Philosophy
What is Syllogism?
"A speech in which certain things having been supposed, something different from those supposed results of necessity because of their being so."
Ideas are...
- Imperfect - Ever-changing - Finite - Maths + Philosophy
What makes a state "just"?
- The existence of Socio-political classes. - Education - Collective property (for rulers)
a good will
According to Kant, nothing can be called "good" without qualification except _____.
not add any additional property to it
According to Kant, to say that something exists is to
god
Aquinas says the first efficient cause of everything is
false
By the lights of cultural relativism, cross-cultural moral disagreement is not possible.
How did Plato give a life tribute to Socrates?
By... - Education - Traveling and leaving Athens - Academy (from 387 on) - Dialogues and Myths - Socrates the character.
Opinion can be?
Changed
Behe says that an irreducibly complex biological system would be a powerful challenge to
Darwinian evolution
That our moral opinions are conditioned by upbringing, circumstance, etc., is usually construed as evidence for what ethical viewpoint or challenge to morality?
Ethical Relativism: One Big Argument
Who is a philosopher?
Everyone
What does Aristotle consider the highest good for man?
Exercising reason (i.e., doing philosophy).
Theism
Fideism agrees with _______ only on the question of fact about the SB.
the soul
For Socrates, an unexamined life is a tragedy because it results in grievous harm to
Sound Arguments
Have valid forms and have all true premises. Include the famous five.
What does Mill consider a higher pleasure?
One which almost all who have experience with it prefer
What is an agnostic?
One who doubts whether or not God exists.
What is a compatibilist?
One who holds that freedom and causal determination are compatible
What is a rationalist?
One who holds that knowledge can be had apart from experience
What did the Delphic Oracle tell Socrates?
Question: "Who is the wisest of mortals?" Answer: "Socrates is the most wise."
aesthics
Questions that constitute the beautiful & the ugly
What is Aristotle's most famous invention?
Syllogism
What is another name for the happiness calculus?
The felicific calculus
Philosophically speaking, to what do accidents refer?
Those things said of a substance which are not essential
According to your text and the instructor's comments, what is the goal of metaphysics?
To ask and attempt to answer the most basic questions about the universe
Purpose of Arguments
To convince or persuade others, discover truth, increase stock of true beliefs and remove false beliefs
The key to identifying an argument in context is to first identity the conclusion then look for the premises.
True
This classic argument, "The Bible says that God exists; the Bible is true because God wrote it; therefore, God exists", is an example of begging the question.
True
True-False: The core of the moral argument turns on whether or not a person affirms that morality is absolute/objective.
True
Opinion is?
True or false
Knowledge is constantly?
Unchanging
The blue pill (The Matrix)
Will leave us as we are, in a life consisting of simple belief, blind faith, unexamined habits. We choose this pill if we believe that we do not need (/or there is no) truth.
Categorical imperative
You shall not kill.
A soft determinist would probably define freedom as
a power of acting or not acting according to the determinations of the will.
According to Held, care is both
a practice and a value
William Paley was a proponent of what kind of argument for God's existence? What kind of teleology does he employ? (Hint: Know the difference between "wider" and "narrow" teleology".)
abduction: specific things within the Universe for example: the human eye, or a watch His teleology was Cosmological, believing in a Universal Design
Ethical altruism claims that we ought to
act in the interests of others as well as self.
Claiming that Nietzsche's philosophical views are wrong because he died in an insane asylum is an example of
ad hominem.
"Beauty is in the eye of the beholder" is a(n)____________claim.
aestheitcs
Relativism is consistent with...
affirming the Nazi morality
A sound argument is a valid argument with
all true premises.
According to Kant, the Categorical Imperative is______.
an act as if you can universalize your principle to all human beings
Aristotle defines a compulsory act as
an act whose origin is from outside the agent.
In philosophy, one who doubts whether or not God exists is called
an agnostic
A group of statements in which one of them is meant to be supported by the others is
an argument
In philosophy, one who denies the existence of God is called
an athiest.
What is a "theodicy"?
an attempt to show why God permits Evil in the world
A cosmological proof differs from an ontological proof in that
an ontological proof is a priori; a cosmological proof is not
According to Socrates, a clear sign that a person has _______ is his or her exclusive pursuit of social status, wealth, power & pleasure.
an unhealthy soul
Ethical relativism claims that
any morality is as correct as any other.
The fallacy of rejecting a statement on the grounds that it comes from a particular person is known as
appeal to the person
Critics of the divine command theory have argued that the theory implies that God's commands are _____
arbitrary
Why does Kierkegaard reject objectivity and rationality in religious faith?
because subjectivity is truth, and God is unknowable rationally.
Solomon points out that Descartes' arguments concerning the possibility of human knowledge in the Meditations are sometimes criticized as
begging the question
The fallacy of ______ is trying to prove a conclusion by using that very same conclusion as support.
begging the question
Claiming that Kant's philosophical views are correct because only his views are endorsed by the Critique of Pure Reason by Kant, is an example of
begging the question.
Plato's theory of metaphysics can be described as two-tiered, the two tiers being
being and becoming.
When it comes to fear, the vice is
both cowardliness & rashness
James maintains that the desire for a certain kind of truth can
bring about the special truth's experience
According to Behe, the gradual accumulation of mutations
cannot evolve a biological system
Compatibilism means that
causal determinism is compatible with freedom.
Fatalism is the view that
certain events are decreed for individual humans and will come to pass without respect to antecedent conditions.
Psychological egoism
claims that we always act out of self-interest.
All teleological ethics places an emphasis on ____________.
comformity to duty
Words such as consequently, therefore, and as a result are
conclusion indicator words
All the following are true of Locke's memory theory of self-identity except that
consciousness is irrelevant to self-identity.
Moral theories that say that the rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences are _____
consequentalist
Ethical theory open to exceptions:
consequentialist ethical theories utilitarism
Who said, "Man's life is a line that nature commands him to describe upon the surface of the earth, without his ever being able to swerve from it"?
d'Holbach
All of the following are soft determinists except
d'Holbach.
Leibniz likens evil to
dark patches in a painting.
Non-Consequentialist theories:
deontological ethics a duty based ethics Kant's ethics
St. Thomas's first proof is
dependent on the concept of motion.
Aristotle says all human beings..
desire to be happy.
Cultural relativism claims that
different moralities are observed by different cultures.
A problem for the God command theory of ethics is that
disputes arise concerning God's will.
In St. Thomas's third proof, he
distinguishes necessary from contingent being.
What would an ethical egoist do if the Nazis came looking for Ann Frank?
do whatever it takes to enhance their own well-being
According to Kant, the most important thing is to...
do you moral obligation.
One difference between dogmatic and natural theology is that
dogmatic theology depends on revelation, but natural theology does not.
Telos is defined as the ________ of a thing (see Miller chapter 17).
end or purpose of a thing
Mill says that the ultimate end of utilitarianism is an existence as free of pain as possible and as rich as possible in
enjoyments
Moral theory
explains why an action is right or wrong
A theist is one who believes that God is identical to the universe.
false
A valid argument must contain all true premises.
false
"Affirming the Consequent" is a ___________.
formal fallacy
How many different levels of predestination can be identified?
four
Mackie says that religious experiences are
generally indistinguishable from experienes with a known psychological or physical cause
When it comes to money, Aristotle thinks the virtue is
generosity
Paley maintains that the key difference between the "contrivance" of a watch & that of nature is that the latter is ________.
greater & much more complex
Knowledge is best defined as
justified, true, belief.
A priori
knowable without resource to sense experience
For Socrates, the soul is harmed by lack of
knowledge
What would a utilitarian do if the Nazis came looking for Ann Frank?
lie and conceal her location
"Have you stopped beating your wife?" involves the informal fallacy of
loaded question
The four main divisions of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and
logic
The study of correct reasoning is called
logic
Mill and d'Holbach would probably disagree with one another
on human moral responsibility.
What is the basic definition of "skepticism"?
one who doubts, disbelieves, or disagrees with generally accepted conclusions; a doubting or disbelieving state of mind
A deductive argument can be distinguished from an inductive argument because
only a deductive argument can guarantee the truth of its conclusion.
Skinner's attitude toward hard determinism may best be characterized as
optimistic.
Know that you know nothing
or wisdom as the awareness of one's own ignorance.
Representational realism is the view that
perceptions are in our minds, but are perceptions of the external world.
Kant maintains that_____.
persons have intrinsic dignity.
Hard determinism may accept all the following except that
some human behavior is spontaneous and uncaused.
secondary substance
something like a genus or species
Divine command theory
states that ethical principles come from God
The fallacy of misrepresenting a person's views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed is called the
straw man fallacy
According to Aristotle, the virtuous human being is the one who
strikes the mean
Feminist ethics
takes our feelings seriously
What would Kant do if the Nazis came looking for Ann Frank?
tell them the truth as to her whereabouts
Aristotle's ontology consists in
ten categories—one of substance, nine of attributes.
primary substance
that of which one may predict things and which has a specific nature
A skeptic is one who denies
the possibility of knowledge.
Gaunilo objects to the ontological proof because
the same argument could be used to prove a perfect island.
For Socrates, an unexamined life is a tragedy because it results in grievous harm to
the soul
epistemology
the study how we know the world and what is truth
Ontology is best defined as
the study of being as such.
logic
the study of correct reasoning
The word epistemology is derived from two Greek words meaning
the study of exact knowledge.
Cosmology
the study of the universe
Cosmology is best defined as
the study of the universe.
axiology
the study of value, including both aesthetic value & moral value
philosophical method
the systematic use of critical reasoning to try to find answers to fundamental questions about reality, morality, and knowledge.
Epistemology is best defined as
the theory of knowledge.
Ethical egoism
the theory that everyone ought always to look after his or her own self-interest
Descartes' two substances are
unextended mind and extended body.
Rowe's story of the dying fawn in the forest is meant to show that there is______.
unnecessary evil in the world.
Jeremy Bentham
utilitarian associated with crass hedonism
Cultural relativism and ethical subjectivism imply that nothing is intrinsically
valuable
Held says that the ethics of care
values emotion
For Aristotle, vice is
veering into excess or defect
Ethical egoism claims that
we ought to act for ourselves.
Virtue of Care
what feminists ethics emphasizes
Ethics is about..
what we should do.
enumerative induction
when we arrive at a generalization on a number of samples we are offering
A moral theory explains ____
why an action is right or wrong
Freud considers religion as
wish fulfillment.
conclusion indicator words
words such as: consequently, therefore, & as a result
Socrates
"An unexamined life is not worth living"
Death is one of two things
"Either it is annihilation, and the dead have no consciousness of anything," - A deep sleep is quite peaceful, more so than most of our waking days. "Or it is really a change: a migration of the soul from this place to another." - If he were to enter Hades, he would hav the opportunity to meet all of the great past thinkers and heroes. And here he could finally ask them the same questions that he asked the men of Athens!
All natural living things (="SUBSTANCES") have a halo-morphic composition:
"Form ("morphe") + "Matter" ("hyle")
Socrates life mission
"Let no day pass without discussing goodness and all the other subjects about which you hear me talking and examining both myself and others.. Life without this sort of examination is not worth living."
How did Socrates think of himself
"Most ignorant"
What was Augustine to the Christians?
"The Christian Plato"
Modus Ponens
"The affirming mode," basic argument form.
Modus Tollens
"The denying mode," basic argument form.
According to Albert Camus, what must a person do in the face of evil (see Miller chapter 13 pages 327-330)?
"We must recognize evil in all it's horror and irrationality, but we must not accept it. Human dignity lies precisely in our struggle against evil, in living in constant revolt against it's reign"
Monism is the view that ____________.
"all is God, you are God and one is good--ONE"
How did Aristotle define virtue?
"as a midpoint between two extremes"
The conclusion
("C") states the point being argued for (and there may be intermediate conclusions before the main conclusion).
The Premises
(Indicated as "P1", "P2", "Px") states the reasons being advance in support for the conclusion.
Descartes on External World Skepticism
(foundationalist) He says that knowledge should be built up from a foundation of rock-solid certainty by principles that are indubitable. Belief acquired through the senses cannot be used for the foundation, because the senses are capable of deceiving.
What are some reasons or evidence that may provide support for ethical relativism?
- "one big argument" says that ethical views are largely (or completely?) conditioned by circumstances such as upbringing, education, peers, society, evolution, etc. - "Cultural Differences Argument" says observes that moral differences, disputes, and confusion on moral topics abound, which implies, therefore, the relative nature of ethical judgments.
Delphic Oracle
- A seeker - Fortune teller of the greek times.
Number 3 Augustine The Problem of Truth (=God):
- Absolute TRUTH exists Because we live in a non-ideal world, in a very imperfect one, and we ourselves are faulty. - So faith and revelation mist supplement a faltering human reason in knowing truth. Find truth in.. - Inside Mane - Implanted there by God - An act of reasoning - Faith, will and love
Trial and Death of Socrates (399BCE)
- Chose death over exile. - The search for the "good life."
Ho do you do philosophy?
- Confront - Become familiar / de-familiar - Read the philosophers - Grapple issues by yourself - Use philosophical language - Be rational, logical and clear - Be critical, imaginative and creative.
What are the (new) specific charges against Socrates brought by Meletus at this trial?
- Corruption of the youth - Impiety
Cosmos - Aristotelian Cosmology
- Finite, circumscribed by the perfect Prime Mover - Celestial spheres moved of a circular regular motion, produced by the Gods (and mechanically imparted to inner spheres). - The skies are made of the perfect fifth element, Aether (Quintessence).
Deductive reasoning
- Holds to a very high standard of correctness - Succeeds only if its premises provide absolute and complete support for its conclusion.
Inductive reasoning
- Holds variable standard of correctness (always less than 100%). In his sense, induction is more "modest" than deduction. - Succeeds whenever its premises provide some legitimate evidence or support for the truth of its conclusion.
Augustine - The Fall: Turning point
- Human will to disobey - Satan - "First freethinker" - The doctrine of Original Sin - Common destiny of mankind ^ All human beings are fallen man, a crucial concept for Augustine's unified understanding of history ^Man is so perverse that there cannot be any hope regarding the earthly history and institutions.
Planets - Aristotelian Cosmology
- In movement (only apparently erratic), carried around by being embedded in rotating spheres made of an aethereal quintessence, like jewels set in orbs around the earth.
Why is philosophy practical?
- It affects what you do in life. - It analyzes why you do things. - It defines who you are.
The study of principles of correct reasoning is?
- No guarantee that one will always arrive at the truth, (since the beliefs with which we begin are sometimes in error). - To ensure that no additional mistakes creep in during our progress.
Education
- Open to all - Balanced (between music, gymnastics and mathematics. (because it helps ensure that the three components of the soul are in harmony with each other. - Selective (leading a few to study dialectics, aka the Socratic method of asking and answering of philosophical questions.
Things are...
- Perfect - Unchanging - Eternal - Sense perception
Platonic astronomy
- Plato thought the universe was constructed with geometric simplicity, elegance and endless motion. - In Plato's astronomical scheme, a spherical earth lies at the center of the heavens, on whose inner surface that stars are embedded like bright nails. - Celestial deities moved uniformly in perfect circles about earth. - Celestial bodies, belonging to the super-terrestrial dimension, out to move of the same uniform circular motion, endlessly. ^ Plato's claimed that these apparently irrational movements could be explained by supposing that each planet moved on not one but several circular tracks (a combination of orbits) - This might result in the creation of a regular, geometrical model of what looked like highly irregular behavior.
Augustines - A universal Theology
- Sees history as a linear sweep - The concept of creation completely negates the idea of recurrence - History, being directional, linear, and finite, negates the eternity of the world as is. - History completes itself in harmony with the divine law (as do ethics, politics, etc.): it is teleological, has a universal meaning.
Ancient Greek greatest (philosophical hits...?
- Socrates - Plato - Aristotle
Earth - Aristotelian Cosmology
- Stationary sphere in the center of the universe - Made of Earth and Water (and Fire and Air)
The conviction and alternate penalties
- The Jury votes: Socrates is found guilty by a margin of some 30 votes. - The penalty proposed is death by hemlock. - Socrates has the opportunity to propose an alternate penalty. - The penalty - he argues - should be something he deserves: that is..free meals for the rest of his life!
What does Augustine seek to lay out in his 'Confessions'?
- The mistakes he had made in the past (e.g.: a theft, adolescent lust, an illegitimate sone, pride, ambition, etc.). - The unhappiness resulting from them - His path of conversion to Christianity.
Theology is the study of..?
- The nature of God - God's relation to the world - Religious belief, theory, practice and experience.
Both the Ideal State and the Ideal Man must be...?
- Well-balanced - Orderly, separate and specific - Based on excellence
Plato (427-347 BCE)
- Young pupil of Socrates - Writes about what is going on - mostly in defense of Socrates
Philosophy is..?
- a "good of the mind," with indirect effects on the world. - An invaluable "uncertainty" that keeps alive a speculative interest in the world. - An encouragement to question everything, and to merely accept dictates of customs and habits.
What is the definition of teleology? F.R. Tennant was a proponent of what kind of teleology? What does theistic evolution affirm? (Hint: Know the difference between "wider" and "narrow" teleology".)
- defined: derived from the Greek Word "telos" or "end" or "god" and means the study of, or belief in purpose or design that pervades all reality - F.R. Tennant believed in Theistic Evolution/wide teolology which means that ... - affirms: that God uses evolutionary processes to bring desired effect; there must've been an Intelligent design; the Universe could not have just arisen by chance
The Teleological Argument draws its strength from what aspect(s) of the universe? In other words, from what feature of the universe does the Teleological argument derive its evidence? What kind of inductive reasoning does it use?
- from the Fine-Tuning of the of the universe using the inductive method of analogy, which is concluding things similar in several respects
According to Augustine, what is the ontology (nature or being) of evil? According to Augustine, who or what created evil? For Augustine, is evil a "created thing"? Why or why not?
- he denies that evil is a thing or substance - instead he believed that evil is a privation of goodness - he believe dthat evil is real but has no positive ontological status - evil can neither be created, neither is God the creator of Evil - EVIL IS A PRIVATION OF GOODNESS
What are the various forms or types of skepticism discussed in the book and class lectures?
- iterative: meaning "over and over again" - common sense: healthy incredulity about unlikely or preposterous claims - philosophical: doubt about cherished philosophical ideas; God, substance, the external world - absolute: the denial of knowledge itself
Greek statuary: showcasing ideological priorities.
- masculan - fighting stance - naked - powerful
"Act-oriented" ethics focuses on ___________ and "character-oriented" ethics focuses on ______________
- results - good things
What is Intelligent Design? What is the notion of "fine tuning" in the universe discussed in class and how is it evidence for design in nature, as well as, evidence for a "creator" or God?
- specific constants which are necessary for the Universe to exist in the way it is; - Fine Tuning is "if one dial is moved just a little there is no universe" for example, the earth being at the exact Angle it is in relation to the Sun. We would burn otherwise...evidence for a God because it says there must be some one/thing which made it all happen
Christianity in the Roman Empire
-64-304 c.e.: Persecution of Christians - 313 c.e.: Edict of Milan by Emperor Constantine - 380s c.e.: Edict of Thessalonike by Theodosius
What are the main differences / similarities in Plato's and Aristotle's philosophies?
..
Utilitarian division into 2 groups
1) act-utilitarians 2) rule-utilitarians
Aristotle's thoughts on happiness
1) an end in itself 2) the chief good 3) a flourishing human existence
Hume on the Problem of Induction
1) generalizing about the properties of a class of objects based on some number of observations of particular instances of that class (example: the inference that all swans we have seen are white, and therefore all swans are white, before the discovery of black swans. or all ravens are black) 2) Presupposing that a sequence of events in the future will occur as it always has in the past (example: that the laws of physics will hold as they have always been observed to hold). Hume called this the principle of uniformity of nature. (need to add to make inductive reasoning true)
good arguments must have...
1) solid logic 2) true premises
Hume's critique of the teleological arguments maintains that.....
1) what is true of part of the universe is not necessarily true of the whole universe 2)The universe is just as much like an organism as it is like a machine 3)a number of diving beings could have collaborated in creating the world
What a theodicy constitutes:
1)Free will defense 2) Evil is an illusion 3) Good can be drawn out of evil
Subjective relativism is not...
1)something objective for all individuals or persons 2) never changes from person to person 3) something trans-personal
Augustine - What is the "City of God"?
1. A refutation of the pagans' charges that Christians are responsible for the fall of Rome. 2. An outline the doctrine of the two cities (Earthly and Heavenly), how they came about, how they will end. Last Judgement: Separation of the two cities and the eternal punishment of the damned in Hell (a very real place) Triumph of the city of God: The saved will be given eternal happiness and will become immortal.
Diagramming argument method general structure is..?
1. A single premise in support of a conclusion. 2. Several premises in support (either dependently or independently) of a conclusion. 3. Several conclusions following from a single premise.
What are the various kinds of deductive arguments/syllogisms?
1. Categorical: x are y, y are z, therefore x are z 2. Disjunctive: either ___ or ____ 3. Hypothetical (if/then) if _______ then_______
The ideal State (Top to bottom)
1. Guardians (ruling class) 2. Auxiliaries (military, policing and administrative class) 3. Workers (the agricultural, production and manufacturing class)
What are the two different forms of inductive arguments?
1. Method of Generalization 2. By Analogy
The ideal Man (Top to bottom)
1. Reason 2. Spirit 3. Appetite
An organized ideal world (top to Botton)
1. Supreme Good 2. Ideas-Values 3. Mathematical Ideas 4. World of "Things"
What are the four circumstances affecting a pain or pleasure in the first instance?
1. intensity 2. duration 3. certainty/uncertainty 4. propinquity/remoteness
Which premise of the paradox of freedom would a compatibilist definitely reject?
3
What does the (basic) syllogism consist of?
3 terms: 2 are premises and 1 is a conclusion.
"Philo" + "Sophia"
= Love of wisdom
Both the Ontological and Moral Arguments use what kind of reasoning: a priori or a posteriori?
A Priori
How is morality best defined?
A basic set of rules governing actions
What does Hume mean by a bundle?
A bundle of ideas and impressions
Statment
A declarative sentence; one which attempts to state a fact (as opposed to a question, command, exclamation, etc.)
Euthyphro's Dilemma
A difficult choice first posed by Plato, between morality being based on divine command (good because God says so, which makes morality seem arbitrary) and morality being independent of God (which makes God irrelevant to morality).
What is a telos?
A goal or purpose
true
A good deductive argument is said to be sound.
false
A good inductive argument is said to be strong.
What does Kant consider to be the one thing in the world, or even out of it, which is unqualifiedly good?
A good will
an argument
A group of statements in which one of them is meant to be supported by the others is
How does Aristotle define moral virtue?
A habit or trained faculty that achieves excellence through moderation.
What does Aristotle mean by virtue?
A human excellence cultivated by habit and guided by reason.
What name does Kant give to a subjective principle of action?
A maxim
why an action is right or wrong
A moral theory explains _____.
What does Kant call his assertion about God?
A postulate of practical reason
the socratic method
A question-and-answer dialogue in which propositions are methodically scrutinized to uncover the truth is know as
Socratic Method
A question-and-answer dialogue in which propositions are methodically scrutinized to uncover the truth.
If God were all-powerful & all-knowing, but not all-good, we would have a god that is_____.
A supremely evil being.
Aristotelian Cosmology
A systematization of prior nations - Earth - Cosmos - Planets
What is a fallacy?
A typical mistake in reasoning.
What is a sound argument?
A valid argument with all true premises.
Klepsydra
A water clock
for its own sake
According to Aristotle, we always desire happiness ______.
cannot evolve a biological system
According to Behe, the gradual accumulation of mutations
a practice and a value
According to Held, care is both
necessary
According to Hick, a certain amount of evil in the world is
hedonistic paradise
According to Hick, the divine purpose could not be forwarded in a world that was designed as a
shows purposefulness
According to Paley, we must conclude that a watch had an intelligent designer if the watch
false
According to Philo, since the universe is perfectly ordered, the existence of a deity is likely.
few component laws
According to Swinburne, the simplicity of a scientific theory is a matter of its having
What is Kant's first formulation of the categorical imperative?
Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law.
Philosophy is an..
Activity - Understanding it, doing it, participating in it.
Reid on External World Skepticism
Advocates a "common sense" response to skepticism. Although the skeptical hypotheses cannot be refuted, we have no reason to think that it is true. Our common sense views are allowed to stand unless there are good reasons to abandon them, and skepticism does not constitute a good reason.
What is the first premise in the paradox of freedom?
All human behavior is causally determined.
Hume
All knowledge is divided into relations of ideas and matters of fact.
Physicalism
Also called materialism, according to which all substances, states, and events are physical substances, states, and events, without any separate mental realm. (opposition to dualism)
true
An argument is not synonymous with persuasion.
Sound
An argument which is invalid can never be _______ .
What is an inductive argument?
An argument whose true propositions give reasonable grounds for accepting the truth of the conclusion.
What is a theodicy?
An attempt to explain why there is evil and suffering in the world.
Disjunctive Syllogism
An either/ or choice. (Either P or Q or both). Denying either term of a disjunction (either or P or Q) allows one to affirm the other disjunct, but an invalid form of this argument exists as well. Ex. Either Macbeth or his wife is mad. Since Lady Macbeth is obviously not mad, Macbeth must be mad OR Either Macbeth or his wife is mad. Lady Macbeth is obviously mad, so Macbeth is not mad.
What is a consequentialist ethics?
An ethics that considers outcomes or consequences as the primary determinant of the morality of an action.
In the last stage of his doubting, what does Descartes posit as a possible reason for his deception?
An evil demon
false
An important criterion of adequacy for moral theories is consistency with our conscience.
Aristotle implies that all living things have...
An inborn nature, each seeking their end conforming to a design ordering the Universe (+teleological" view)
exists only in the understanding
Anselm assumes that a being that exists in reality in greater than a being that
True
Aquinas thinks that an infinite series of causes is repugnant to reason.
Cogent Arguments
Are strong and have all true premises
Gettier on Knowledge and Justified True Belief
Argues that justified true belief is not sufficient for knowledge. (1) justified true belief is necessary for knowledge; and (2) justified true belief is sufficient for knowledge. Then argues that justified true belief is NOT sufficient for knowledge -- so (2) is wrong.
What is the free-will defense to the problem of evil?
Argument against the problem of evil based on the claim that evil is the result of misuse of free will.
Hypothetical Syllogism
Argument used in tracing a causal chain of consequences (Like the domino theory). Ex. If I get an A on the midterm, I will ace the course. Furthermore, if I ace the course, I will graduate with a 4.0. So, it seems that if I get an A on the midterm, I will graduate with a 4.0.
God(s): supreme Final cause
Aristotle believed that there has to be something which is fully actual, purely form, not depending on anything else for existence, consisting in eternal contemplation of the best (= itself). This, he calls God(s), which thereby: - exists necessarily - are FINAL cause (s) of EVERYTHING - Are the prime UNMOVED MOVER, (causing the movement of other things not as an efficient cause.)
practice and habit
Aristotle believes that moral virtues can best be acquired through
true
Aristotle says that virtue is a mean lying between two vices
Virtue Ethics
Aristotle's ethical theory
When did the Greeks estimated the circumference of the Earth?
Around 240 B.C.
When did philosophy begin?
Around the 6th c. BCE
How does eliminative materialism see mental talk?
As a holdover from folk psychology.
What is the best way in which to think of a Platonic form?
As a pattern
Some Premise indicators are..?
As, since, for, because, given, that, etc..
Evidence
Atheism and theism agree on the question of _______ about the SB.
Why does Descartes believe in the reality of the external world?
Because he thinks denying it entails that God is a deceiver.
Why does Augustine consider all existing things to be, to some extent, good?
Because if something is corruptible, it can get worse (actually be corrupted). To get worse implies to become less good. Hence, it must have some good initially.
According to Kant, why should we do our duty?
Because it is our duty
Why does Kant feel that suicide is wrong?
Because it treats someone as a means to escape painful circumstances
Why does Kant feel that making a false promise is wrong?
Because it would make promising contradictory if it became a universal law of nature
Why did philosophy begin?
Because of its peculiar historical and political conditions.
Why are utilitarian ethics usually considered consequentialist?
Because utilitarian ethics are concerned with outcomes
Why can Locke's epistemological views be criticized as impure?
Because, contrary to his thesis, he posits entities by intuition.
Darwinian evolution
Behe says that an irreducibly complex biological system would be a powerful challenge to
What does Aristotle mean by happiness?
Being fully human—flourishing.
On which of the following do Berkeley and Hume differ?
Belief in God
What are the differences between Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill's interpretations of utilitarianism (a.k.a. social hedonism)? How do they each justify or account for their interpretations?
Bentham: quantitative interpretation of the greatest happiness and propounded a hedonic calculus to assist in its determination Mill: pressed for a qualitative interpretation of the "greatest" happiness and urged it to be the only widely experienced individual in a position to extol the superiority of the qualitative pleasures--for example, of the mind
Which of the philosophers in Column 1 above denied material substances?
Berkeley
Which of the philosophers in Column 1 above are phenomenalists?
Berkeley and Hume.
Which of the philosophers in Column 1 above claim that "Esse est aut percipi aut percipere"?
Berkeley.
Intrinsic
Both Alexander and Paley hold that a miracle might have _______ probability.
According to Aristotle, what are the extremes of the virtue of wittiness?
Buffoonery and boorishness
How does soft determinism solve the paradox of freedom?
By accepting premises 1 and 2 but rejecting 3
How does hard determinism solve the paradox of freedom?
By accepting premises 1 and 3 but rejecting 2
How does Hume argue against Thomas's fifth proof?
By arguing from the imperfections of the world
Knowledge can be?
Cannot be changed
Which of the following would a soft determinist accept?
Causal determinism is compatible with moral responsibility.
Locke
Causal theory of perception
On what does Hume ground matter-of-fact reasoning?
Cause/effect relations
Knowledge is sufficient to provide?
Certainty backed by reason
Opinion is insufficient to provide?
Certainty not backed by reason
Which of the following issues would one most likely encounter in ontology?
Change and individuation
Opinion is always?
Changing
Define and explain the difference between natural theology and revealed theology
Christian FAITH is REASONABLE in 4 different ways 1. The Christian Faith affirms that there is an objective source and foundation for knowledge, reason, and rationality. The created order (nature) is good and knowable 2. Christian truth-claims do not violate the basic laws/principles of reason 3. The Bible itself encourages the attainment of knowledge, wisdom, and understanding, and promotes such intellectual virtues such as discernment, testing, and reflection 4. The truths of the Christian Faith correspond to, and are supported by such things as evidence, facts, and reason
Unreasonable
Clifford holds that it is always _______ to give assent without adequate evidence.
What does deontological mean?
Concerned with duty.
What does "results of necessity" mean..?
Conclusion
Augustine's early life is known through his autobiography called?
Confessions
Things
Copies
arbitrary
Critics of the divine command theory have argued that the theory implies that God's commands are _____.
valuable
Cultural relativism and ethical subjectivism imply that nothing is intrinsically
false
Cultural relativism implies that moral progress is possible.
The statement, "Is he (God) willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then is he impotent. Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent. Is he both able and willing? Whence then is evil?" was propounded by what philosopher?
David Hume
If the author of the argument believes that the truth of the premises definitely establishes the truth of the conclusion, then the argument is...?
Deductive
From which Greek word is deontological derived?
Dein?
P.F. Strawson on Induction
Denies that induction in general needs justification. He says that part what it means to be rational is that one uses induction.
With what kind of ethical system is Kant associated?
Deontological Ethics: Duty
What is the difference between utilitarian and deontological ethics? According to deontological ethics, actions should be motivated by ___________.
Deontological ethics talks about the rightness of actions and is defined by either conformity to duty; utilitarianism talks about Actions should be motivated by "results''
Which of the philosophers in Column 1 above are representational realists?
Descartes and Locke.
Substances; Mind; Body
Descartes holds that any concept of the self is a composite of two _______ : a _______ and a _______ .
Another philosopher who uses the ontological proof is
Descartes.
What is the difference between virtue ethics and utilitarian ethics? What is the main focus of each system? What are the criteria for a "right" or "good" action, in other words, what helps you decide right from wrong action
Difference between the two: virtue ethics focuses on what is truly right and utilitarian ethics focuses on the use and outcome of each one...action based versus character Right and Wrong Actions can be determined by different criteria depending on
Form (morphe)
Distinctive Essence: - Real and profound - Nature of a substance - Intrinsic - "Actuality"
How does dualism contrast with monism with respect to persons?
Dualism holds that there are two substances, monism only one.
What are Aristotle's four kinds of cause?
Efficient, material, formal, and final
Which of the following pairs of views most nearly coincide with Hume's?
Empiricism and phenomenalism
According to Aristotle, which of the following actions/passions admits of no mean?
Envy
Myth of Er (Myth of Remembrance)
Er son of Armenia was killed in battle after ten days after his body was unaffected by decay and brought home to be buried and on the twelfth day he returned to life and said: - Upon death, our souls reach the eternal world of Forms - Before we were born, from there they came - Each soul must choose (freely) its next destiny - Once the choice is ratified, the souls drink forgetfulness and begin another life. Conclusion: HUMAN KNOWLEDGE IS REALLY ONLY A PROCESS OF REMEMBRANCE.
The Cosmological Argument- Aquinas
Everything was caused by the previous, at some point there has to be an infinite thing (God) that caused everything. "Every event and every object has a cause. So there has to be a first cause, which must be God."
What does Hume regard as foundational for our notion of causation?
Experience
What does the Greek word "apologia" mean?
Explanation
Altruism
Extreme _______ places any interest of the other above any interest of mine.
T/F A theodicy means a rejection in the believe in God in the face of evil
FALSE
T/F According to Aquinas, nothing can cause God but God himself.
FALSE
T/F Anselm defines God as the greatest being
FALSE
T/F Aquinas believes that it is possible for something to move itself.
FALSE
T/F Aquinas maintains that God must move himself in order to move anything else
FALSE
T/F If none of the tradition arguments for the existence of God are convincing, then this demonstrates that God does not exist.
FALSE
T/F If the cat is on the mat she is sleeping; the cat is not on the mat so therefore she is not sleeping is a valid form of argument
FALSE
According to the class lectures how should one define or understand "faith"? Describe the relationship of Faith and Reason as discussed in class.
Faith Defined: an activity of the will; the capacity to place trust in something; a means to trusting and thereby knowing something, one will look for something to trust in; Biblically, it is "Confident trust in a reliable, reasonable, and viable source" Reason Defined: an activity of the mind; the capacity for thinking and rationality; a means to discover knowledge
A good inductive argument is said to be strong.
False
According to Philo, since the universe is perfectly ordered, the existence of a deity is likely.
False
An important criterion of adequacy for moral theories is consistency with our conscience
False
By the lights of cultural relativism, cross-cultural moral disagreement is not possible
False
Cultural relativism implies that moral progress is possible
False
If we believe some proposition X then that proposition is necessarily true because we believe it.
False
Knowledge
For Socrates, the soul is harmed by lack of
Knowledge
For Socrates, the soul is harmed by lack of _________.
equally plausible
For subjectivists, everyone's moral views are
What is an IDEA to Plato?
Forms, universals, characterized by being perfect, unchanging, objective entities, independent of our minds, wills or thought processes, yet intelligible.
How does Augustine account for the origin of evil?
From a misuse of free will
true
From the fact that cultures have divergent moral beliefs on an issue, it does not logically follow that there is no objective moral truth.
Aquinas says that the first efficient cause of everything is______.
God
Aquinas says the first efficient cause of everything is
God
What does Descartes consider the ultimate guarantor of human knowledge?
God
Deism is the view that _____________ .
God created the world and let it be
omnibenevolence
God's characteristic as all-loving.
omnipotence
God's characteristic as all-powerful.
Concerning the problem of evil, what solution does the prophet Isaiah offer?
God's ways are inscrutable (Isaiah 55:8-9) "For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways, declares the Lord. As the heavens are higher than the Earth, so are my ways higher than your ways, and my thoughts than your thoughts"
What allows Berkeley to account for different perceivers sharing common experiences of objects?
God.
According to Aristotle, what do we choose for itself, but not for the sake of something else?
Happiness
What is the thrust of Kant's objection to the ontological proof?
He claims that existence is not a property.
The "Socratic Problem"
He did not write philosophical texts. - The knowledge we have is from secondary sources only.
How does Anselm claim that the fool can say in his heart what cannot be thought?
He distinguishes thinking of a thing from thinking of words.
Why does Hume consider induction worthless?
He doesn't.
Why is Berkeley called an objective realist?
He is not called an objective realist.
What is Descartes doing with his wax example?
He is trying to prove that we can know some things apart from experience by an intuition of the mind.
Which of the following statements most nearly reflects Rousseau's attitude toward psychological egoism and original sin?
He probably rejects both.
What duty does Socrates undertake as a result of the Oracle's words?
He set out to find someone wiser than he was.
values emotion
Held says that the ethics of care
Pass the test of the Categorical Imperative
Helping others when you can
manifestations of human sin
Hick believes that such evils as poverty, oppression, persecution, and war are
What is Hume's fork?
His division between relations of ideas and matters of fact
At the end of his argument, Descartes declares that there is one thing he cannot doubt, and which serves as a bedrock truth. What is it?
His existence
Which of the following philosophers first posed the problem of interaction for Descartes' view?
Hobbes
Smart and Identity Theory
Holds the view that every mental state is numerically identical to a physical state. He also attacks behaviorism and dualism.
What is the problem of the interaction of substances?
How can an unextended substance act on an extended one?
What is the major problem with Hume's bundle theory?
How do we distinguish bundles, separate my bundle from yours, without begging the question?
What is the chief concern of logic?
How the truth of some propositions is connected with the truth of another.
Nonexistent
Hume holds that the substantival persisting self is _______ .
Which of the philosophers in Column 1 above questioned the foundations of matter of fact reasoning?
Hume.
The renowned philosopher who lived and worked in the Greek city of Alexander in the fifth century was
Hypatia
To judge reasoning we must always think....?
Hypothetically
The existentialist claims that
I am responsible for everything except for the fact that I am responsible.
What does Descartes mean by cogito?
I think-that is, experience cognitive activity.
The deepest refutation of the charges
IS that Socrates' whole life has been a service to the city - in response to the will of the gods.
Aristotle's criticism of the Platonic Forms
If FORMS are "transcendent" - so separate and else from things, then: - How can FORMS be the causes and essence of Things without BEING IN them? - How do we explain that Things that imitate eternal FORMS, change and grow and perish? Conclusion: - Sensible Things are in fact NOT SEPARATE from Forms. - FORMS EXISTS but are in particular THINGS (=IMMANENT)
Augustine 5: The problem of Go(o)d and evil
If God is all-good, and everything God created is equally all-good, how then does Evil arise?
More
If NDE's are the result of cerebral anoxia then they ought to occur _______ often than they actually do.
Modify
If NDE's are veridical, then we must _______ our account of the reliable sources of knowledge.
Constructive Dilemma
If P implies Q, R implies S, and P or R are true, then Q and S is true as well. Ex. If I am running, I am happy and if I am sleeping, I am dreaming and I am running or sleeping are true, than it must also be true that I am happy or I am dreaming
What does Berkeley mean by "Esse est aut percipi aut percipere"?
If it is neither perceived nor perceiving, it does not exist.
What is Leibniz's law of the indiscernibility of identicals?
If two things are identical, then they must have all properties in common.
What does Leibniz's law of the indiscernibility of identicals claim?
If two things are identical, they must have all properties in common
Reductio & Absurdum
If you assume that a set of statements is true, & yet you can deduce a false or absurd statement from it, then the original set of statements as a whole must be false.
Hypothetical imperative
If you want a job, you should go to college.
deontological ethics
Immanuel Kant's ethical theory
premises
In an argument, the statement being supported is the conclusion, and the statements supporting the conclusion
premises
In an argument, the statement being supported is the conclusion, and the statements supporting the conclusion are the
Statistical
In arguing against miracles, Hume holds that all probability is _______ .
Where did philosophy begin?
In classical Greece
essential and inevitable
In the moral life, feelings are _____.
Collective property (for rulers)
Including goods. wives, children and land.
If the author believes that their truth provides good reasons to believe the conclusion true, then the argument is..?
Inductive
Knowledge is the result of?
Instruction
What are the differences between the intellectual problem and emotional problem of evil?
Intellectual Problem: concerns the rational compatibility of God and evil and their co-existence; lies in the province of the philosopher and/or theologian Emotional Problem: concerns the emotional weight and/or burden in a person's life; lies int he province of the pastor or cousenlor, family member or trusted friend
What are the four circumstances that Bentham identifies as affecting the value of a pleasure or pain in the first instance?
Intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity
George is a human being. George is 100 years old. George has arthritis. Therefor, George will not run a four-minute mile tomorrow. (Valid or invalid)?
Invalid, based on the declared premises.
Argument
Is a (finite) set of statements, some of which-the Premises- are supposed to support, or give reasons for, the remaining statement-the Conclusion.
Pascal's Wager
It is better to wager everything on God's existence than to be a skeptic. Believing results in greater benefits than not believing. "There are two alternatives. Either God [the Christian God] exists [and is the only god]; or God does not exist [and there are no other gods]. If God exists, then if you believe in him you will go to heaven; if you don't believe, you will go to hell. If God doesn't exist, then if you believe you have the comfort of a spiritual life; if you don't believe, you won't be as happy. Either way, you should believe in God."
Which of the following is a problem for the no-self view of self-identity?
It is contradicted whenever we refer to ourselves.
Name one problem for ethical relativism.
It is self-refuting; or, it puts Hitler on a moral par with Mother Theresa.
What is a problem for the conscience theory of morality?
It makes morality subjective.
Sophists
Itinerant philosophers who turned to a practical approach the use of philosophy, earning their living by teaching rhetoric and argumentation. - For this, they became associated with teaching people slick rhetoric and "unjust logic" to avoid responsibility and obligation.
bring about the special truths experience
James maintains that the desire for a certain kind of truth can
What is the meaning of Socrates' metaphor of the gadfly?
Just as a gadfly agitates a horse, so Socrates, by stirring up debates in the marketplace, was sent by the gods to prick the Athenians into paint attention to important matters, preventing theCity from becoming sluggish, careless and intolerant (thinking it knows something when it doesn't.)
Which one is the end-goal of an ideal community for Plato?
Justice
a universal law
Kant says that when trying to decide whether an action is morally permissible, we must ask if we can consistently will that the maxim of our action should become _____.
What criticism did Mill lodge against Kant's ethics?
Kantian ethics seem deontological but his arguments amount to consequentialism.
What are innate ideas for Plato?
Knowledge of the world of Being that is already in us at birth.
"Any proposition is either true or false" is the Law of
Law of Excluded Middle
Which philosopher replies to the arguments against innate ideas?
Leibniz
Who holds the theory of pre-established harmony?
Leibniz
Two early modern philosophers who focused on the independence of substance were
Leibniz and Spinoza.
meta-ethics
Literally 'beyond ethics', hence a study of the meaning of moral language such as 'good' and 'right'.
What are the differences between a living option and a dead option?
Living option: - Believable to you -truth -just because you think something is a living option, it does not mean it is false Dead option: -Not believable to you -not aware to it -just because you think something is a dead option, it does not mean it is false
Which philosopher argues against innate ideas?
Locke
Which of the philosophers in Column 1 above are empiricists?
Locke, Berkeley, and Hume.
All pigs can fly. Anything that can fly can swim. So all pigs can swim. (Valid or invalid)?
Logically valid argument.
generally indistinguishable from experienes with a known psychological or physical cause
Mackie says that religious experiences are
What is the second premise in the paradox of freedom?
Man is morally responsible for some of his behavior.
What is the third premise in the paradox of freedom?
Man is never morally responsible for behavior which is causally determined.
Aristotles's 4 causes
Material Cause: Matter Efficient Cause: Producer Formal Cause: Form Final Cause: Goal
What does eliminative materialism hold?
Mental talk is just a holdover from folk psychology.
Property Dualism
Merely says that mental properties are distinct from physical properties, and does not require that mind and body be two distinct types of substance.
enjoyments
Mill says that the ultimate end of utilitarianism is an existence as free of pain as possible and as rich as possible in
Which of the following most nearly represents Spinoza's view of mind and body?
Mind and body are two attributes of the one substance, God.
Ideas
Models
Divine Command Theory
Moral goodness derives from God's commands or from the divine will.
Modified Divine Command Theory
Moral goodness derives from the character of God, and particularly his love.
consequentialist
Moral theories that say that the rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences are _____.
Cosequentialist
Moral theory that says the rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences.
What are two kinds of evil?
Natural Evil: the evil that results from natural causes such as disease, accidents, or famine Moral Evil: the evil that results from human will such as murder, exploitation, and war
Cosmologists
Natural philosopher who -seeking natural (and not supernatural0 explanations for material processes - brought it to the extent of rejecting many explanations through the old gods.
Who is speaking in Socrates speech in the Apology? Is it really Socrates?
No, it is Plato's speech. - It should not be considered as a word-for-word reproduction of what Socrates said.
Daisy bought one ticket in a fair lottery with 10.000 tickets. So Daisy is not going to win the lottery.
Not deductively valid, but the conclusion is inductively strong.
What are the charges against Socrates?
Of being a Cosmologist and a Sophists.
Memory; Reason
Of the reliable sources of knowledge the least reliable is _______ ; and the most objectively reliable is _______ .
God is a...?
Omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, perfect goodness, and eternity, necessity, and incorporeal existence.
Never
On the view of Aquinas the self can _______ be directly known by an intellectual intuition during this life.
The red pill (The Matrix)
Opens up endless possibilities, but also unknown ones.
There is no form without matter, and no matter without form
Or nothing is "unformed matter" or "unmannered form"
"Understand, to believe. Have faith, to understand"
Or the relationship between Reason and Faith
Standard form:
P1 P2 Px Conclusion (C) Example P1: All F are G P2: X is F Px Conclusion (C): X is G
True
Paley says that if we found a watch and examined it closely, we would naturally infer that it had a maker -- even if we had never seen a watch made.
reason can decide nothing
Pascal believes that when it comes to the question of God's existence
you win infinite happiness and lose nothing
Pascal says that if you bet that God exists, and he does in fact exist
Religious
Pascal's wager is unlikely to appeal to anyone with a _______ interest in the question of the existence of a SB.
Opinion is the result of?
Persuasion
True
Philo declares that this world might have been the faulty product of an inexperienced deity.
Socratic method, or elenchus
Philosophical inquiry in which the questioner explores the implications of others positions, to stimulate rational thinking and illuminate ideas. - The method is dialectical and oppositional: the defense of one point of view is pitted against another. - involves one-to-one conversation. - Involves some irony and indirect communication.
The Value of Philosophy - B. Russell
Philosophy is an expansion of knowledge. - People judge others without really knowing them. - Any amount of knowledge, know matter how small can help a person grow and expand there own thoughts.
Matter (hyle)
Physical Nature: - of a substance - Natural "potentiality"
"What are the uniform and ordered movements by the assumption ion which the apparent movements of the planets can be accounted for?"
Plato's question (in Timaeus) to his students.
"Astronomy compels the soul to look upwards and leads us from this world to another."
Plato, The Republic
What are the two sovereign masters under which, according to Bentham, nature has placed mankind?
Pleasure and pain
What does "things supposed" mean..?
Premise of the argument
What are the main elements in an argument?
Premise, Evidence/Inference, Conclusion
What are primary qualities?
Properties in bodies which produce ideas in our minds resembling real features bodies have independent of observation.
Nobody
Pure Agnosticism agrees with _______ on the question of fact about the existence of a SB.
What are the two circumstances that Bentham identifies as affecting the value of a pleasure or pain in subsequent instances?
Purity and fecundity
Necessary; Sufficient
Quine, Place, and Adler agree that brain states are _______ conditions for mental states, but only Quine and Place hold that brain states are _______ conditions for them.
Descartes
Rationalism
The just Soul
Reason (mind and intellect): seeks Truth and its excellence. Spirit (will and volition): seeks honor and its excellence. Appetite (desire and emotion): seeks material goods - eg: safety, food, family, money...and their excellence.
Russel on External World Skepticism
Rejects skepticism. He says that the best explanation for the character of our sense dates that there are persisting physical objects that cause the sense data.
A philosopher who accepts the conscience theory of morality is
Rousseau.
true
Rowe says that most philosophers who have considered Anselm's argument have rejected it because they believe it tries to define something into existence.
Which of the following philosophers would most nearly agree with logical behaviorism?
Ryle
Who said, "I am responsible for everything, in fact, except for my very responsibility"?
Sartre
Pseudo
Scientific exploration of the causes of things.
A philosopher is a person
Seeking wisdom (not one who has necessarily found it.)
What did Aristotle believe we must study?
Sensible, material things, as our knowledge of reality derives from the observation and perception of CONCRETE PARTICULARS (precisely because FORMS are IMMANENT).
Which of the following is a primary quality?
Shape
Fideism
Skeptical Agnosticism agrees with _______ on the question of evidence.
What is Kant's second formulation of the categorical imperative?
So act as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end withal, never as means only.
Aristotle's Criticism
Socrates focused too much on ethical matters and neglected the world of nature.
inferences to the best explanation
Some design arguments are framed as
What, for Aristotle, is a secondary substance?
Something like a genus or species
What does Locke call substance?
Something; I know not what.
By the 5th century B.C., it was widely accepted that the Earth is a ..?
Sphere
Berkeley
Subjective idealism
Straw Man Fallacy
Substituting a person's actual position or argument with a distorted, exaggerated, or misrepresented version of the position of the argument. Ex. Zebedee: What is your view on the Christian God? Mike: I don't believe in any gods, including the Christian one. Zebedee: So you think that we are here by accident, and all this design in nature is pure chance, and the universe just created itself? Mike: You got all that from me stating that I just don't believe in any gods?
Personal; Introspection
Such properties as knowing, willing, understanding, are distinctively _______ , rather than narrowly mental, because they cannot be known by _______ .
What is the logical tool Aristotle invented to help him do ontology?
Syllogism
"The Myth of Sisyphus" - Albert Camus
Sysyphus has to push a rolling rock to the top of a hill for eternity. - Even though he is suffering and in pain he feels happiness and victory. Thus giving off the message that even in the darkest of times there is still light, hope, and happiness.
T/F An argument of this form--if p, then q; p; therefore, q--is called modus ponens.
TRUE
T/F If the cat is on the mat she is sleeping. The cat is on the mat therefore she is sleeping is a valid form of arguing.
TRUE
Purpose
Telos
Rejected
Thanissaro holds that any concept of the self should be _______ insofar as it involves suffering and clinging.
What was Socrates' final interpretation of the meaning of the oracle?
That Socrates was the most wise in the He was AWARE OF HIS OWN IGNORANCE.
What is the one thing that Descartes cannot doubt in light of his cogito argument?
That he exists.
What does Socrates claim?
That he is a blessing from the Gods.
What is the principle of utility?
That principle which approves or disapproves of every action according to the tendency which it appears to have to increase or decrease happiness
What does Socrates believe about the people?
That they have misunderstood his true activities and intentions.
What is natural theology?
That which can be known about God through reason and the senses.
Apriori
The "Stone Problem" is an argument for _______ Atheism.
Greek "Cyclic history"
The Ancients understood the natural world as a cycle of life and death, in eternal rotation; ascent and descent, a progress and regress. - History has no purpose, no direction (cyclical), no fundamental unity, no universal meaning; - It has a large place for chance, necessity and fate. - Man is caught in this cycle, at the mercy of the course of history.
Weak; Strong
The Chinese Room Argument is designed to support _______ AI and to disprove _______ AI.
Realist; Nihilist
The Ethical _______ agrees with the Ethical _______ that if there are ethical facts, then at least some of them obtain independently of anyone's opinion or authority.
Gualino's critique of Anselm is called
The Lost or perfect island critique
Pyrrhonian; Montaignian; Probability
The _______ skeptic calls for suspension of judgment on all our beliefs, while the _______ skeptic allows us to retain our beliefs - provided we do not claim them as knowledge - by appeal to the maxim that "_______ is the guide of life."
Inductive; (Perception; Introspection; Memory; Reason)
The _______ skeptic holds that we cannot know that the past and present are reliable guides to the future from _______ , _______ , _______ or _______ .
Evil
The appeal to the reality of _______ constitutes the most historically influential argument in favor of atheism.
James says the religious hypothesis says two things. What are they?
The best things are the eternal things; and we are better off even now believing this.
Which of the following is a problem for the body theory of self-identity?
The body changes over time.
What is hedonism?
The claim that pleasure is the ultimate good
What is hedonism?
The claim that pleasure is the ultimate good.
What does Nietzsche mean by "God is dead"?
The concept of the Christian God is not worthy of belief.
Justice is...?
The condition in which each citizen does well what he/she is best suited for, in cooperation with others, under the rule of the Wisest.
What does Rousseau call the "divine instinct, immortal voice from heaven"?
The conscience
Mathematizable; Intentional
The contemporary Argument from Design appeals to the observability of _______ order as evidence for the presence of _______ order.
Sustaining
The contemporary Cosmological Argument appeals to the SB as a _______ cause of the existence of the cosmos.
What method should be used to understand the inner workings of an argument?
The diagramming method.
The Problem of Evil- Antony
The difficulty of reconciling the existence of suffering and other evils in the world with the existence of God. The logical argument from suffering: "No wholly good, omnipotent being would allow suffering. But there is suffering. So there is no wholly good, omnipotent being." The evidential argument from suffering: "Probably, no wholly good, omnipotent being would allow suffering. But there is suffering. So probably, there is no wholly good, omnipotent being." -rejects the free will defense
What does logic study?
The distinction between correct reasoning and incorrect reasoning (independently of our agreements on matters).
Explanation; Confirmation
The evidentiary relation from "there is a cat in the corner" to "I seem to see a feline color patch" is one of _______ ; and the evidentiary relation from "there is a cat is the corner" to "all Feinstein rooms have cats" is one of _______ .
begging the question
The fallacy of ______ is trying to prove a conclusion by using that very same conclusion as support.
straw man fallacy
The fallacy of misrepresenting a person's views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed is called the
appeal to the person
The fallacy of rejecting a statement on the grounds that it comes from a particular person is known as
Socrates (469BCE-399BC)
The first Philosopher
In Plato's allegory of the cave, the sun serves as a metaphor for what?
The form of the good
logic
The four main divisions of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and
According to the Benevolence Principle, one ought to act so as to promote ____________.
The greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people
Plato's "The Republic" or the Ideal Community - A Utopia
The ideal community can only exist if the rulers become philosophers or vice verse, if the philosophers become the rulers.
What is a valid argument?
The impossibility of having true premises and a false conclusion
What was the widespread misconception that the ancients Greeks thought about the Earth?
The it was flat.
true
The key to identifying an argument in context is to first identity the conclusion then look for the premises.
What does Bentham mean by the duration of a pain?
The length of time the pain lasts
Observation
The methodological insufficientist claims that _______ provides no adequate evidence on way or the other about the question of fact in regard to the existence of a SB.
What does Locke mean when he compares the mind to a tabula rasa?
The mind is like a blank sheet of paper-it has no content initially.
How does Kant define duty?
The necessity of acting from respect for the law
Which of the following people would be happiest in Aristotle's estimation?
The philosopher
If the premises are true, are we locked into the conclusion?
The premises and the conclusion of a valid argument can all be false.
Hypathia
The renowned philosopher who lived and worked in the Greek city of Alexander in the fifth century was
Which of the following are accepted by both Locke and Berkeley?
The self
What is the Academic skeptic's position? What is wrong with Academic Skepticism?
The skeptic claims absolute denial of knowledge itself and that we cannot know anything. This violates the law of Non-Contradiction AND is self-refuting (cannot claim to know what is not known)
What does Descartes mean when he claims that the soul is unextended?
The soul is not in space
Aesthetics
The study of beauty and art
Ontology
The study of being as such
logic
The study of correct reasoning is called _______
Epistemology
The study of knowledge
How is ethics best defined?
The study of moral principles
Ethics
The study of moral value (right and wrong)
Metaphysics
The study of reality
metaphysics
The study of reality in the broadest sense, an inquiry into the elemental nature of the universe and the things in it, is known as
Logic
The study of right reasoning
Value - Theory
The study of value
metaphysics
The study of what lies beyond physics - the unmeasurable, the non-empirical as in the first principles of things, or abstract ideas, or beliefs about being, nature and existence.
What did Plato come up with?
The theory of ideas
What is occasionalism?
The view that God directly causes interaction on the occasion of a mental event
What is empiricism?
The view that knowledge is founded on sensory experience
Interactionism
The view that mental and physical events are distinct but interact with each other (this was Descartes's view)
Parallelism
The view that mental and physical events are separate and do not interact, but merely occur in parallel (like two wound-up clocks chiming at the same time)
Dualism
The view that mental events and physical events are distinct.
Substance Dualism
The view that mind and body are two distinct types of substance (Descartes again).
What is phenomenalism?
The view that perceptions are in the mind, without any reference to the external world.
Epiphenomenalism
The view that physical events can cause mental events but mental events are causally inert.
What is direct realism?
The view that the external world is perceived directly
pluralism
The view that there are many sources of value, with the problem of how to choose between them (linked with ethical relativism).
What is rationalism?
The view that we can know things apart from experience by an intuition of the mind.
Some Conclusion indicators are...?
Therefore, hence, thus, so, we may, infer, consequently, it follows that..
The Cosmological and Teleological Arguments are what kinds of arguments—a priori or a posteriori? What kind of "theology" do they employ—natural or revealed theology?
These arguments are both A Posteori because they are based on evidence derived from sense experience. These are based on Natural Theology [and revealed?]
true
This classic argument, "The Bible says that God exists; the Bible is true because God wrote it; therefore, God exists", is an example of begging the question.
Socrates' final speeches
To those who voted for his death. - The jurymen will be blamed, bearing the responsibility for his death. He prophesies - His own reputation will benefit from their ill treatment of him.
Which of the following usually count as secondary qualities?
Touch
A good deductive argument is said to be sound.
True
According to Miller's text, awareness of morality comes through sense experience.
True
According to the class lectures, belief and truth are both necessary and sufficient to constitute knowledge
True
An argument is not synonymous with persuasion.
True
Aquinas thinks that an infinite series of causes is repugnant to reason.
True
Aristotle says that virtue is a mean lying between two vices
True
From the fact that cultures have divergent moral beliefs on an issue, it does not logically follow that there is no objective moral truth
True
Knowledge is always?
True
On behalf of God's existence, St. Thomas' Five Ways are all based on the Bible
True
Paley says that if we found a watch and examined it closely, we would naturally infer that it had a maker -- even if we had never seen a watch made.
True
Philo declares that this world might have been the faulty product of an inexperienced deity.
True
Rowe says that most philosophers who have considered Anselm's argument have rejected it because they believe it tries to define something into existence.
True
In logic in general we must separate..?
Truth issues from reasoning issues - Particularly when judging arguments to be valid or invalid.
objective truth
Truth that is independent of our beliefs; moral truth derives from natural features of the world which are empirically measurable or derived from shared characteristics of human beings, such as desires, experiences or a common nature.
Which of the following is the origin of substance?
Two Latin words meaning to stand under
Causation
Two-clocks theories imply that _______ between mind and body is never observed but projected into existence.
serve his or her own self interest
Universal ethical egoism is the theory that everyone ought always to
The Polis
Urban planning as a display of cultural values
Ethics and aesthetics can be viewed as subfields of
Value-theory
"A man is the measure of all things" is an expression of what kind of ethical system?
Virtue Ethics
What ethical theory did Jesus most closely adhere to?
Virtue epistemology: character and inner virtues; character, commands (love God, love neighbor); consequences
moral states
Virtues are
Hume contends that morality would lose its regulatory force on human conduct if we were to lose two qualities. What are they?
Warm feelings for virtue and disgust for vice.
Which of the following beliefs did Descartes hold concerning innate ideas?
We are born with them.
ONLY by being faithful to principles of virtue and justice
We can live a good life
What is the first question Augustinian asks?
What is God?
The second problem Augustinian dealt with was the problem of time.
What is Time, actually? What is eternity? More then one time? Past, present, future - The present of past things, is the memory. - The present of present things is direct perception - The present of future this is expectation Time is inherent in the created intellect It is a creation of created things.
What is the problem of self-identity?
What makes a person the same person over time
What is the problem of self-identity?
What makes a person to be the same person over time?
Inductive Arguments
When an argument claims merely that the truth of its premises make it likely or probable that its conclusion is also true, it is said to involve an inductive inference.
Deductive Arguments
When an argument claims that the truth of its premises guarantees the trite of its conclusion, (it is said to involve a deductive inference.)
For Descartes, when is an intuition most likely to be wrong?
When not clearly and distinctly perceived
enumerative deduction
When we arrive at a generalization about an entire group of things after observing just some members of the group, we are making a(n) _______
Impossible
William James maintains that it is ________ in practice to remain purely and neutrally agnostic on the question of the Supreme Being.
How did philosophy begin?
With Greek philosophy "schools"
conclusion indicator words
Words such as consequently, therefore, and as a result are
"If you studied hard you will pass the test. But since you didn't, you won't." Discern the validity of this argument.
You can get lucky and pass a test without studying.
axiology
______ is the study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral value.
Aposteriori
_______ Atheism maintains that the nonexistence of a SB can be proved by appeal to reliable sources of knowledge, but is not strictly a truth of reason.
Ethical absolutism is probably
a better response than ethical relativism, since it is not self refuting.
In the excerpt from Dostoyevsky, Ivan exemplifies unjust suffering by relating a story of
a child torn to pieces by a general's dogs.
St. Thomas's second proof is
a cosmological proof.
telos
a goal or purpose
According to Kant, nothing can be called "good" without qualification except _____
a good will
an argument
a group of statements in which one of them is meant to be supported by the others
Marx considers religion
a human invention.
Kierkegaard likens the motivation for accepting Christianity to
a leap of faith.
Counterexample
a particular case that refutes a general claim. The discovery of a black swan refutes the general claim that all swans are white therefore is a counterexample to that claim
a priori versus a posteriori
a priori may be known independent of any experience other than the experience of learning language in which the proposition is expressed. a posteriori is known on the basis of experience. Ex. the proposition that all bachelors are unmarried is a priori, and the proposition that it is raining outside now is a posteriori.
A paradox is best defined as
a self-contradictory conclusion drawn from seemingly acceptable premises.
An argument is best defined as
a set of propositions from which a view may arise or be defended.
Nietzsche considers the New Testament as
a sin against the spirit.
Hume would best be considered
a soft determinist.
Biconditional
a statement of the form "P if and only if Q" or some related form, usually written in symbolic logic as "P ← → Q"
St. Thomas's fifth proof is
a teleological proof.
Kant says that when trying to decide whether an action is morally permissible, we must ask if we can consistently will that the maxim of our action should become _____
a universal law
deductive arguments
arguments intended to give logically conclusive support to their conclusions so that if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true
inductive arguments
arguments that are supposed to give probable support to their conclusions
Part of the task of philosophy is to
arrive at general truths about almost everything.
______ is the study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral value.
axiology
When we arrive at a generalization about an entire group of things after observing just some members of the group, we are making a(n) _______
enumerative deduction
"In order to know God one must experience him" is a(n) _________________ claim.
epistemological
For subjectivists, everyone's moral views are
equally plausible
In the moral life, feelings are _____
essential and inevitable
The best definition for causal determinism is that
every event has a sufficient natural cause.
"Metaphysical naturalism" is the view that states
everything relates to nature
According to Augustine, for God,
evil does not exist.
Kant objects to the ontological proof because
existence is not a real property.
According to Sartre, what is the central tenet or focus of existentialism?
existence precedes essence we are condemned to be free..to be free means to be unconditioned by any moral law or eternal laws
How does existentialism and humanism relate to one another?
existentialism is a challenge to traditional morality, the rules and ways of thinking that we normally associate with right and wrong humanism is the exaltation of humanity as the source and criterion of all value and meaning
Anselm assumes that a being that exists in reality in greater than a being that
exists only in the understanding
Anselm assumes that a being that exists in reality is greater than a being that ___________.
exists only in the understanding
A valid argument occasionally has true premises and a false conclusion.
false
An argument is a boisterous or loud exchange of opinions
false
An ontological proof is an argument based on design.
false
Aristotle considers sentiment as foundational for ethics.
false
Descartes is a direct realist.
false
Eliminative materialism seeks to reduce the mental to the physical.
false
Ethics is the study of knowledge.
false
Hume believes that the order and perfection in the world appealed to by the teleological argument is obvious.
false
Hume contends that reason is essential for deriving moral principles.
false
Hume posits a transcendental ego as the basis for self-identity.
false
In the Dostoyevsky excerpt, Ivan thinks that the suffering of children can and will be atoned for.
false
Kierkegaard uses paradox and passion to add his support to the proofs for the existence of God.
false
Marx argues that Christianity glorifies all that is contemptible in human nature.
false
Philosophy is best defined as the discipline that makes you wise.
false
Representational realism is the view that we perceive the external world exactly as it is.
false
Tillich believes moving faith beyond reason is wrong because it turns God into "only a symbol."
false
A fairly close synonym for accidents is
features
According to Swinburne, the simplicity of a scientific theory is a matter of its having
few component laws
According to Aristotle, we always desire happiness ______
for its own sake
"I saw three birds here and they were all red. All the birds here must be red!" This reasoning is an example of
hasty induction
A major problem with Descartes' argument is that
he seems to assume God in order to prove God.
According to Hick, the divine purpose could not be forwarded in a world that was designed as a
hedonistic paradise
Moral as opposed to nature evil is due to_____.
human beings
Freud argues that an illusion is derived from
human wishes.
The existentialist solution to the paradox of freedom is best characterized as
humans as agents must be regarded as free.
"Well, we can ignore your argument from the start, since it's clear that you have a lot to lose if you're wrong!" This reasoning is guilty of
ignorance
According to Aquinas, an infinite regress of causes is______.
impossible
strong arguments...
inductive arguments succeed in lending probable support to their conclusions..
What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning? What is the difference between the conclusions provided in deductive and inductive arguments?
inductive: the conclusion is not guaranteed deductive: true or false
Some design arguments are framed as
inferences to the best explanation
The Ontological Argument- Anselm
is an attempt to prove the existence of God a priori by examining the definition of the term "God". He claims that anyone who accepts the definition of God as the greatest being possible must accept that God exists, because a non-existent God would not be as great as an existent God.
A pantheist holds that God
is identical to the universe.
Craig says an actually infinite number of things_______.
is impossible
Critics of Kant say that he
is too inflexible in his moral principles by not allowing exceptions.
A deist holds that God
is unconcerned with human beings.
In Augustine's view, if something is deprived of all good,
it becomes nonexistent.
Phenomenalism differs from representational realism in that
it claims that our perceptions do not necessarily represent an external world.
An objection to Thomas's first proof is that
it is not impossible to have an infinite series of movers.
Kant's basic principle of morality is called the "Categorical Imperative", what does he mean by this concept?
it isn't concerned with what you do but how you do it, since if the "how" is right, the right will be right; it doesn't address specific moral issues but the nature of morality itself; it doesn't presecribe the righteness or wrongness of particular actions but what makes any action wrong
Burgess worries about determinism because
it robs man of the choice to be good.
Bentham and Mill use all the following as synonyms for pleasure except
joy.
Criticism of utilitarianism..
makes exceptions for actions that we might deem immoral.
Nietzsche believes the death of God
makes the horizon look free with new expectations.
Hick believes that such evils as poverty, oppression, persecution, and war are
manifestations of human sin
Main principle of utilitarianism
maximize the good for the most people
Imperative
means command
Greek arete
means excellence
Eudaimonia
means happiness or human flourishing in Greek
Shaffer argues against Smart's view of the mind on the grounds that
mental events are not in space, but physical events are.
The logical behaviorist would contend that
mental terms really express dispositions to act in certain ways.
"Everything is made out of water" is a(n) _____________ claim.
metaphysical
The study of reality in the broadest sense, an inquiry into the elemental nature of the universe and the things in it, is known as
metaphysics
4 main divisions of philosophy...
metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic
Impartiality
moral principles apply to everyone equally
Virtues are
moral states
Another name for direct realism is
naive realism.
According to Hick, a certain amount of evil in the world is
necessary
According to Anselm, God is a
necessary being
"Barking dogs don't bark" violates the law of ___________.
non-contradiction
According to Kant, to say that something exists is to
not add any additional property to it
A posteriori
not knowable without resource sense to sense experience
Circumstantial Ad Hominen
occurs when someone attacks a claim by saying that the person making the claim is only making it because it's in his/her interest or because of his/her circumstances. Ex. Paula argues that more girls should serve on the student council. Nate says that she only believes that because she is a girl.
Augustine considers corruptible objects
of limited goodness.
Most empiricists locate secondary qualities in the perceiver because
of their subjectivity and their separability from the objects themselves.
The word metaphysics comes from two Greek words meaning
placed beyond the physics.
Utilitarianism
places all the emphasis on the outcome of the action (consequentialist)
A theist would conceive of God as
possessing personal aspects.
Two attributes of God implicated by the problem of evil are
power and goodness
Aristotle believes that moral virtues can best be acquired through
practice and habit
In an argument, the statement being supported is the conclusion, and the statements supporting the conclusion are the
premises
An argument can be divided into
premises and conclusion.
A "sound" argument is one that is both ___________.
premises are true, valid in form, and has a conclusion which follow the premise
Entailment
proposition p entails proposition q iff it is absolutely impossible for p to be true a q to be false
Ethical altruism is probably most consistent with
psychological egoism.
Pascal believes that when it comes to the question of God's existence
reason can decide nothing
Learning, for Plato, amounts to
recollection
According to Hume, morality is determined by
sentiment.
Universal ethical egoism is the theory that everyone ought always to
serve his or her own self-interest
According to Paley, we must conclude that a watch had an intelligent designer if the watch
shows purposefulness
Nietzsche considers Christianity as
siding with the weak and base
Anselm defines God as
that than which nothing greater can be thought.
A question-and-answer dialogue in which propositions are methodically scrutinized to uncover the truth is know as
the Socratic method
The Kalam Cosmological argument argues from what feature or characteristic of the universe
the Universe either began to exist or has no beginning; the universe either has a cause or is uncaused; the universe is personal or inpersonal
Wonder
the basic mood of the philosopher.
Moral objectivism
the belief that morality is real & not something simply made up
Moral absolutism
the belief that there are no exceptions to moral rules.
Epiphenomenalism contends that
the body can act on the mind, but the mind cannot act on the body.
Philosophy is best defined as
the discipline that teaches us how to articulate, hold, and defend our beliefs.
appeal to popularity
the fallacy of arguing that a claim must be true because most people agree with it
false dilemma
the fallacy of arguing that since there are only two alternative to choose from, one of them must be right
composition
the fallacy of rejecting a statement because it stems from a wrong inference from the parts to the whole
begging the question
the fallacy of trying to prove a conclusion by using that very same conclusion as support
slippery slope
the fallacy that is arguing erroneously that a particular action should not be taken because it will lead inevitably to other actions resulting in some dire outcome.
According to J.S. Mill, happiness consists of_____.
the higher pleasures in life.
For Kant....
the intrinsic rightness or wrongness of the action is what counts
Act Utilitarians focus on...
the isolated act that can achieve happiness for someone
The mind/brain identity theory states that
the mind is the same as the brain.
a priori
the ontological for the existence of God
Descartes dealt with the problem of interaction by positing that interaction occurred in
the pineal gland.
Subjective relativism
the theory that morality depends solely upon what an individual happens to think
Historical relativism
the theory that morality is simply a by-product of our historical time period
Cultural relativism
the theory that morality is simply by-product of our cultural upbringing
Socrates said that _____________.
the unexamined life is not worth living
Another point of Cartesian epistemology often attacked is
the view concerning innate ideas.
Psychological egoism
the view that people are naturally selfish
The function argument
the way Aristotle determines the goal of human life
Paley says that every indication of contrivance & design that exists in the watch exists in _________.
the works of nature
An attempt to explain the presence of evil and suffering in the world is called
theodicy.
Monotheism is the view which states that _______________ .
there is ONE God
Ethics of Care focuses on...
those personally closest to us
One traditional reply to the problem of evil is
to account for evil as a result of misuse of free will.
In Dostoyevsky's story, what punishment does the naive Alyosha agree is appropriate for the general?
to be shot
In philosophy, substance can be used in all the following ways except
to indicate accumulated wealth.
The method of philosophy is
to proceed rationally through reasoning and argumentation.
Descartes holds the immaterial soul theory of self-identity.
true
Descartes uses his cogito argument to provide himself with a foundational belief.
true
Epistemology is the theory of knowledge.
true
Ethical egoism is the claim that everyone ought to act in his or her own interest.
true
Freud likens religion to wish fulfillment.
true
Gaunilo objects to St. Anselm's ontological proof.
true
Joseph Butler argues against psychological egoism.
true
Leibniz's explanation of the interaction of substances ultimately leads to a denial of the reality of efficient causes.
true
Logical behaviorism holds that mental events are just dispositions to behave in a certain way.
true
Reasoning is employing good arguments.
true
Skepticism is the position that one can never really know anything.
true
The problem of evil is often posed in order to disconfirm belief in God.
true
Thomas uses five different proofs for the existence of God.
true
Pascal says that if you bet that God exists, and he does in fact exist
you win infinite happiness and lose nothing
Pascal says that if you bet that God exists, and he does in fact exist________.
you win infinite happiness and lose nothing
