Physical Anthropology Final

Of the 7.1 billion people living in the world today, nearly_________ suffer from malnutrition.

1 billion

the domestication of wheat and barley spread to Greece by:

8,000 yBP

What are the differences between Homo habilis and Homo erectus?

Homo erectus shows a reduction in the size of the face relative to the brain case.

Australopithecus garhi may be the ancestor of:

Homo habilis

Homo rudolfensis is morphologically similar to:

Homo habilis.

The calcaneus (heel bone) of Eosimias suggests that it may be a very primitive

anthropoid.

The discovery of modern/archaic hybrid fossils supports which model of modern human origins?

assimilation

Apes went extinct in southern Europe (including France, Spain, Italy, and Greece) during the late Miocene, probably as a result of:

climate change

Chororapithecus is considered the:

common ancestor of African apes and hominins.

dental caries increased at the same time that populations were producing:

corn

Luca Cavalli-Sforza hypothesizes that skin color change came late because

earlier populations had ready access to vitamin D from the foods they ate.

Ecological evidence from the site where Ardi was found shows that:

early hominins lived in a forest

Neanderthal brains are markedly smaller than modern human brains

false

Neanderthals were an evolutionary dead end—they and their genetic code are extinct.

false

The Denisovans are just another evolutionary dead end and do not inform us about the diversity of modern humans.

false

The increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere and sea due to human activity is referred to as:

global warming

The arboreal hypothesis proposes that defining primate characteristics were adaptations to life in the trees, such as:

grasping hands and feet, developed vision, and greater intelligence.

based on the archaeological record from various areas, what was the initial effect of agriculture on height?

height decreased

hunter's gatherers skeletons tend to show _______________________ than agriculturalists

higher levels of activity

Stone tools were more common from archaeological sites of:

homo habilis

The first evidence of modern human traits, including increasing brain size and dependence on material culture (tools) shows up in:

homo habilis

Australopithecus garhi has been proposed as an ancestor for Homo mainly because:

it had longer legs relative to arm length than other australopithecines.

The discovery of Kenyanthropus platyops was important mainly because:

it showed diversity in the hominin fossil record 3.5 mya.

Which anatomical feature would you expect to find in the fossil remains of a nocturnal species?

large eye orbitals

Comparisons of tooth wear in living apes and extinct Miocene apes suggest that some extinct species of apes ate:

leaves, nuts, and fruits.

Which of the following is an adaptive characteristic of bipedalism?

longitudinal arch in the foot

Americans' body weights vary according to socioeconomic status, inasmuch as:

lower-income families tend to consume less protein and fiber, and more sugar. -and- low-income families consume more saturated fat and sugar, because these cost less.

The ravine in northern Tanzania where many early hominin fossils have been recovered (often referred to as the "cradle of humankind") is:

olduvai gorge

Ardi was adapted to life in trees and:

on the ground

Sivapithecus is widely recognized as an ancestral member of which ape lineage?

orangutan

as towns and cities began to compete for increasingly limited resources:

organized warfare developed

Plesiadapiforms are also called:

proprimates.

After the 1960s, children in rural Oaxaca developed shorter, rounder heads and narrower faces. This is likely related to:

softer, more processed corn and other foods.

the Neolithic site catalhoyik is located in

southwest Asia

the masticatory-functional hypothesis:

states that change in skull form represents a response to decreased demands on the chewing muscles

Exposure to microbes early in life can _________ the immune system.

stimulate

Gigantopithecus:

stood ten feet tall and weighed 660 pounds.

The earliest fossil evidence for Homo erectus in Western Europe dates from:

1.2 mya, from Sima del Elefante

The Dmanisi B fossils from the Republic of Georgia are dated to:

1.7 mya

The Homo erectus fossil from Sangiran, Java, dates to:

1.8 - 1.6 mya

Homo erectus fossils date to

1.8 mya - 300,000 mya

tooth size and jaw size have reduced in the last:

10,000 yBP

the archaeological record suggests that farming began in southeastern Turkey by:

10,500 yBP

The oldest Neandertal site dates to __________, at __________.

130,000 yBP; Krapina, Croatia

Apes first appear in Europe and Asia from about:

17 mya

by the close of the Pleistocene the human population numbered:

7 billion

Contrast the cranial and dental anatomy and adaptation of Australopithecus robustus with African Homo erectus.

These hominins were contemporaneous for a long time in Africa, but their significantly different cranial and dental morphologies signal distinct ecological adaptations. In Australopithecus robustus, the sagittal crest, anchoring large chewing muscles, indicates a diet high in hard foods, including nuts and seeds. In Homo erectus, the lack of a sagittal crest indicates smaller chewing muscles and likely a much softer diet than Australopithecus robustus's. Australopithecus robustus's large molars allowed this species to grind hard foods. Thick enamel slowed tooth wear. Homo erectus had much smaller molars and thinner enamel, reflecting a softer diet and likely greater reliance on tools for processing food.

The most likely contender for the common ancestor of all later catarrhines is:

Aegyptopithecus.

Discuss the anatomical changes that occurred in the bipedal hominin and how they reflect certain habitat adaptations, and then discuss the hypotheses that propose why the change occurred

Among other, more detailed anatomical features, look for the following: · Relatively anterior position of the foramen magnum. · A short and broad pelvis. · Thighbones that angle in toward the knees. · A robust top to the shinbone (tibia). · Feet with a distinct arch, and toes aligned with each other (the big toe is not divergent). Peter Rodman and Henry McHenry's Patchy Forest hypothesis and Owen Lovejoy's Provisioning hypothesis should be included.

The similarity of the foot bones between _________ and the living anthropoids makes it the likely first true primate.

Eosimias

The discoverer of Pithecanthropus erectus (now known as Homo erectus) was:

Eugene Dubois

To date, the majority of Neandertal fossils have been found in:

Europe

The evolution of apes began in Africa and continued into:

Europe and asia

Which two genera may be the ancestor to the orangutan?

Gigantopithecus and Sivapithecus

What are the human biological consequences of global climate change and population increase?

What do you know, here's the answer. Use it to study for the final. Global warming is altering the environment. If left unchecked, it potentially will threaten food production and will continue to negatively affect health. Population increase is burdening natural and social resources, including food supplies, and is reducing well-being. Population increase and crowding lead to poor sanitation, enhance the spread of existing and newly emerging infectious diseases, and contribute to a decline in Earth's biodiversity. Technology creates opportunities for human life but also negatively affects humans and the world. It has resulted in increasingly gracile skeletons and alterations in cranial form, as humans have used tools rather than our bodies. Medical technology that increases our longevity also results in more frequent osteoporosis and other morbid conditions associated with aging, including osteoarthritis, cancers, and heart disease.

the Neolithic demographic transition resulted in:

a shift from low birthrate to high birthrate

Which Eocene organisms had clear primate characteristics like a postorbital bar, opposable thumbs, nails, and a large brain?

adapids and omomyids

Monkeys underwent massive__________in the Pliocene and Pleistocene.

adaptive radiation

A rapid temperature increase about 55 mya created tropical conditions around the world, resulting in the:

adaptive radiation of Euprimates.

The health effects of industrialization include:

an increase in environmental pollutants.

A central theme of human evolution is:

an increasing adaptive flexibility

Fossils attributed to Australopithecus garhi were found at the Bouri site, in Ethiopia, along with

animal bones with cutmarks

Which fossil group is characterized by an eye orbit fully enclosed by bone?

anthropoids

Biological evolution in humans and in other organisms is evidenced by

antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in hospitals.

During the Miocene epoch of the Cenozoic era, there was an adaptive radiation of which kind of primate?

apes

Broken Hill, Dali, and Atapuerca are sites where specimens of _________ have been discovered

archaic Homo sapiens

Thick dental enamel in__________ helps with crushing food.

australopithecines

A species that is adapted to a wide range of environments, climates, and diets is:

biologically diverse.

A hominin is defined as having two obligate behaviors:

bipedal locomotion and nonhoning chewing complex.

The foundational behavior of Hominini was:

bipedalism

Using tools and tool making is an adaptation by hominins as a result of:

bipedalism

Human activities that have contributed to greenhouse gases include

burning of fossil fuels -and- deforestation

Obesity is associated with a number of health problems, including:

cardiovascular disease and diabetes

Which genus is considered the ancestor to adapids and omomyids?

carpolestes

The angiosperm radiation hypothesis proposes that

certain primate traits were responses to the acquisition of fruit during the Cenozoic.

Homo erectus shows a reduction in the size of the face relative to the brain case.

changes in tool technology and increasing access to meat and other proteins.

Discuss how the process of globalization affects human biocultural variation today.

Globalization facilitates the movement of people, technology, and disease between cultures. Changes in nutrition and technology affect the health and even morphology of the populations into which they are introduced. A specific example of this is the change in skull morphology (shorter, rounder heads and narrower faces) of Mexican children in Oaxaca after the introduction of softer, more processed foods.

The H2 haplotype on chromosome 17 occurs in about 21% of European women. Natural selection is strongly implicated because

H2 women have 3.5% more children than do non-H2 women.

the last 10,000 years is called the:

Holocene

The Upper Paleolithic is associated with the_________ method of stone tool production:

Levallois

Name and briefly describe the three hypotheses of primate origins.

Many ideas have been proposed to explain why the traits displayed by living primates would have been adaptive or would have led to reproductive success in the past. The arboreal hypothesis, developed early in the twentieth century, states that primate features such as forward-facing eyes and grasping hands and feet would have benefited an animal living in the trees. The visual predation hypothesis acknowledges that some arboreal species (such as squirrels) do not possess these key primate features, so instead it focuses on stereoscopic vision and grasping as means of catching insects. The angiosperm radiation hypothesis notes that primates appeared at the same time as flowering plants and hence suggests that primates became successful in exploiting this new food resource.

The controlled use of fire by hominids:

contributed to geographical expansion and food production techniques in positive ways.

* Discuss how morphologic changes to modern humans' faces, mandibles, and teeth changed after the shift to agriculture and consumption of softer foods.

Since teeth are under greater genetic control than are the bony parts of the skull, changes to the dentition have been slower to occur. Generally speaking, the size of the teeth has decreased somewhat, although the level of dental wear has decreased dramatically in some populations. Jaws and crania show evidence of even greater reduction in size than do the teeth. The differential reduction in bone relative to the teeth has led to more frequent dental crowding and malocclusion among modern people. In some cases, the skull has become shorter and more rounded.

Why is the Fayum depression in Egypt such an important site for understanding the origin and diversification of anthropoid primates?

The Fayum deposits span a period of nearly 10 million years, corresponding to when anthropoids appear to have radiated throughout the Old World. There are very few comparably aged sites. Primate fossils discovered there document very primitive anthropoids (Biretia), more derived species (Aegyptopithecus), and some that are without any living counterparts (Plesiopithecus). In addition, the site is firmly dated to 29-37 mya, and associated fossil flora and fossil fauna permit excellent paleoenvironmental reconstruction.

What form of subsistence pattern is found for the first time in the Neolithic period? Name three geographic regions where this Neolithic lifeway appeared independently.

The Neolithic, while technically defined by the appearance of ground and polished stone tools, is more appropriately defined by the change in subsistence known as domestication. This new way of acquiring food involved selective breeding within plant and animal populations, in which individuals with desirable traits were allowed to reproduce and other individuals were not. Major regions of domestication include the Middle East (the Levant, or southwestern Asia's Fertile Crescent), southern Mexico, and the Yellow River region of China.

Discuss the two obligate traits, including specific anatomical features, that first emerge in the preaustralopithecines to eventually become firmly established in australopithecines.

The distinguishing characteristics of hominins are the anatomical complexes associated with acquiring and transporting food (locomotion) and chewing food (mastication). Bipedalism was the foundational behavior of hominins. The nonhoning masticatory complex defines a type of diet that emphasizes crushing rather than shearing.

Domestication of plants and animals led to stable food supplies during the Holocene; however, it also resulted in significant environmental and health problems. Discuss these problems in terms of natural selection.

The explosive human population growth associated with domestication led to the inability to sustain local resources. This in turn resulted in competition for such resources, and this competition even led to warfare. Life in proximity to many other people and to livestock brought about the transmission of many communicable diseases, such as cholera and tuberculosis. Reliance on one or a few staples led to a reduction in the variety of foods eaten. Finally, lower activity levels in agricultural communities led first to a general reduction in skeletal robusticity, but more recently has led to an increase in obesity.

Discuss the selective pressures operating in the late Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene that favored an adaptive radiation of monkeys and contributed to decreased diversity among apes.

The migration of primates from Africa to Europe and Asia was made possible by the land bridge created by a drop in sea levels. However, plate tectonic movement caused mountain ranges to form and ocean currents to shift thereby creating dramatic changes in climate and ecology. In Europe and Africa tropical forests became woodlands and grasslands, while in Asia decreased rainfall resulted in reduced forests and decreased fruit availability.

which of the following is a new world domesticated products?

cotton

the human population increase of the Holocene was probably due to:

decreased birth spacing (less time between babies)

cavities in the teeth are caused by:

dental caries

The space between the canine and the first premolar in the lower jaw of some primates is a(n):

diastema

Barry Popkin found that owing to_________ and _________, obesity levels in many parts of the developing world now match that of the United States

dietary change; reduced physical activity

The shift from the Miocene, which had greater diversity of ape species and fewer monkey species, to a living assemblage with greater diversity of monkey species and fewer ape species may be the result of:

differences in ability to exploit the habitats that resulted after a change in global climate.

Homo erectus walked just like a modern human, with traits like:

double arches and adducted big toe.

Evidence indicating that Orrorin tugenensis was bipedal comes mainly from which part of the skeleton?

femur(thighbone)

Euprimates represent the:

first true primates

As glaciers and ice caps melt_________ and _________ will occur.

flooding of low-lying areas; loss of millions of acres of habitable land -and- ocean temperatures will increase; species die off

Early Native Americans used which distinctive fluted spear points to hunt large-bodied Ice Age mammals?

folsom points

Based on the morphology of the hand phalanx, Orrorin tugenensis lived in a:

forest environment

The Patchy Forest hypothesis proposes that:

forests become patchy and food more dispersed

Discuss the origin of the Neandertals in terms of biological adaptation and other forces of evolution.

The origin of Neandertals is an excellent example of the forces of evolution at work. Homo erectus migrated out of Africa, producing genetic drift that resulted from its geographic isolation; later, founder's effect resulting from that drift produced derived traits only Neandertals have, due to their incredible adaptation to an arctic environment.

Compared to earlier hominids the increased body size in Homo erectus is likely due to:

increased protein in the diet.

Homo erectus's high degree of adaptive success is evidenced by its:

increased reliance on material culture -and- increased intelligence

Human life expectancy in the United States has:

increased since 1900, due largely to improvements in medicine and in sanitation.

The "silent tsunami" refers to:

increasing urbanization and human population growth. -and- increasing infectious disease.

Where industrialization is occurring_________ , while where there is no industrialization, _________.

infections and allergies are on the rise; infections and allergies are less developed

the adoption of agriculture resulted in the development and spread of:

infectious disease

parasitic infections are a primary cause of adult femur suggests:

iron-deficiency anemia

Australopithecus robustus was likely the longest-surviving species of australopithecine in South Africa. It had:

large molars, a big face, and a sagittal crest

Along with other distinct traits robust australopithecines had __________ adapted for grinding food

large premolars and molars large temporalis muscles and a sagittal crest

The adaptive radiation of the australopithecines after their split from the lineage that led to early Homo seems to have focused on _________.

mastication

modern diseases made possible by overcrowding include, but are not limited to:

measles mumps and cholera -and- smallpox and influenza

Fossil evidence of cut marks made with stone tools at early hominid sites suggests that:

meat eating started before Homo erectus (likely with scavenging) but increased with more advanced technology

A preaustralopithecine most likely has which of the following characteristics?

modified honing chewing, primitive apelike traits, small brain size

Owen Lovejoy's Provisioning hypothesis proposes that:

monogamy and food provisioning created the necessity for bipedalism.

Hip fractures in older adults are:

more common in modern societies than in previous ones.

Population increase creates many new hosts for infectious diseases, and _________ translates to _________.

more hosts; more organisms

domestication produced more food per unit area of land than had hunting and gathering, meaning:

more people could be fed from the same amount of land

Canadian primate paleontologist David Begun proposes that climate changes in Europe prompted late Miocene apes to:

move from Europe back to Africa following food sources

Physical anthropologist John Hawks and colleagues suggest that evolution is speeding up as population size continues to _________ and _________are introduced.

mushroom; new mutations

Researchers have discovered a genetic _________likely related to increased resistance to smallpox and plague in Europe about 5,000 years ago that reduces susceptibility to_________.

mutation; HIV infection

Which of the following is a derived trait of Sahelanthropus tchandensis?

nonhoning chewing complex

A ___________________ is a scientist who studies plant remains in the archaeological record

paleoethnobotanist

Ardi's intermediate form of bipedality included the use of:

palms and feet to move along tree branches.

The best-accepted hypothesis for the dispersal of African monkeys to the New World is:

platyrrhines evolved from anthropoids in Africa that migrated across the Atlantic to South America.

Paleocene organisms that may have been the first primates were:

plesiadapiforms.

agriculture resulted in:

population sedentism and crowding

extreme anemia can lead to:

porotic hyperostosis

The visual predation hypothesis proposes that:

primate traits arose as adaptations to preying on insects and small animals.

Homo erectus's cranial capacity:

ranges from 650 cc to 1200 cc

Both genetic mutation and selection have recently been linked to the development of pale skin in:

relatively recent European farming populations.

Modern anatomical features of the Nariokotome Boy include

relatively short arms and long legs

Relative to Oldowan tools, Acheulean stone tools:

required more learning and skill to produce.

The Denisova fossils likely:

share a common ancestor with Neandertals.

The nutrition transition refers to:

shifts to higher-fat, higher-carbohydrate diets.

Homo habilis had traits that include:

short legs

Nonhuman primates have smaller brains; therefore the birthing process differs by being:

shorter and less painful.

The Nariokotome Boy discovered at Lake Turkana (Homo erectus) has modern human traits such as:

shorter arms and longer legs than those of earlier hominids.

A distinctive trait of people from East Asia and the Americas is:

shovel-shaped incisors.

Archaic Homo sapiens:

shows a mixture of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens traits.

.Distinctive traits of robust australopithecines include:

small front teeth and large back teeth -and- a big face and a sagittal crest

Hominins have canines that are:

small, blunt, and nonprojecting, with no diastema.

Based on height calculations of Homo erectus fossils, physical anthropologists estimate that their average height was:

tall, with males about five feet nine and females about five feet three.

A common basis for adaptation to changing circumstances in humans is:

technological.

Abundant evidence indicates:

that humans continue to evolve.

Sub-Saharan Africans show the largest genetic diversity of any human population. This is likely to have resulted from:

the accumulations of genetic mutations over time.

Human populations living in areas of endemic malaria have a selective advantage if they carry:

the allele for sickle-cell anemia.

The most distinctive traits about the cold adaptation complex of Neandertals are:

the body and the length of the arms and legs.

Some technology has negatively influenced the world, including:

the burning of fossil fuels.

The best fossil evidence to suggest that Neandertals could produce a language like that of modern humans comes from which bone(s) collected at Kebara, Israel?

the hyoid

Stable isotopic analysis of oxygen from ice cores dating to the Holocene indicates that:

the last 50 yBP were the warmest period in the last 9,000 yBP.

Allen's and Bergmann's rules are perfect examples of natural selection working to bring about anatomical adaptations to environments in mammals. These include:

the limb and trunk proportions of Neandertals. the limb and trunk proportions of modern human populations. the limb and trunk proportions of most mammals.

one of the most important adaptive transitions in hominin evolution is:

the shift from foraging to farming

The Multiregional Continuity hypothesis supposes that:

the transition to modernity took place regionally and without involving replacement.

In Atapeura 5, early archaic Homo sapiens and Neandertal specimens show heavy wear on the incisors and canines, indicating:

the use of the front teeth for gripping materials.

The Neandertals' disappearance after 30,000 yBP likely resulted from:

their assimilation

African homo erectus cranial features include

thick cranial bones

You find a fossil that you are sure shows evidence of bipedalism. You know this because which of the following anatomical traits is present?

thighbones that angle in toward the knees

Australopithecus robustus's large masticatory complex (large molars, face, and muscles) indicate an adaptation:

to eating foods requiring heavy chewing

Homo habilis experienced a major shift to new environments that was characterized by:

tool use for obtaining and processing food.

All fossils represent:

transitions

Archaic Homo sapiens emerge from late Homo erectus and show several transitional features between H. erectus and H. sapiens sapiens.

true

Painted perforated shells are evidence that Neandertals:

used body ornamentals and symbolism

What effect did the advent of agriculture have on the level of interpersonal violence seen in the archaeological record?

violence increased

two-thirds of calorie intake comes from the key cereal grains domesticated in the earlier Holocene, especially:

wheat, barley. corn and rice

In East Africa robust australopithecines are also called:

Paranthropus.

The fossils called Homo floresiensis were dated to:

18,000 yBP.

The out-of-Africa model explains:

a single origin of modern people and eventual replacement of archaic Homo sapiens throughout Africa, Asia, and Europe.

Compared to australopithecines, Homo habilis is characterized by:

a smaller face -and- a rounder and larger skull -and- a bigger brain

Compared to modern Homo sapiens, archaic Homo sapiens have:

a taller and wider nasal aperture, a more projecting occipital bone, larger teeth, and no chin. a longer and lower skull, a larger browridge, and a bigger and more projecting face.

in the American Midwest native seed crops goosefoot, sumpweed, and sunflowers were farmed about:

6,000 - 1,000 yBP

The earliest members of the genus Homo have been found dating from:

2.5-1.0 mya.

Analyses of modern human genetic variation indicate that Homo sapiens may have evolved approximately:

200,000 yBP.

Based on genetic analysis of living primates calibrated by the fossil record, it is estimated that apes and Old World monkeys diverged into separate lineages around

25 mya

Approximately _________ of urban populations reside in slums without access to basic sanitation

25%

The transition to fully modern Homo sapiens was completed globally by about:

25,000 yBP

The last Neandertals date to:

32,000 yBP.

The earliest australopithecines first show up in the fossil record more than:

4 mya

About _________of the world's population lives in cities.

50%

Homo erectus differed from earlier hominids in having traits such as:

A much larger brain.

Compare the causes and effects of global warming during the Eocene with those occurring today. Consider specific species and their habitats.

At the beginning of the Eocene, global warming stemmed from the widespread appearance of tropical forests, which laid the foundation for the rise of primates. Since then, humans have been at least partly responsible for global warming, which today is largely anthropogenic. Humans began to increase their influence on the environment when they made technological innovations in energy consumption and the burning of fossil fuels. In the early Neolithic, farming and deforestation planted the seeds for global warming. Deforestation also contributes to global warming. The effects of climate change include temperature changes, shifting precipitation patterns, increasing dryness in some areas (with habitat-dependent losses of species in some areas and growth of species in others). Overall, crop production is expected to decrease. Like those of the Eocene, the modern global warming trends will likely alter species composition and result in extinctions.

Basal anthropoids are:

Eocene primates that are the earliest anthropoids.

Anatomically modern human fossils were discovered in the European Upper Paleolithic site of:

Cro-Magnon, France

The Middle Paleolithic is associated with _________ tools which Neandertals produced.

Mousterian

What "symbolic" behavior is evident in the archeological record and associated with Neandertals and anatomically modern humans in Europe beginning around 35,000 yBP (during the Upper Paleolithic)?

Neandertals were similar to modern humans in their behaviors, including the use of symbols, burying their dead, and the use of decorative items like shells stained with pigments. Neandertals used symbols to communicate ideas and expressions. From the perspective of European archaeology, a rather striking transition to modern human behavior coincides with the arrival of anatomically modern humans into Europe roughly 35,000 yBP. In addition to the existence of utilitarian objects such as stone blades and bone harpoons, there is a dramatic emergence of various symbolic objects. Most notably, cave art appears, sometimes very naturalistic and at other times much more cryptic. Mobile art objects also appear, in the form of carved animals, humanlike figures, and the famous female carvings often described as "Venus" figurines, fertility goddesses, and the like. Unambiguous funerary objects are associated with burials, including various forms of body adornment such as shell beads and red ochre body/hair coloring.

the dog was the first animal to be domesticated during the:

Neolithic

The Fayum desert has yielded fossils of these three primates:

Oligopithecus, Apidium, and Aegyptopithecus.

Which of the following apes has been proposed as the last common ancestor of living African apes and humans?

Ouranopithecus

* Discuss the evidence from the skeletons and teeth of early agriculturalists. Then describe the negative consequences of a shift from food foraging to the domestication of food in terms of pathologic evidence.

Pathologies in the skeletons and teeth of early farmers have resulted from two factors. One is an increase in infectious disease. Since people were living in such close quarters, communicable diseases could be transmitted easily. For example, evidence on bone of diseases called treponematoses (syphilis and yaws) increased in the Holocene. The other factor is poor nutrition. Although the growing of crops led to a more stable diet in terms of overall caloric intake, it also led to a reduction in the variety of foods eaten, meaning that some specific nutrients might have been lacking. For example, iron-deficiency anemia can arise if individuals consume too much of any crop that does not provide adequate iron.

What was the Piltdown Man? Why was it significant?

Piltdown Man was a skull discovered by Charles Dawson and Sir Arthur Smith Woodward. The skull had a cranial capacity of 1,400 cm3, and was found along with the mandible of a nonhuman ape. It was a modern human skull stained to give it an aged look while the canines were filed down. It was significant because the hoax was accepted. Very few denied the authenticity of Piltdown Man, primarily because it seemed plausible that a human ancestor with a large brain existed millions of years ago. In fact, this was believed even after several australopithecines were discovered.

Two genera of propliopithecids include:

Propliopithecus and Aegyptopithecus.

The only preaustralopithecine found outside the East African Rift Valley is

Sahelanthropus tchadensis.

Of the following taxa, who are the first (earliest/oldest) recognizable ancestors of the lineage leading to humans?

Sahelanthropus tchandensis.

Intermediate forms in the fossil record include

Sahelanthropus tchandensis. Ardipithecus ramidus. Australopithecus anamensis.

Discuss the two competing models of modern human origins—out-of-Africa and multiregional continuity. Briefly describe their main tenets and then discuss how the more recent assimilation model differs from each. 10 points. And you KNOW this will be on the final.

The out-of-Africa thesis states that modern humans appeared as the result of a speciation event in Africa about 200,000 yBP and then spread throughout the Old World, replacing indigenous archaic populations. Multiregionalism argues that modern features evolved in different parts of the Old World throughout the Pleistocene epoch, yet through significant gene flow these traits were transmitted to other populations, so that there was no single center for modern human origins. The assimilation model adopts elements of both models, suggesting that although modern humans evolved in Africa, there was some gene flow between this new form and indigenous populations elsewhere (such as Neandertals in Europe and late Homo erectus in Asia). The migrating African populations are thought to be so much larger than the local populations that most of the latter's genes/physical traits were swamped by the former.

Discuss the Ardipithecus ramidus fossil and its implications for understanding human evolution.

The primitive nature of the fossil confirms that the divergence between chimps and humans was relatively recent. It also tells us about the behavior of the species, in that it was still very much a tree climber even though the postcranial skeleton indicates full bipedal morphology. This provides evidence that the first hominins were not large-brained but that they adapted to bipedal locomotion as a primary adaptation. Something in their environment made bipedalism more important than a big brain.

What two models discuss how innovations spread? By what mechanism did wheat spread from the Levant into Europe?

There are basically two models for describing the spread of an innovation from one geographic location to another. MIGRATION: On the one hand, people can migrate in large numbers, taking their technology with them. DIFFUSION: On the other hand, the spread of technology/culture can occur through the process of diffusion, whereby an idea is communicated between neighboring sites. Genetic studies leave little doubt that wheat was first domesticated in the Middle East and that domestication occurred a few thousand years later in Europe. Genetic studies of modern people in both regions strongly suggest that modern Europeans are descendants of Upper Paleolithic people from the same area, not descendants of Middle Eastern migrants.

Like that of Dryopithecus, a modern gorilla mandible has

a Y-5 molar pattern, low rounded cusps, large canines, and a diastema.

The most distinctive feature of ape dentition, which clearly distinguishes apes from Old World monkeys, is:

a Y5 molar pattern

bone comparisons from hunter-gatherers to later agriculturalists to modern people show:

a decline in size

Homo erectus skull morphology includes:

a long, low, wide base -and- large brow ridges -and- thick bones

Climate scientists predict that shifting patterns of precipitation and increasing dryness in areas like the American Southwest and Midwest will result in:

a reduction of agricultural production and therefore a reduced food supply.

The Laetoli footprints demonstrate that the foot of Australopithecus afarensis was humanlike in having:

a rounded heel, a double arch, a nondivergent big toe

Scientists define modern in terms of:

a series of distinctive anatomical traits that contrast with archaic traits from earlier hominins.