Philosophy Final Exam

What is Cartesian Dualism?

Descartes dualism: there are two fundamental substances in the universe. He focuses on sensory and things that we perceive in our mind " Descartes metaphysical view that there is a real substantial view between the mind and body"

Why is the subject-object dichotomy ultimately unfounded? How does the notion of "pure" or "direct" experience figure into this conclusion? You may use a diagram to help answer this question.

"Pure" or "direct" experience for Nishida: experience of the world prior to our reflection(pre-reflective). Experience itself does not abide by our prefabricated theories/ systems of representation. Pure experience rejects that subject-object are actually constitutive(make up/part of) our experience.

What is the difference between theism, pantheism, and panentheism? Which view most closely represents Nishida's perspective(highlighted)?

1.(dualism)Theism(mono-):the belief that God is wholly other and transcendent of all material reality 2.(monism)Pantheism: the belief that God is equatable with his creation (pan=all; theism=God) All is God 3.(non-dualism)Panentheism: (en =in) "All is in God"(without being the same) Creation & the creator are not two, but not completely unrelated. God in immanent

What are the four stages of cognition (the four ways of knowing), and why are they organized hierarchically? Provide an example of each of these methods.

4. Imagining(ex. shadows) 3. Belief(objects)ex. trees, rocks2. Thinking(math proofs)ex. laws of nature 1. Understanding (intelligence)ex. beauty, Good (the forms)

What is a priori knowledge, and how does it contrast with a posteriori knowledge? Give two examples for each.

A priori knowledge is knowledge that is before an experience for example syllogism or "Socrates is a man" and posteriori is knowledge that is after or dependent on an experience for example riding a bike or an education.

Define reductionism

Attempt to reduce something that is inexplicable to terms that are more familiar

How is Socrates' manner of argumentation distinguishable from that of his accusers and the Sophists? What bearing might this have with respect to truth-telling as Socrates defines it?

Changing his speech to make you think an argument is being made. He uses plain everyday speech to defend himself.

What is the literal translation of the Daodejing? Break down the title into its constituent parts and then provide the full English translation

Dao: the way De: efficacy Jing: scripture; the classical scripture of the way and its efficacy/virtue

What is the Buddhist concept of dukkha, and how does this concept share a relation with the notion of anatman(Pali:anatta) as the Buddha conceived of it? Provide the literal translation of each of these two Sanskrit words and explain how they fit within the Buddhist worldview.

Dukka: bad horizons(basic sense of suffering); it is something that is felt through all sentient beings. Anatman: no self

What is a Form/Idea? How does it contrast with a particular? Give a specific example for each

Entities that are immaterial but have a reality that is above the reality of material things and their given concepts. However a particular is a representation of a Form/Idea for instance the beautifulness of something and the Form/Idea is beauty

Explain the concepts of epistemic difference and ontological (or metaphysical) difference and how each might apply to the existence of consciousness.

Epistemic difference shows that there is an apparent difference between mind&body and mental&physical while ontological difference shows there is a real categorical difference between mind & physically existing things. They prove the different terms of how consciousness can be fireweed and perceived.

What is the difference between the Intrinsic and Extrinsic models of relatedness? Which is foregrounded in western and non-western cultures? You may use a diagram to help answer this question

Extrinsic is western and deals with the contractual connections while Intrinsic is non-western and has more of an effect left after the experience.

Briefly explain the following three metaphysical views of evil: 1) the Gnostic (Manichaean), 2) the Neoplatonic, and 3) the Monotheistic.

Gnostic: a dualism between the substance of good& that of evil; Neoplatonism: evil that is not a substance, but a privatio boni(lack of good); Monotheism: evil isn't a substance, but it's not nothing, its the result of perversion of the will

According to Nishida, what is the problem with the traditional western (especially scholastic) attempts to "prove" the existence of God? Does Nishida think that God can be proven? If so, explain how

God can be proven but God must be experienced as a fact of direct experience, not as a datum or concept that must rationally deduced

What two features must belong to the notion of transcendence in order to pertain to the Christian conception of God?

God is wholly other, we are able to "know" about God by way of analogy. Analogia entis= analogy of being

What are the two principal aims of human life for Kant and which does Kant prioritize? Why might this be the case?

Happiness/pleasure and the establishment of good will(prioritized). Kant is more focused on moral principle and its priori knowledge

What is wrong with Augustine's initial understanding of God? How does the burning bush narrative from Exodus 3:14 help resolve this misconception? Define the Thomistic term ipsum esse in your response.

He was conceiving God as a substance that is "all pervasive" as a physical light substance. "I am that I am" his presence is that of his activity. He is 'ipsum esse'; the sheer act of "to be" itself (Being)

What is the word Heidegger uses instead of the term "human being"? What does this word mean, and what is the significance of this redefinition?

Heidegger uses the word dasein to describe "human being". Da= there and sein= being so in turn he means 'being there'. With this redefinement he brings there wherever "being" is so you may not be physically there but in a way, mind or spirit, you may be there.

What is the cogito, and what does it mean? Provide the full phrase in English and then explain how it describes Descartes' primary philosophical conclusion (you may want to talk about the "evil genius" to help answer this question).

I think therefore I am" he has to have a mind because there has to be something to be deceived.

Explain Descartes' distinction between impressions and perceptions. Be sure to include what "organ(s)" come(s) to know each of these and their associated functions. Why is perception a more epistemologically solid basis for our knowledge?

Impressions are knowledge we acquire through the senses(view secondary qualities i.e. color, texture,taste)organ: eyes, physical body, anything sensory. Perception is exclusive to the mind, doesn't use senses( determines the essentialness of an object i.e. shape or form, spaciality, quantity in number,etc.)organ: mind . The senses can be fooled and isn't a good basis, our minds can't be fooled how our sense can.

What is the etymological definition of philosophy? In other words, what does philosophy literally translate to in the original Greek?

In greek it is philosophia which means love of wisdom

What is an Archimedean Point? Give the "historical" definition and then explain what it represents for Descartes.

In theory if someone were to find this point, they could lift the earth on their back; he needs to find the "Archimedean point" of his knowledge and will be able to start a new basis of the mind.

Using your understanding of the term a priori, explain the role of reason in Kant's moral theory of deontology. How does this contrast with the function of reason for Mill's utilitarianism?

Kant's deontology is who/what is inherently good or bad is what subscribes to duty in relation to your moral principles. while Mill focuses on what is desirable than that of will.

What similarities are there between the Platonic theory of Forms and the Judeo-Christian notion of God and the divine Logos? Be sure to define what Logos is for Christian philosophy.

Logos: an underlying "patterning" feature of the universe that gives a coherent form to the physical world. Plato: The Good its Logos, for christianity the "word"(logos) is the incarnate God (aka christ). Summum bonum: "the highest Good"

Describe the concepts of reality as revealed versus reality as represented. What role does language play with respect to these?

Reality as revealed is in a way just describing reality as you perceived it without connecting it to an essence or a being just having it how it is, while reality as represented is the opposite where we can use signs or symbols to describe what we are meaning to say kind of like hieroglyphics or how plato talked about forms and ideas

For Augustine, why is the theological virtue of faith understood to be suprarational?

Suprarational: to be "beyond" the limits of reason, while being fully inclusive of it. [not the same as irrational].

What is the mind-body problem, and what is another name for it?

Takes the first fact of our experience and tries to make it into purely physical terms(the problem of subjective experience); hard problem of cit.

How does Nagel, specifically, define the term "consciousness"?

Taking something complex and making it "simple" i.e. reductionism

What are the key differences between how Russell describes the artist, the ordinary person, and the philosopher? Specifically, how do these three kinds of people attempt to "know" a given object? Provide an example for each.

The artist is concerned with appearances and they try to capture what is represented and what actually appears. The ordinary person is concerned with reality and how it is useful to themselves, and the philosopher is concerned with reality in the sense of what the essence underlying the thing.

According to Descartes, what is the Self? That is to say, what kind of "thing" am I? What is the significance of this?

The self is the ego that is an existing thing that must be independent of other objects and other 'selves'. he is a thing is a "thinking thing" (a thing that thinks)"mind"; he gives a sense of self and gives it something that has nothing to do with the physical world.

What are the "original foundations" of knowledge that Descartes believed must be subjected to methodical doubt? Why is this different from systematic, indiscriminate doubting?

The senses,We don't have to doubt the senses; methodical is different because systematic is doubting everything in our lives, while methodical tries to isolate the bad "unreliable" knowledge in our life giving us a new basis to start and is more reliable.

What is the Platonic Tripartite Soul? Give a simple definition and then describe each type of soul that goes into its composition. Be sure to include each part's function, and provide an example of each type of soul.

The three different aspects/souls that are in a being/living thing. There is the rational soul dealing with self reflection that the human being has, the spirited soul that deals with will that any non-human animal has and the appetitive soul that plants and bacterial have

What does the Greek phrase Ti estin mean? What does it have to do with the notion of the nature of reality?

Ti estin means "what is it" as in "what is that". This connects to the appearance reality distinction while it asks the question "what is the nature of a thing" for example what is the nature of a cup.

Why does Socrates think that a fear of death is presumptuous? Additionally, what could death be, in Socrates' opinion?

To fear death is assuming that we know what death is,but we don't; death can be metempsychosis [meta](change) [psyche](soul/mind) transmigration of the soul

What does it mean that all sentient beings are basically interdependent? Defining what this term means, demonstrate how it relates to the Buddhist concept of anatman.

Underneath all the physical things, there is no self

Explain the appearance/reality dichotomy and provide an example of how it is utilized.

When you have to know the reality of an object based on the appearance that it presents itself with; used to discover the essence of things in the world apart from their appearances. All chairs are chairs because they all belong under "chairness" and have the same similarities.

Define ethics (or moral philosophy).

branch of philosophy that brings the question "How should I behave/conduct myself?"

Define wu wei, and describe what the concept attempts to accomplish.

Wu-wei means indifference and it attempts to showcase the un-bias viewpoint when making important decisions

What is the categorical imperative? Provide a definition and then explain how it is used.

act only on that maxim that one can, at the same time, will that it may be made a universal law; our morality is based on our own rational rule and we must act on it and ask if everyone should follow this rule.

Define the Greatest Happiness Principle.

actions are morally "right" that tend to produce happiness, and morally "wrong" that tends to produce unhappiness

Applying the concept of the will, explain what the "human difference" is for human morality. In other words, why is human behavior not reducible to mere animal being?

as a "rational being" we are able to follow a law that helps us attempt to be morally good and have human conduct

What is the atman, and how does it figure into the metaphysical personality known as Brahman? Be sure to define the words Brahman and yoga in your response.

atman=self; Brahman(supreme Godhead of the Hindu tradition) is represented in a triad and represents anything that is, has been, or can come to be. A complete union(yoga) of atman with Brahman would be the goal of Hindu life.

For Nishida, why is God a thoroughly immanent reality, as opposed to a transcendent one?

because is he is experienceable in the world.

Explain why consequentialism might be understood as morally relativistic.

consequentialism could be understood as morally relativistic because they both are dependent on the circumstances and the result

What is deontology, and why is it considered a form of moral absolutism? Be sure to define both terms.

deontology: the position to which actions and behaviors are considered good or bad innately, and not dependent on the outcome; moral absolutism: the moral theory that suggest that the morality of actions is not dependent on the consequences of those actions, its a form because ones actions aren't judged solely based on the outcome or consequences

Who is Jeremy Bentham, and in what two ways does Mill's utilitarianism differ from his earlier theory of utility?

he is known for utilitarian calculus that calculates utility with different categories of pleasures.

What is the literal translation of karma? Describe how this concept is different from our common western understanding of it.

karma=action; morally weighted action that produces discernible effects on the fabric of realty. Its different from being good or bad but, each action will have a series of unintended consequences that are impossible to predict.

What is moral concupiscence?

man's tendency to sin

What is Manichaeism?

metaphysical belief that believes that there is a supernatural realm of light and a material realm of darkness

What is the difference between primary and secondary qualities? Provide two examples for each.

primary qualities are "corporeal in nature" that is bodily not physicality, for example form/shape and quantity, while secondary qualities are changeable and dependent on the body and its 5 senses, ex. color flavor smell

What are the "two pillars" of Platonic metaphysics?

the immorality of the rational soul and the objects of rational knowledge are both real and immutable

For Nagel, why is it that an increase in the objectivity of a view takes us "further away" from the reality of a phenomenon and not closer?

the more objective our knowledge becomes the more we must neglect/ not acknowledge what it is like to be an existing thing (w/cit.) ex. bird chirping— a wave phenomenon

What is the physical object that Plato uses as an analogy for the Good? Explaining how the notion of intelligibility applies, what is the significance of this analogy? You may provide a diagram to help answer the question.

the physical object he uses is the "sun".

What is anamnesis?

the process by which knowledge is recollected and such knowledge is already contained in the soul

Using your understanding of the terms nirvana and samsara, explain the primary objective of meditative practice, or any practice, in the Buddhist tradition. In other words, what is the reason we ought to commit to Buddhist practice in the first place?

the reason to commit to the Buddhist practice is to go through the cycle of life, death, and reincarnation and to inevitably rid yourself of the unsatisfactory you receive from the present world

How would Christian thinkers such as Augustine and Aquinas define the soul (anima)?

the soul is the form of the physical body, but not in the sense of being contained by it, as containing it

Define Ontology

the study of Being and of being(s)

Define Metaphysics

the study of the nature of reality

What is solipsism?

the view that the only thing that is 'real' is one's own mind

Briefly elaborate on the difference between the philosophical "orientations" of theory and praxis, and provide an example of how each may be applied in actuality.

theory is what is true/real and must be objectively representable; ex. facts must be made into objectively accessible data. Praxis is what is true/real must be experienced like driving a car or learning a skill

What is argumentation by refutation, where is it most often used geographically, and how does it contrast with argumentation by relegation?

two or more mutually opposing positions where one is the clear winner and the other is eliminated by it. It contrast because relegation connects the lesser view into the higher views perspective.

What is Utility, and why does it not simply degenerate into an individualistic hedonism?

utility is happiness, pleasure, and satisfaction; Mill feels like the pleasures of the mind are more conductive to utility and is the opposite of blandly self-interested individualism.

What does the Hindu term varna literally translate to? What is the significance of this term for Brahminical or Vedic religion and culture, and how does the Buddha challenge it?

varnas: color(of ones skin). It is used in the Indian caste systems that categorizes the body, and

What is utilitarianism, and why is it considered a form of consequentialism? Be sure to define both terms.

what is moral is what tends to produce the greatest good for the majority; its a form because it's derived from what is good is dependent on the results achieved by our actions

For Mill, why is it better to be a human being dissatisfied than a beast satisfied? What does this suggest about human happiness as opposed to that of non-human animals?

with satisfaction comes contentment and human pleasure is never fully satisfied. As rational beings it is harder to become satisfied with all pleasures unlike non-human animals that are easily pleasurable.