Philosophy Final Study Guide

Copernicus

Advocated for a heliocentric model of the universe, rejecting the Church's view that the Earth was the center

Anaximenes

Argued everything came from air

Orphism

Believed Bacchus was the son of Zeus and Persephone, when she was in her 6-month term above the underworld Believed that the Titans, jealous of Bacchus, dismembered and ate him • Ate all but his heart • Zeus ate that later Zeus blasted them to pieces with his lightning in revenge From these ashes, he produced the human race Therefore, Humans are part Titan, but also part God, as the parts of Bacchus that the Titans had eaten also ended up in humans • Therefore, they possess a soul Zeus than produced another Bacchus out of his thigh They would try to rid themselves of the Titanic elements through purification • Like not eating animal flesh If pure, after a series of reincarnations, they would reunite with the resurrected Bacchus

Holbach

Believed atoms were the unifying principle Empiricist and monist Believed that all human thought and moral action is the result of an inexorable change of causation caused by the constant flux of atomic motion

Heraclitus

Believed everything was always in flux Believed everything came from fire

Epicurus

Believed in Epicureanism Believed in Democritus's atomic theory but also believed atoms could swerve and move in various directions • Thus, he believed in free will Believed in an early form of empiricism

Deism

Believed that God was the creator but believed he had removed himself from human affairs God existed, but was distant

Democritus

Believed that everything was made of atoms that move in the void Had different shapes and sizes and had hooks and barbs to attach to other atoms Atoms collide and spin Didn't believe in god Mentor: Leucippus Critical of senses • Can be deceptive Must use logic/reason to know the truth

Thales

Believed water is the principle, element of all things Thought the earth was spherical Introduced Geometry

St. Thomas Aquinas

Causal and Teleological Proof • Causal=domino effect, god started • Teleological Proof Do-Purpose created by god

Anaximander

Created first known map of the ancient world Thought that everything came from a single primal substance that was infinite and ageless Established geography as a science Thought humans initially grew inside of fish

Locke

Empiricist Tabula Rasa One of the first enlightenment philosophers

Political Philosophy

Explores the idea of justice and the role of government in society Asks questions like: • Is there an ideal form of government? • Can government be justified? • Is it necessary? • Do humans have political or societal duties?

Aesthetics

Explores the nature of beauty, societal tastes, and artistic value Asks questions like: • What is art? • What is beauty? • Are certain qualities of art universally held? • What is the relationship between art and society?

Epistemology

Explores theories of knowledge and how we know something Asks questions like: • What is knowledge, and how does it differ from opinion? • Does knowledge require certainty, or can something be known without being known for certain? • If knowledge exists, how do we acquire it?

Plotinus

Idealist philosopher Believed in the 3 parts, the one, the Nous, and the Soul • The One and the Nous are similar to Plato's outside world, while the Soul is similar to reality • The One is all seeing, and is the "Good", similar to Brahman of the Hindus o Transcends all • The Nous is translated to the mind o The light by which the one sees itself • We must study our own soul to understand the divine mind, the nous • The Soul, is the author of all living things o Offspring of divine intellect o Inner soul, aiming at the nous o External soul, aiming elsewhere Believed strongly in the beauty of things perceived by the senses, differing from the Gnostics and Plato

Ethics

Investigates ideal conduct and how people determine right from wrong Ask questions like: • What is a good life? • Are there such things as moral duties and obligations that bind us? • That is, is there something we ought to do? • Are values absolute or relative to time and place?

Darwin

Laid groundwork for scientific rejection of god Didn't belief in God or the Christian Bible

Gnosticism

Originated by combining several ancient religions Believed in a dualistic world: • Matter and spirit Believed that Jesus was the savior "Escape" or liberation came from acquiring knowledge The evil god created the world to harm the divine realm • There were people with trapped "God" inside of them, and those w/o God inside of them o Those w/o were made of matter and destined to die • It was the job of the people to free those with "God inside of them Like Hindus in that they believed in multiple gods but that they were parts of the supreme deity Believed in a simulacrum concept: • That the material world was merely a simulation of reality Goal: To understand that god is present in individuals and is present in the universe

Descartes

Proof of god's existence Aquinas and Descartes believed in a greater force

Xenophanes

Rejected idea that gods resembled humans Thought that men naturally create god in their own image

Hume

Scottish dude, part of the Scottish enlightenment You can't know the future, cause all you know happened before Skeptical philosopher

Metaphysics

Study of the "ultimate reality" of existence Explores the nature of mind and matter: • How we know what is real Name comes from the Greek meta: after and phusika: physics or nature (or matter) Asks these big questions: • What is reality? How do we distinguish reality from illusion? • Does God exist? Is it possible to know the truth about God existing? • How did the earth come to be? • Did we live before we were born? Will we live after we die? • Is anything infinite or eternal? Is anything immutable? Soul? Ideas? • Is there order in the world or is everything completely random and arbitrary? • Do we have free will?

Berkeley

Subjective idealist Tree falling, if nobody's there, it wouldn't make a sand, if somebody's there, it would Esse Est Participi Warm water and cold water I see the same color as you cuz of god

Lucretius

Wrote De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things) • Poem about how people could live happier lives Agreed with Epicurus' teachings of atoms swerving Thorough Materialist Also believed with him about religion and that belief in the deities was a reason for unhappiness in the world Uses atomic theory to question the presence of gods • Rejected their participation in the creation Believed in free will

Plato

Wrote The Allegory of the Cave and The Republic A strict idealist: • Believed in an ideal for everything o His forms • Believed that the human world an illusion for the greater ideas Republic: • Gold=Guardians • Silver=Knights and Priests • Bronze=Peasants Not a fan of democracy Believed in philosopher-kings

Logos

"thought" or "concept", represents the scientific and natural way of seeing the world

Which philosophers are idealists?

- Plato - Plotinus - St. Thomas Aquinas - Descartes - Orphics - Pythagoras - Parmenides

Which philosophers are skeptics?

- Sophists - Protagoras - Pyrrho of Elis - Sextus Empiricus - Hume

Which particular philosopher do we see echoed in this selection from Gilgamesh? "Utnapishtim said, 'There is no permanence. Do we build a house to stand forever, do we seal a contract to hold for all time...does the flood time of rivers endure?'" A. Heraclitus B. Anaximander C. Plato D. Parminedes E. Thales F. A and B

A. Heraclitus

Why did people's philosophical views change during the Middle Ages? A. because the Catholic church outlawed non-religious writing B. because scientific advancement provided evidence for a materialistic philosophy C. because myths and legends became popular once again D. because people became more spiritual and rejected materialism

A. because the Catholic church outlawed non-religious writing

Bacon

Advocated for the empirical method

Who said, "Even if I knew nothing of the atoms, I would venture to assert on the evidence of the celestial phenomena themselves, supported by many other arguments, that the universe was certainly not created for us by divine power: it is so full of imperfection"? A. Democritus B. Lucretius C. Protagoras D. Leucippus E. Baron Paul D'holbach F. Thomas Hobbes

B. Lucretius

This is the branch of philosophy that focuses on knowledge and how and what we can know. A. metaphysics B. epistemology C. ethics D. ontology E. skepticism F. materialism

B. epistemology

Plato combined the ideas of which two philosophers to form his basic metaphysical perspective? A. Socrates, Heraclitus B. Protagorus, Socrates C. Parmenides, Heraclitus D. Thales, Pythagoras F. Leucippus, Democritus G. none of these

C. Parmenides, Heraclitus

hat is the name of the philosophy that sought pleasure and avoided pain and advised followers to not have sexual relations or discuss politics? A. Gnosticism B. epistemology C. epicureanism D. pluralism E. none of these

C. epicureanism

What metaphysical perspective does this selection from "Blackberry Picking" best relate to? A. humanism B. idealism C. Hinduism D. materialism E. dualism F. skepticism We hoarded the fresh berries in the byre. But when the bath was filled we found a fur, A rat-grey fungus, glutting on our cache. The juice was stinking too. Once off the bush the fruit fermented, the sweet flesh would turn sour.

D. materialism

Primary Influencer of Epircurus and Lucretius

Democritus

Explain Descartes's proof that god exists (list the 5 steps in the proof).

Democritus's atomic theory wasn't entirely his own, and was developed in coordination with his mentor Leucippus. Atoms were these indivisible particles that moved around in the Kenon (void). He believed they had hooks and barbs to attach to other atoms and were different, like Lego bricks. He believed they collided and spun in a ceaseless whirring motion that created the world as we know it. He also believed, that something died, the atoms moved on and formed something else. Due to the fact that this atomic motion was ceaseless, and always dependent on something else, he by extension believed we had no free will. He believed that the atoms simply formed from nothing.

_____________________ is a theory which seeks to explain all phenomena in terms of two distinct and irreducible principles.

Dualism

The Greek Atomists were A. Democritus, Thales B. Democritus, Lysander C. Anaximenes, Lysander D. Anaxagoras, Democritus E. Democritus, Leucippus

E. Democritus, Leucippus

Explain the philosophy of epicureanism in 5-7 sentences

Epicureanism believed in the concept of free will, and it's creator Epicurus, had altered Democritus's atomic theory and believed atoms could swerve and turn, representing free will. It advocated freedom from potential pain, and followers abstained from politics, sex, marriage, and religion. They encouraged followers to cultivate meaningful and long-lasting friendships, and go as far as to quit their jobs and follow their desires. They apparently should go live in Epicurean communes where they could do whatever they desired, and not be bound by anything else. In other words, freedom from pain and ill, and following desires and happiness were the central tenants of Epicureanism.

__________________ is the branch of philosophy that investigates ideal conduct and how people determine right and wrong. It explores duty, values, whether Good and Evil exist, and whether morality is relative or universal and unchangeable.

Ethics

cogito, ero sum

I think, therefore I am

rationalistic moral philosophy

If you know what's right, you'll do what's right.

Explain the difference between materialism and idealism and provide an example of each (mention a specific philosopher and his basic beliefs). 6-10 sentences.

Materialism believes that the material world is the only real world and that nothing exists beyond this world. In contrary, Idealism believes that there's an Idea, that was created before the material world. According to them, this idea never changes, and that the material objects that we perceive are merely illusions or crude representations of the Idea. One example of a Materialist philosopher was Heraclitus, who stated that everything was in flux, and that everything was made of fire. In a contrary opinion, Plato, an idealist philosopher, believed that our world was merely an illusion, and there must exist beyond our senses something that doesn't change. This Idea, he described in his Allegory of the Cave, describing it as forms.

Do Not Go Gentle into that Good Night

Materialist • Always stay alive • Keep living

Blackberry Picking

Materialist • Death is inevitable • Rotting of the blackberry represents death • Since you know everything's going to die, you can hope that it will still stay preserved • Every time it dies

Mimnermus in Church

Materialist • Even if heaven exists, he doesn't believe it exists o But if it does, the Christians idea is not a good one • W/o proof, he's going to live on and live life to the fullest • Time will go on and everything will die • Hopeful ending o Enjoy life while you can, cuz everything is going change o If we had everything forever, who cares

Four Preludes on Playthings in the Wind

Materialist • Everything changes • Nothing lasts forever • People have flawed perceptions • Material stuff splits off at the end o The rats then exist, b/c they use their prints

Mutability

Materialist • Everything will change o Heraclitan principles

Thou Famished Grave

Materialist • Keep living, and live life till there's nothing left • Get everything you can get

Gilgamesh

Materialist • Limits of Mankind • Inevitability of Death • Only Physical World Exists o Relatable to the Empiricists, like John Locke • Leave a legacy

Oxymandias

Materialist • Poem about how even Ramses II, the greatest Egyptian military pharaoh, had his great monuments fall into disrepair after time o Relates to Heraclitan principles of change • Time doesn't kill everything, there's some stuff that stay on through legacy • You can leave a legacy

Sonnet 12 + 60

Materialist • Time eats everything • Leave a legacy o Through poems and writing o Or through children

Mythos

Mythic way of thinking, or pattern of beliefs characteristic of a group of people, especially defined by superstition

übermensch

Nietzsch'e ideal and radical individual. He doesn't believe in the afterlife of God and advocates selfishness because he believes altruism and kindness is for the weak. Adopted by Hitler and Nazis.

Explain four different ways to interpret Plato's cave allegory (see "Shadow and Substance" packet) in 6-10 sentences.

One way to interpret the Allegory of the Cave is in a political context, and that politicians and the public are ignorant and corrupt, motivated solely by emotional desires. It can be argued to criticize this method of government, as the people are motivated solely by desire, which is fleeting and is represented by the shadows on the cave. Another way to interpret the Cave Allegory is through the metaphor of a conversion to Christianity's core beliefs. The outside world is when you ultimately abandon desires and learn to live a virtuous life, while the shadows are you before the conversion, when you're still driven by your desires. A third way of seeing this Allegory is through a criticism of science. The people are looking at the wall, using their observations, which is the scientific method; but they're not seeing the truth, so therefore science isn't seeing the true nature of reality. One last way of seeing the Cave Allegory is through the sleep metaphor. The shadows we see in front of our eyes occurs during our sleep and the idea that we need to wake up to see a clear vision of what the world truly is like.

Explain Plato's Theory of Forms in 5-7 sentences.

Plato believed that the forms represented the hidden Idea that Idealism talked about, and in it was the true perfect version of everything. To put it into context, if you have a cookie cutter, that is the form, now when you cut the dough in the shape of the cookie, it's the real world. The real world never comes to truly resemble the nature of the forms, it will always have some sort of imperfection. He believed that our world, represented the Heraclitan world, a world of constant change, but that the world of the Idea was quite different. He believed that this world, was Parmenidian, and that it never changed and always stayed the same. Thus, this represented his dualistic metaphysical philosophy.

Other than Socrates, ______________________ and _________________________ are Greek forerunners of idealism

Plato, Parmenides, Pythagoras

Explain Plotinus' Holy Trinity, what each is and does and how they are different (6-8 sentences).

Plotinus's Holy Trinity is made up of three parts, The One, The Nous, and The Soul. The One represents the all-seeing, and is transcendent above all else. In other words, he's Plotinus's version of the Hindu Brahman. The Nous described as the light of which the One holds itself, and according to Plotinus, we needed to study our soul to understand the divine Nous. The Soul was the offspring of the divine mind, and the author of all living things. It has an internal part, aiming at the Nous, and an external part, that aims elsewhere. He thought the world was an imperfect creation of the least perfect Soul, but believed strongly in the beauty of things perceived by the senses.

. _________________________ said, "With regard to the gods, I cannot feel sure either that they are or that they are not, nor what they are like in figure; for there are many things that hinder sure knowledge, the obscurity of the subject and the shortness of human life"

Protagoras

Beef

Skeptical Is it really beef?

Dog

Skeptical The dog's version of reality

Explain St. Thomas Aquinas' teleological and his causal proofs (6-8 sentences).

Teleological Proof: Each thing in the universe has a place and design The order of the universe cannot be explained without a design or purpose Design and place was created by an intelligent being Therefore, god created this design and purpose Essentially, Aquinas believed that each thing in the universe had a purpose, even dumb things, and an intelligent being had to give them that purpose. Therefore, that intelligent being, God, created the world and gave everything purpose, was what he thought. Similarly, he created a causal proof, which believed in a snowball effect started by god. Each action in the world is started by another, went his initial line of reasoning. Proceeding with his argument, he reasoned about what caused that initial action, that caused everything else, specifically the creation of the world. Thus he argued, there had to be a being before creation, God, that created everything, and started the snowballing of actions that caused everything else. Therefore, his two proofs essentially set out that God truly existed. Causal Proof: Everything in the world is caused by something before it, so he reasoned that god caused the first snowballing, that caused everything else, specifically creation, to happen.

Explain what the Gnostics believed in 5-7 sentences

The Gnostics believed that the human world was created by an evil god trying to bring damage upon the divine realm. The central goal of the religion was to recognize that god is in everything and in everyone. Each person either was made of pure material, and destined to die, or had a spark of the divine in them. A goal of this religion in general was to free these sparks so they could return to their home in the divine realm. Thus, it's similar to Hinduism, and another similarity is that they believed in the concept of the simulacrum. This idea stated the world we lived in was essentially an illusion, like Maya, and was a simulation of the true reality. Lastly, like Hindus as well, they believed in multiple gods, but they simply represented aspects of the true god.

Monism

The belief that the world is made up of only one unifying principle

Mysticism

The idea that eventually, the human soul will reunite with a "world soul", and that spiritual apprehension of knowledge can be aquired through self contemplation and meditation

Moral relativism

The idea that morals are relative and subjective, and depend on social, cultural, or ideological standpoints.

Pluralism

The idea that the world is made up of multiple principles

Dualism

The idea that the world is made up of two different and irreducible principles

Moral absolutionism

The idea that there is a very specific moral code that doesn't change subjectively.

Idealism

The philosophy in metaphysics that a perfect idea exists beyond the material world. Opposite of materialism

Skepticism

The philosophy that there's doubt and uncertainty of what's the true nature of reality. We can't know anything for certain

Epistemology

The study of the philosophy of knowledge and how we truly know something

Metaphysics

The study of the true nature of reality and existence

Ethics

The study of whether is a true, universal moral code

Kenon

The void that atoma moved around in

gnosis

knowledge, insight

Atoma

literally means indivisible; referred to the tiny particles of pure matter in Democritus's atomic theory

Which philosophers are Greek?

o Anaximander o Anaximenes o Thales o Heraclitus o Democritus o Plato o Socrates o Aristotle

Interpretations of the Allegory of the Cave

o Christian Conversion o People and politicians motivated by Desire o Sleep vs. Awake o Philosopher King to bring goodness into the world o Criticism of science and observation based-religion o Criticism of everyday lire o Educational Allegory o Emerge from corruption

Plato's Utopia: Classes, rulers, censorship, economic system, women, marriage, children

o Classes: Guardians • Have political power • Legislator chooses the Guardians Soldiers Common people o Rulers: Own little possessions Guardians were rulers o Censored: Homer and Hesiod • People should be willing to die in battle • People shouldn't go for richness Drama is outlawed Lydian and Ionian harmonies are to be forbidden o Economic System: Communism for the Guardians and soldiers Gold and silver are to be forbidden o Women: Equality with males Same education o Marriage: Brought together by lot when needed for more population Eugenics-based breeding Abortion or Infanticide for children born out of wedlock o Children: Taken away from their parents at birth Children nor parents should know who they're true relatives are Supposed to call everyone father

What was the Early Greek perspective of reality?

o Gods are real Gods interact w/ humans Sacrifices/Prayers to the gods are necessary to ensure safety, protection, or plentiful harvests o Fate/gods control man's destiny Zeus has total control o Monarchy is god and kings are noble o Metis (intelligence/craftiness) over brawn/physical strength o Men has control and women are subservient Women should be faithful to husbands o People should be kind, hospitable, and loyal to their king o Life after death exists but is miserable o Kleos: Men must make a name for themselves while they live to overcome the bounds of death o Arete: Anybody can achieve it: a king, a servant, a wife, a dog o They believed the world was flat

tabula rassa

o It's the idea that we're born with a "blank slate" and we only acquire knowledge as we experience the world and use our senses and logic to test the truth of reality

Democritus' atomic theory

o Originated by mentor Leucippus o Anticipated modern principles of conservation of energy and irreducibility of matter o Atoms like Lego bricks Practically unbreakable Can do anything with them o Have hooks and barbs so they can join with other atoms and form things we see around us o Viewed the creation of the worlds as the natural consequence of the ceaseless whirling motion of atoms in space o When something dies, the atoms live around and go and form something else • Details about the religions covered (specifically Deism, Gnosticism, Orphism, and what

Description of the Allegory of the Cave

o People chained by the neck and legs o Fire in the very back o People only see shadows on the cave wall Cast by people walking on a raised way nearby, with various objects Wall in front of them o Outside world outside the cave o One person comes over

Which philosophers were in the Milesian school?

o Thales o Anaximander o Anaximenes

De rerum natura

o The poem that Lucretius wrote o Talks about how people could live better lives o Argues that the soul is made of atoms, and these atoms will one-day drift apart Thus, the human soul is not immortal o Argued that after death, there's no after-life, and its simply annihilation o Viewed the physical body as a vessel that holds both the mind and spirit Mind and spirit can't survive independently So once the body shatters, the rest dies o Due to that, it cannot be neither good, nor bad for the being, as a dead person cannot miss being alive B/c their devoid of sensation and thought

Why the rise of the city in Greece impacted the rise in philosophical thinking?

o When social life settled, people could reflect on the world, the Big Questions Sought knowledge for own sake o Early Greek philosophy was relatively late in the whole of Greek history Fruit of a mature civilization

Philosophy root

philo- = love -sophy = wisdom

teleology

proof of mind thought and purpose-teleos=purpose

Which philosophers are materialists?

proto-Materialists: - Thales - Anaximander - Anaximenes - Xenophanes - Heraclitus - Democritus Materialists - Epicurus - Copernicus - Bacon - Locke - Holbach - Darwin - Nietzsche - Dawkins

Tabula Rasa

the idea that you're born with a blank slate

esse est percipi

to be is to be perceived

The Enlightenment

• A period of intellectual activity wherein people believed truths about the universe and existence came through using logic and reason rather than God or scripture. • Time of Locke and Newton-leading figures • All the figures from this period believed in empiricism

Napoleon's March

• All in the perspective of the person • Monster-Ogre-His majesty-emperor

Golden Age

• Athens age of prosperity, the Age Pericles (445-431 BCE), said to symbolize perfection in human civilized life • It was the first democracy in our history • City devoted to human excellence in the body and mind, to philosophy, the arts and science, and to the cultivation of the art of living

How Plato felt about democracy

• Espoused a very negative attitude towards it • Viewed the citizens as acting through feeling, not through logic • Loved monarchs and specifically philosopher-kings

What was the historical situation in Rome while Plotinus was writing?

• Military realized it could start installing emperors for money and then killing them off • Period of mass-violence • Like the Warring-States/Spring Autumn Period of ancient China

Nietzsche

• Moral relativist and fierce critic of Christianity • Felt human beings had the potential to be their own gods, and the Ubermensch was his ideal (and radical) individual o Decides what's good and evil o Joyous and free as he doesn't obey the laws of religion or the majority • Does not belief in an afterlife or God and advocates for selfishness - Used by nazis

The Enlightenment

• Period of intellectual activity wherein people believed truths about the universe and existence came through using logic and reason rather than God or scripture • All the figures from this period believed in empiricism • Also believed the entire universe operated as one giant machine • Leading figures: o Locke and Newton

Socratic Method/Dialectic

• Repeatedly asking questions to prove a point espoused by an individual as moot • Than the philosopher reveals the correct idea

Why did people's philosophical views change during the Middle Ages?

• The church became more powerful and persecuted those who denied God or the soul o It gained a lot of power, and most of the art, poetry, and philosophical points were religious in nature

What happened scientifically and historically that caused people to turn away from the Catholic Church?

• The reformation occurred, and the Catholic Church began to lose some of its power • Scientists started devising theories that contradicted that official policies of the church

Empiricism

• The senses are infallible in obtaining knowledge about reality • Believed in empirical evidence or evidence based on experience or observation • Believed nothing should be believed w/o proper scientific testing based on evidence and logic

Explain Nietzsche's concept of the death of God and the Übermensch in 5-7 sentences.

• Ubermensch=the supreme human o Some humans are super and the best • They're above the rest • God should go away and be replaced with an ideal human Nietzsche believed that Christianity taught people how to die and not to live. Thus, he regarded it derisively as a "slave revolt against anything superior" and a prophet in his book Thus Spoke Zarathustra proclaimed that God is dead. He meant that God had no place in society anymore, and that science had taken over, with human as the replacement. He deemed this man-god to be called the Ubermensch, and believed that human beings should have the potential to be their own gods. He said the Ubermensch is "joyous and free" and that he does not believe in the afterlife. A rather unique part of his beliefs, was that everybody should be selfish b/c altruism and kindness apparently is for the weak.

Sophists

• Were private tutors to wealthy Athenian families • Taught the art of rhetoric to those who could pay • Were very influential and espoused Skepticism, partly through the results of their journeys throughout the Mediterranean Ex: - protagoras - sextus empiricus