral principles.

false

Hume posits a transcendental ego as the basis for self-identity.

false

In the Dostoyevsky excerpt, Ivan thinks that the suffering of children can and will be atoned for.

false

Kierkegaard uses paradox and passion to add his support to the proofs for the existence of God.

false

Marx argues that Christianity glorifies all that is contemptible in human nature.

false

Philosophy is best defined as the discipline that makes you wise.

false

Representational realism is the view that we perceive the external world exactly as it is.

false

Tillich believes moving faith beyond reason is wrong because it turns God into "only a symbol."

false

A fairly close synonym for accidents is

features

According to Swinburne, the simplicity of a scientific theory is a matter of its having

few component laws

According to Aristotle, we always desire happiness ______

for its own sake

"I saw three birds here and they were all red. All the birds here must be red!" This reasoning is an example of

hasty induction

A major problem with Descartes' argument is that

he seems to assume God in order to prove God.

According to Hick, the divine purpose could not be forwarded in a world that was designed as a

hedonistic paradise

Moral as opposed to nature evil is due to_____.

human beings

Freud argues that an illusion is derived from

human wishes.

The existentialist solution to the paradox of freedom is best characterized as

humans as agents must be regarded as free.

"Well, we can ignore your argument from the start, since it's clear that you have a lot to lose if you're wrong!" This reasoning is guilty of

ignorance

According to Aquinas, an infinite regress of causes is______.

impossible

strong arguments...

inductive arguments succeed in lending probable support to their conclusions..

What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning? What is the difference between the conclusions provided in deductive and inductive arguments?

inductive: the conclusion is not guaranteed deductive: true or false

Some design arguments are framed as

inferences to the best explanation

The Ontological Argument- Anselm

is an attempt to prove the existence of God a priori by examining the definition of the term "God". He claims that anyone who accepts the definition of God as the greatest being possible must accept that God exists, because a non-existent God would not be as great as an existent God.

A pantheist holds that God

is identical to the universe.

Craig says an actually infinite number of things_______.

is impossible

Critics of Kant say that he

is too inflexible in his moral principles by not allowing exceptions.

A deist holds that God

is unconcerned with human beings.

In Augustine's view, if something is deprived of all good,

it becomes nonexistent.

Phenomenalism differs from representational realism in that

it claims that our perceptions do not necessarily represent an external world.

An objection to Thomas's first proof is that

it is not impossible to have an infinite series of movers.

Kant's basic principle of morality is called the "Categorical Imperative", what does he mean by this concept?

it isn't concerned with what you do but how you do it, since if the "how" is right, the right will be right; it doesn't address specific moral issues but the nature of morality itself; it doesn't presecribe the righteness or wrongness of particular actions but what makes any action wrong

Burgess worries about determinism because

it robs man of the choice to be good.

Bentham and Mill use all the following as synonyms for pleasure except

joy.

Criticism of utilitarianism..

makes exceptions for actions that we might deem immoral.

Nietzsche believes the death of God

makes the horizon look free with new expectations.

Hick believes that such evils as poverty, oppression, persecution, and war are

manifestations of human sin

Main principle of utilitarianism

maximize the good for the most people

Imperative

means command

Greek arete

means excellence

Eudaimonia

means happiness or human flourishing in Greek

Shaffer argues against Smart's view of the mind on the grounds that

mental events are not in space, but physical events are.

The logical behaviorist would contend that

mental terms really express dispositions to act in certain ways.

"Everything is made out of water" is a(n) _____________ claim.

metaphysical

The study of reality in the broadest sense, an inquiry into the elemental nature of the universe and the things in it, is known as

metaphysics

4 main divisions of philosophy...

metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic

Impartiality

moral principles apply to everyone equally

Virtues are

moral states

Another name for direct realism is

naive realism.

According to Hick, a certain amount of evil in the world is

necessary

According to Anselm, God is a

necessary being

"Barking dogs don't bark" violates the law of ___________.

non-contradiction

According to Kant, to say that something exists is to

not add any additional property to it

A posteriori

not knowable without resource sense to sense experience

Circumstantial Ad Hominen

occurs when someone attacks a claim by saying that the person making the claim is only making it because it's in his/her interest or because of his/her circumstances. Ex. Paula argues that more girls should serve on the student council. Nate says that she only believes that because she is a girl.

Augustine considers corruptible objects

of limited goodness.

Most empiricists locate secondary qualities in the perceiver because

of their subjectivity and their separability from the objects themselves.

The word metaphysics comes from two Greek words meaning

placed beyond the physics.

Utilitarianism

places all the emphasis on the outcome of the action (consequentialist)

A theist would conceive of God as

possessing personal aspects.

Two attributes of God implicated by the problem of evil are

power and goodness

Aristotle believes that moral virtues can best be acquired through

practice and habit

In an argument, the statement being supported is the conclusion, and the statements supporting the conclusion are the

premises

An argument can be divided into

premises and conclusion.

A "sound" argument is one that is both ___________.

premises are true, valid in form, and has a conclusion which follow the premise

Entailment

proposition p entails proposition q iff it is absolutely impossible for p to be true a q to be false

Ethical altruism is probably most consistent with

psychological egoism.

Pascal believes that when it comes to the question of God's existence

reason can decide nothing

Learning, for Plato, amounts to

recollection

According to Hume, morality is determined by

sentiment.

Universal ethical egoism is the theory that everyone ought always to

serve his or her own self-interest

According to Paley, we must conclude that a watch had an intelligent designer if the watch

shows purposefulness

Nietzsche considers Christianity as

siding with the weak and base

Anselm defines God as

that than which nothing greater can be thought.

A question-and-answer dialogue in which propositions are methodically scrutinized to uncover the truth is know as

the Socratic method

The Kalam Cosmological argument argues from what feature or characteristic of the universe

the Universe either began to exist or has no beginning; the universe either has a cause or is uncaused; the universe is personal or inpersonal

Wonder

the basic mood of the philosopher.

Moral objectivism

the belief that morality is real & not something simply made up

Moral absolutism

the belief that there are no exceptions to moral rules.

Epiphenomenalism contends that

the body can act on the mind, but the mind cannot act on the body.

Philosophy is best defined as

the discipline that teaches us how to articulate, hold, and defend our beliefs.

appeal to popularity

the fallacy of arguing that a claim must be true because most people agree with it

false dilemma

the fallacy of arguing that since there are only two alternative to choose from, one of them must be right

composition

the fallacy of rejecting a statement because it stems from a wrong inference from the parts to the whole

begging the question

the fallacy of trying to prove a conclusion by using that very same conclusion as support

slippery slope

the fallacy that is arguing erroneously that a particular action should not be taken because it will lead inevitably to other actions resulting in some dire outcome.

According to J.S. Mill, happiness consists of_____.

the higher pleasures in life.

For Kant....

the intrinsic rightness or wrongness of the action is what counts

Act Utilitarians focus on...

the isolated act that can achieve happiness for someone

The mind/brain identity theory states that

the mind is the same as the brain.

a priori

the ontological for the existence of God

Descartes dealt with the problem of interaction by positing that interaction occurred in

the pineal gland.

Subjective relativism

the theory that morality depends solely upon what an individual happens to think

Historical relativism

the theory that morality is simply a by-product of our historical time period

Cultural relativism

the theory that morality is simply by-product of our cultural upbringing

Socrates said that _____________.

the unexamined life is not worth living

Another point of Cartesian epistemology often attacked is

the view concerning innate ideas.

Psychological egoism

the view that people are naturally selfish

The function argument

the way Aristotle determines the goal of human life

Paley says that every indication of contrivance & design that exists in the watch exists in _________.

the works of nature

An attempt to explain the presence of evil and suffering in the world is called

theodicy.

Monotheism is the view which states that _______________ .

there is ONE God

Ethics of Care focuses on...

those personally closest to us

One traditional reply to the problem of evil is

to account for evil as a result of misuse of free will.

In Dostoyevsky's story, what punishment does the naive Alyosha agree is appropriate for the general?

to be shot

In philosophy, substance can be used in all the following ways except

to indicate accumulated wealth.

The method of philosophy is

to proceed rationally through reasoning and argumentation.

Descartes holds the immaterial soul theory of self-identity.

true

Descartes uses his cogito argument to provide himself with a foundational belief.

true

Epistemology is the theory of knowledge.

true

Ethical egoism is the claim that everyone ought to act in his or her own interest.

true

Freud likens religion to wish fulfillment.

true

Gaunilo objects to St. Anselm's ontological proof.

true

Joseph Butler argues against psychological egoism.

true

Leibniz's explanation of the interaction of substances ultimately leads to a denial of the reality of efficient causes.

true

Logical behaviorism holds that mental events are just dispositions to behave in a certain way.

true

Reasoning is employing good arguments.

true

Skepticism is the position that one can never really know anything.

true

The problem of evil is often posed in order to disconfirm belief in God.

true

Thomas uses five different proofs for the existence of God.

true

Pascal says that if you bet that God exists, and he does in fact exist

you win infinite happiness and lose nothing

Pascal says that if you bet that God exists, and he does in fact exist________.

you win infinite happiness and lose nothing


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