Philosophy Exam

Explain the following souls/constitutions: Aristocracy, Timocracy, Oligarchy, Democracy

Aristocracy: rule by the best-namely the rulers, individual is ruled by Reason- this allows the state and soul to be just, something good in and of itself bc it is healthy, balanced, harmonious Timocracy: rule by Spirit, eventually the Rational part will lose its ability to be completely in charge, the spirited part of the should starts to take over- a need for honor, victory, accolades Oligarchy: rule by Necessary Appetites, need for security, shelter, wealth, Rational part of the should is being utilized primarily to acquire wealth, main concern is for security- state becomes very out of balance, bc wealth gets hoarded-creates division in the state democracy: rule by Unnecessary (Legal) Appetites, eventually basic needs aren't enough, want expensive materials, Reason is still in play but we are so easily distracted, we have good intentions but we are pulled by our appetites- actual democracy is all about appealing to appetites (photos)

Explain Aristotle's epistemological and metaphysical views. How do his views differ from Plato? Refer to the hand gestures in Raphael's painting, The School of Athens.

Aristotle is gesturing to the middle, gesturing to the world as if it were. -thought knowledge/reality were to be found in the world where we live (P. believed true reality/truth lies outside this world) -metaphysical theory: A. didn't like P. dualistic conception of reality, he didn't climate the notion of forms but he did say the forms are not distinct from the objects themselves, No Form Without Matter-No Matter Without Form epistemological views: A. believed our knowledge is gained from experience and we experience the world of objects to formulate our idea of forms or universals, P. believed were born w it, (photos)

Explain Plato's metaphysical dualism using both the Allegory of the Cave and the Divided Line.

Dualistic Theory of Reality divided into 2 realms: realm of becoming (realm that we are in) and realm of being (realm of relevant forms). (notes) -allegory of the cave: compares ppl who do not know theory of forms to prisoners in a cave that think shadows are real until one is freed and goes into the real world to realize those shadows are from actual objects -divided line: just shows that the realm of being is higher, then a line to divide, then the realm of becoming is on bottom p. 205 in republic

Why does Plato have a low view of art?

because art can be taken as the truth but it is not. maybe something to do with theory of forms

Why is Thales' prediction of an eclipse thought to be the beginning of philosophy? And what are the assumptions implicit in his metaphysical theory that everything is water?

-Because he exhibited excessive thinking, figured humans could figure out the world thru reason and their experience (notes and photos) -assuming reality was spiritual in nature and that there had to be a first cause for everything (more in photos and notes)

What are the two views of justice that are presented by Glaucon and Adeimantus? How does the "Myth of the Ring" illustrate the "common view" of justice?

-Glaucon brings up instrumental goods and intrinsic goods, he says the common view of justice is instrumental -Adeimantus?? -The "Myth of the Ring" illustrates the common view of justice by essentially saying if there are no consequences, than you will do whatever u want ?

Explain the differing metaphysical views of Parmenides and Heraclitus. How do the Pluralists and/or Democritus reconcile these two?

-H thought that constant change/flow was the most basic characteristic of nature, everything changes therefore knowledge is impossible. -P reasoned change is impossible therefor the world appears to us as an illusion- there cannot be many things, only one thing. No way to separate "what is" Second part of question?? -Democritus recognizes an ambiguity, there is a difference between "nothing" and "no thing"...?

What are Parmenides conclusions about the nature of reality and what are the implications? How does Parmenides student, Zeno, illustrate the problem of appearance vs. reality in his argument against motion?

-Parmenides thought that everything that exists had always existed, thought there was no such thing as change. -he uses paradoxes??

Fully explain functionalism and specifically computer functionalism or Strong AI. Why is/was this view so exciting for philosophers and scientists of the mind?

-funct. is the view that what token brain states have that makes them mental states is a certain kind of function in the overall behaviorism of the organism. -computer functionalism: numerous discoveries and advancements in computation created a new model for the mind, maintain that the brain is intrinsically a digital computer -exciting bc there could be a universal Turing machine that could implement any program and stimulate any other machine-a digital computer could be objectively universal. The Turing test gives us proof of the presence of cognitive capacities. (photos)

How does he solve the problem of skepticism from Meditation One and why does he use the example of wax at the end of Meditation Two? What new problem is he left with at the end of Mediation Two?

-he realizes that even if there is an evil genius deceiving him, there is something being deceived- even if everything can be doubted, there is something doing the doubting- realizes he exists. -wax example is to reaffirm that his existence as a thinking thing is his most clear/distinct idea, he realizes that his senses can't process all those changes and realizes it is the thru the MIND that we process everything -new problem: Solipsism (photos)

Explain logical behaviorism and the problem of circularity it faces, as well as the significance of the following joke as a critique: What did one behaviorist say to the other behaviorist after making love? It was good for you, how was it for me?

-logical behaviorism is the view that a statement about a persons "belief" or "feeling" are logically equivalent to statements about behavior. -problem of circularity: we do not really reduce the belief to behavior, we reduced it to behavior plus desire, which still leads us to the mental state that needs to be analyzed -significance of the joke is that they claim behavior is all that there is when it comes to us, no possible way to fake anything is logical behaviorism is true. (photos)

How must the philosophers be educated and what does it ultimately mean to live the good life, according to Plato?

-primary ed. in musical and physical training and elementary math is followed 2 or 3 years of compulsory physical training, 10 years of education in math sciences, 5 years of training in dialectic, and 15 years of practical political training. -after this they are ready to see the good itself and to be philosopher kings -good life??

What is Socrates' dialectical process for discovering truth? What are the requirements for effective dialectic and why doesn't Euthyphro fulfill these requirements?

-proposal>questions>difficulties>new proposal (circular method) -requirements: participants must say what he/she truly believes, participant must not be dogmatic, must be humble in beliefs (photos) -Euthyphro is at least honest, but he is not humble at all (thinks he knows everything), he becomes dogmatic when there about to get to some sort of def. of piety bc he couldn't deal with the notion of somehow improving the gods.

What sorts of assumptions would you have, and what sorts of difficulties would you encounter if you happened to be an astronomer during the Middle Ages?

-that the earth is at the center, there are only 7 planets, that the planets move in circular orbits... -difficulties with no motivation to provide detailed, mechanistic explanations that would characterize modern science, Church controlling knowledge and science, fear of excommunication and deaths, logical and theological arguments prevailed over observation

According the Aristotle, what are the four causes (or "becauses") that must be considered when attempting to know or understand why something is what it is?

1. The Formal Cause-a things form 2. The Material Cause-a things matter 3. The Efficient Cause-what brings something into existence 4. The Final Cause-a things goal, aim, end, purpose, telos

What are the Four Main Questions in philosophy?

1. What is the Nature of Reality? 2. What can we know? 3. How should we behave? 4. How should we be governed? (all details in beginning of notes)

Fully explain the various revolutionary waves of the kallipolis that will make it the most beneficial and unified state.

1. what is the role of women in this state? (P. feminism) -men and women have the same soul, there are no man or women jobs 2. Is this state beneficial? (P. communism) -state will be complete unity, babies will be raised in common, unity will help in times of war 3. Is this state possible? (P. philosopher king) -S. says were creating something theoretically perfect but might be possible if a philosophy. becomes a ruler

How does Aristotle critique Plato's revolutionary ideas in the Republic?

A. thinks P. revolutionary political ideas are too far radical, need to tone it down and find the golden mean. -against Platos feminism, communism, philosopher rules

What is Searle's solution to the Mind-Body problem and how does he think it avoids both materialism and dualism?

Brains Cause Minds-Biological Naturalism. (photos) p.79 in Mind book. -Searle says his argument is neither materialism nor dualism. He agrees w the materialists- the universe is entirely made up of physical particles that exist in fields of force and are often organized into systems. He disagrees w materialists- they wrongly maintain that consciousness is.. -agrees w the dualists-they are irreducible mental phenomena. he disagrees w the dualists- they wrongly maintain that consciousness is therefore not part of the ordinary physical world

Explain Searle's Chinese Room argument against functionalism, the possible response(s) to his argument, and Searle's explanation for why these counter arguments fail. How does Searle advance his criticism of Functionalism with his observer relative and observer independent distinction?

Chinese Room: In Box, Out Box. similar to how a translation program works. It is only syntax, not semantics that is occurring. -functionalists respond (photos) -observer independent: think of things that would exist regardless of what humans thought or did. like force, mass, gravitational pull, etc. All of these are observer independent bc their existence does not depend on human attitudes. -observer relative: but there are lots of things that are dependent on our attitudes. like money, property, gov., football games, are what they are because that's what we think they are. (photos)

What is the goal of the Meditations? What would Descartes need to establish to accomplish this? (Hint: it's to prove that the material world exists) Describe the overall process by which Descartes does this from knowing nothing, to avoiding the problem of solipsism, to knowing the essence of matter to knowing the existence of matter.

Goal: to discover truth, to establish a firm and lasting foundation for scientific knowledge -he needs to prove that the material world exists, that matter exists -starts off knowing nothing and doubting everything, realizes he exists, has a key realization that there must be at least as much reality in the cause of an idea as there is in the effect-knows that he exists, god exists, and that God is the source of his existence, tackles on why he makes mistakes, he realizes the essence of matter is extended in space, essence of matter is extension, divisible

How does Magee (handout) explain the problem of perception? How does he describe the solutions of the following philosophers: Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume?

He asks questions like: If all I can experience are mental states, then what warrant do I have for believing that anything exists other than mental states? How can I ever know that the representations of objects that I have as mental states actually correspond to the objects I am supposedly perceiving? How can we know that we aren't wrong about the real color or shape we are perceiving? Hume: deep and detailed in his understanding of how difficult the problems are, says although we can't know 100% that a material world exists away from us, we cannot live as skeptics and we have to learn to revise our expectations about anything that claims to be absolutely true. Descartes: believed he could prove there is a perfect being, he believed the greater could not be conceived by the less, human experience itself cannot directly guarantee the existence of the external world.. Locke: give common sense over deductive logic; distinguished between "secondary" and "primary" qualities (p. 95 on problem of perception reading) Berkeley: reality takes precisely the form that it appears to us to take, namely experience. All that is, exists in the mind of God and God is everywhere all the time.

How does Book IX help to answer the challenge put forth by Glaucon and Adeimantus in Book II and address Thrasymachus' definition of justice as the "advantage of the stronger"?

In book 4 Socrates clarifies the goal of Kallispolis which is to make everyone as happy as his nature allows. (sum. of book 4 beg. of book) -second part of question?

What does Socrates do in response to the oracle's claim that there is no one wiser than he? Why does he do this and how does it ultimately lead to his conviction in the court?

Not sure on this one?? -S. feels like its his duty to start philosophy and to ask questions to figure out why he's considered the wisest person. - he almost gets convicted of being a sophist but he's very much anti-sophist and anti-rhetoric, he ends up becoming a scapegoat for Athens

What are the assumptions about philosophers for Socrates' audience? How does he use parable of the ship to make his case for the philosophers?

Philosphers are corrupt/evil and viewed as useless. He tells a story about a shipowner (notes) to prove these views are the result of society not philosophers. (photos)

Explain Nagel's and Jackson's criticisms of functionalism. How would/does the materialist respond or defend his/her point of view? Why does Searle think that these responses are inadequate?

Thomas Nagel: What is it like to be a bat? There is a "what is it like" aspect that any strictly third person objective leaves out. Even if we completly replicate bat behavior we still could only know what it is like for US to be a bat, not what it is like for a bat to be a bat. Frank Jackson: What Mary Didn't Know. imagine a neurobiologist who knows everything is there is to know about seeing the color red. But she is color blind. Isn't there something that is missing? (photos)

Why doesn't Socrates escape from prison when he is given the chance? Explain your answer with reference to the following arguments from the Crito: The argument from analogy, the argument from agreement, and persuade, obey, or destroy.

a) arg. from analogy: the state is analogous to your family, so to bring harm to laws/state is the same thing as harming your family b) arg. from agreement: fulfill just agreements, your presence in a comm./state/country means that you've signed a contract to follow the laws, for socrates case you agree to follow her verdicts c) persuade, obey, or destroy: you have two choices- either you persuade the state as the nature of justice OR obey the state... if you don't persuade or obey, you just destroy the state.

Fully explain Anselm's ontological argument as well the criticisms put forth by Gaunilo and Kant.

argument for the existence of God from the being of God. An A Priori argument. Premise 1, 2, 3, 4 on photos. Gaunilo criticism: comes up w this idea of a perfect island but A. says in order for this island to be the greatest, it must actually exist. A. says he's not talking about the greatest island, we can think of greater things-A. is talking about is that than which NOTHING greater can be thought. Kant criticism: says existence is not a predicate or a property and A. is treating existence like it is. Predicates explain or enhance the concept of the subject- K. says A. is treating existence like a property that is added to the subject of God. (photos)

What does Thrasymachus mean when he defines justice as "what is advantageous to the stronger"?

he means, "might makes right"

What does Plato think Justice consists of—in the individual soul and in the state—and how does this explain the notion that justice/morality is an intrinsic good?

individual soul: has 3 parts- appetitive, spirited, and rational (notes) in the state: producers, auxiliaries, rulers -justice is an intrinsic good when the just state is the healthy state and the just soul is the healthy soul (notes) clarification not too sure??

What is the tyrannical individual like, according to Socrates, and why is the tyrant miserable?

ruled by unnecessary (illegal) appetites, rational part disappears, many headed monster -miserable bc 1) Tyrant is actually a slave. 2) Tyrant uses pleasure with the absence of pain. 3) Tyrant isn't in a position to know pleasure (notes)

What was Descartes concerned with wiping the slate clean in order to provide a firm and lasting foundation for the sciences? Describe the process by which Descartes thereby comes to doubt everything in Meditation One.

what was he concerned with? stage 1 of doubt: doubting the senses in general stage 2: doubting senses in particular stage 3: evil genius argument at the end of Med. 1 he knows less then when he started