Physiology Short Answer

Describe active transport using carrier proteins. Describe vesicular transport. Does vesicular transport use ATP? What are the differences between endocytosis & exocytosis?

Active transport using carrier proteins is when vesicles form in and out of the cell embrace to carry resources out and in. Vesicles are more or less transport units. ATP is required because these cells are made and destroyed constantly. Exocytosis is when the vesicles renters the cell. Endocytosis is when the vesicles leaves the cell.

Compare the general differences between active & passive transport. Which transport methods use ATP, which use kinetic energy of the molecule? Which goes "up" or "down" a concentration gradient?

Active: uses energy to move from low conc to high conc Passive: moves from low to high. Requires no energy

What is metabolism? What are common waste products that must be removed from the body? Use the energy balance equation to predict how to lose weight.

Metabolism is the sum of all energy in the chemical reaction Waste products come in the form of heat and chemical waste To lose weight, you would need to burn more energy than you take in for days on end.

What happens if a protein is folded incorrectly? Can the protein still function? What 2 cellular structures are designed to breakdown misfolded proteins? What can happen if misfolded proteins build up within cells?

Misfolded protein cannot function because it's shape determines its function. Two cellular structures designed to breakdown misfolded proteins are the rough ER and lysosomes. If folded proteins build up in the cell, then it would become a proteasome.

Compare the evidence for health benefits or harm from sugars & artificial sweeteners.

Natural sugars found in fruits are better for your health than artificial added sugars found in juice. When comparing diet drinking and sugary drinks, neither really provide a healthy alternative. Sugar free artificially flavored drinks replace the calories and sugars with artificial sweeteners that aren't good for your body.

Describe the general design & functions of the 4 types of tissues: neural, epithelial, connective & muscle. (We'll learn more details throughout the quarter.) Explain the roles of smooth muscle tissue in the movement of food through the digestive system as well as mechanical breakdown of food.

Nervous tissue: internal communication and control: present to give the body feedback Muscle tissue: allows our body to move and contract Muscle attached to the bone: skeletal Muscle attached to the heart wall: cardiac Muscle attached to hollow organs: smooth. Smooth tissue contract allowing passive unconscious movement through the body Epithelial tissue: forms boundaries between different environment. Protects, secrets, absorbs and filers. Most known to be your skin. Connective tissue: supports, protects and binds other tissue together. Comes in the form of cartilage, bones, tendons and fat padding

Some proteins are packaged & folded as they travel through which 2 organelles? What are the final destinations of the proteins processed by these organelles? How is insulin produced & stored within a beta cell in the pancreas? How is it released?

Proteins are packaged and folded in the rough ER and Golgi apparatus The final destination of the processed proteins will either be secretion in exocytosis, lysosome production or fusing with the plasma membrane.

Describe simple diffusion. How does each of these variables affect the rate of diffusion: temperature (kinetic energy), concentration gradient, molecular/ion mass?

Simple diffusion is the movement from high concentration to low concentration. It is generally the slowest out of all the diffusion. It will tend to lead to an isotonic solution where everything moved at an equal rate leading to a balancing effect.

In what direction does a variable change as a result of a negative feedback response to a stress? Draw a graph to show negative feedback over time.

Stress increases as a result of our negative feedback response. The closer we are to our tolerance limits, the more stress we have and the more volatile our body responds.

Summarize the major events in protein synthesis: transcription & translation. Which event occurs within the nucleus & which event occurs in the cytoplasm?

Transcription is when DNA is copied into RNA. Translation is when RNA is transferred into a way that is readable for protein function. Transcription occurs in the nucleus while translation occurs in the cytoplasm.

Compare the locations of subcutaneous & visceral body fat. Which one increases a person's risk of insulin resistance & perhaps Type 2 diabetes?

Visceral fat is fat located around the organs. Subcutaneous fat is fat beneath our skin. Visceral increases the chance of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes.

Explain the events in the normal regulation of body temperature. What happens to the body if body temperature gets too low or too high? What symptoms indicate heat stroke? Why do you need to call 911 if that happens to someone?

When it comes to body regulation, the body relies on the negative feedback loop to a point. Once the body passes it's tolerance limits, the effectors can no longer effectively respond to the problem. Communication becomes too distorted. If your body stops reacting to the extreme heat or cold, your body has failed to maintain homeostasis and will face serious health risks. If you stop sweating when it is hot, you will suffer from a heat stroke.

List the 3 types of molecules in a nucleotide. How are nucleotides arranged within DNA & RNA?

A nucleotide is made up of a phosphate group, a pentose sugar: deoxyribose, and a nitrogen base. They are arranged in a double helix shape.

Draw & compare the lines for surface area, volume and the ratio of SA/V as a "cuboidal" cell increases in length. Describe the advantages of a higher SA/V for a cell.

As surface area increases, SA/V exponentially decreases. Cells with high SA/V function more efficiently. This allows cells to react faster to new situations.

Name & describe the hierarchical levels of organization of the human body, in order. Why is this hierarchy important?

Atoms: building blocks of life Molecules: made up of atoms Cells: made up of molecules Tissues: made up of cells Organs: made up of tissue Organ system: made up of organs Organismal: made up of organ systems This hierarchy is important because it shows that life is continuing built on what's below it. The smallest chemical reaction gives the bases for higher functions to occur.

What are some problems with using the body mass index (BMI) to measure fitness? How does the body shape index (ABSI) differ from the BMI? Why is it a better predictor?

BMI is a quick and dirty way to check your health. It doesn't address the body composition so people with high protein would be considered obese when they are not. ABSI is a slightly better way because it keeps into account visceral fat through your waist size.

What does basal metabolic rate measure? Why does it decrease with age & why is it lower for females, on average?

Basal metabolic rate describes the amount of daily energy expended by humans at rest. It desire ashes with age me with women on average because we lose muscle mass as we grow older and our bodies need less and less to keep the status quo.

Compare the roles of bile (salts) from the liver, and pancreatic enzymes in digestion. How do their actions differ? Why are these introduced into the first part of the small intestine? What is the gall bladder's function? Predict the variation in bile & pancreatic enzyme release into the intestines with a meal high or low in fat, and between meals.

Bile salts produced by the liver help break apart dietary fats, and calcium phosphate salts form the mineral portion of teeth and bones while the pancreatic enzymes are active in the digestion of sugars, proteins, and fats. The gallbladder holds the biles. While eating food, the liver deals with the majority of fats while the pancreas releases the enzymes for the sugars and proteins.

Explain why a cell membrane is both a "bilayer" and a "fluid mosaic". What are some of the general functions of cell membranes?

Cell membranes are called a bilayer because it is made up of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. It's a fluid mosaic because it's a constantly changing and shifting structure. The general function of the cell membrane is to regulate what comes in and out of the cell.

Compare channel-mediated & carrier-mediated diffusion. Why can these forms of diffusion be "rate limited"? Explain how GLUT4 carriers/transporter move glucose into muscle cells.

Channel diffusion: passive transport where particles need a channel to pass through. some channels are gated Carrier mediated diffusion: passive transport where vesicles bring contents inside and outside of the cell. channel proteins act as pores through the membrane, carrier proteins actually bind to the substance they transport. "Rate-limited" means diffusion depends on the availability of transport proteins. GLUT4 brings glucose into the muscles cells to provide energy.

Compare the structure & functions of a chromosome vs. chromatin. What are some of the roles of non-gene coding DNA?

Chromatid: half of a chromosome Chromosome: genetic piece of information. The role of non gene coding DNA would be to activate certain functions or instructions in the body.

What are the main events during interphase vs. mitosis? Describe the design & function of the centrosome during mitosis. What are the benefits of cell division? How are stem cells different from fully differentiated cells? Compare the regeneration ability of adult liver vs. pancreatic cells. Why does this matter?

During interphase, the cell is preparing to divide. During mitosis, the nucleus splits up and clones itself. The centrosome is used in mitosis to help divide the cell. Cell division is beneficial because it allows your body to repair itself with fresh cells. Stem cells are cells that can last a long time through division. Stem cells can become any type of cell while differentiated cells are already specialized. We didn't talk about the liver and pancreatic cells this year.

How do epithelial cells in the intestines maximize their surface area/volume ratio? How do the intestines maximize surface area/volume at the organ level? Why is a high SA/V important to the digestive process?

Epithelial cells in the engines maximize their SA/V ratio by folding in on itself and forming mini crevices. This is a more effective way to absorb lots of materials than having a straight surface. A high SA/V is important for the digestive process because the body needs to be able to effectively and timely break down resources for consumption.

Compare gluconeogenesis & glycolysis. When does each occur?

Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources. Glycolysis is when glucose is broken down into pyruvate. Glycolysis would be used when we are trying to burn energy and need to break down glucose. Gluconeogenesis is when the body needs to store back energy and is breaking down non carbohydrates to provide that energy.

Why is homeostasis called a dynamic equilibrium? What are the benefits of a negative feedback response? When does a negative feedback response occur (in normal range, outside normal range, outside of the tolerance limits)?

Homeostasis is called dynamic equilibrium because it is a constant system of negative feedbacks to keep a balance in the body. The benefit of a negative feedback response is that your body can keep adapting to different environmental factors. A negative feedback occurs when the receptors in your body decide that the body is no longer functioning in the ideal perimeter. If the change is too extreme, the body is unable to respond to the change and we face death.

What is homeostasis? What is the significance of the normal range, compared to the tolerance limits? When is medical intervention needed? Are all body values under homeostatic control? Why or why not?

Homeostasis is to maintain balance. Our bodies all naturally try to keep us in the normal range. When we develop a tolerance level to our negative feedback loops, it becomes harder and harder to keep homeostasis. We can see this with diabetes. Medical intervention is needed for when the body cannot keep homeostasis effectively enough. Not all our body values are under homeostatic control because processes like giving birth are positive feedback loops, meaning they break homeostasis to get a task done.

What changes occur in a non-alcoholic fatty liver (steatosis)? What are common risk factors for this condition? What changes occur in the liver if it develops cirrhosis? How will those changes affect the function of the organ?

In a non-alcoholic fatty liver, the liver becomes enlarged and stores way too much lipids. Risk factors include liver failure and obesity which leads to more comorbidities. The liver will turn blue if it develops cirrhosis because the liver will begin to start dying. It will make your body less and less able to function on a daily basis without assistance.

What effect do insulin & exercise have on the number of GLUT4 carriers in a muscle cell? How is this beneficial? What is insulin resistance? How is this harmful to cells?

Insulin and exercise forces the cells to take glucose out of the blood. This is beneficial because it means our cells can receive the energy they need. Insulin resistance is when the cell can't take in the insulin they need because they have a resistance to the excess amount. This is harmful to cells because it messes up our negative feedback response.

How do insulin & glucagon regulate blood (plasma) glucose?

Insulin: takes glucose out of the blood stream Glucagon: drives blood sugar into the blood stream

Explain the difference between mechanical & chemical breakdown of food by the digestive system.

Mechanical breakdown: breaking down food through physical force like chewing, churning. This allows the body the further break it down Chemically. Chemical breakdown is the absorption through chemical reactions. This happens with the stomach acid and the small intestines absorbing the remaining nutrients.

What is normal positive feedback? How does homeostasis failure lead to abnormal positive feedback responses resulting in life-threatening conditions?

Normal positive feedback is when the body starts reacting without a plan to keep homeostasis. We need positive feedback when it comes to giving birth. Without the body releasing oxytocin to begin contractions, the body would not be able to give birth.

Explain how organic molecules can be used to produce ATP. Why is ATP important? Know Fig. 24.3 (pg. 1509), showing how organic molecules in food are used.

Organic molecules can be used to make ATP by breaking them down into proteins, complex carbs and triglycerides. From there they can be broken down and repurposed for body functions like ATP, repairing body functions and storage. ATP is important because it is what gives our body spendable energy.

Define osmosis. Use these terms to describe the extracellular fluid relative to the cell's intracellular fluid: hypertonic/hyper-osmotic, isotonic/iso-osmotic, hypotonic/hypo-osmotic. Keep in mind that units to measure osmolarity & tonicity vary, but they all share the same trends.

Osmosis is the diffusion of water. If a solution is hypertonic: Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution. Shrinking If a solution is hypotonic: having a lower concentration of solute than another solution. Bloating Isotonic solution: equal movement between solutes.

Describe these parts of a homeostasis loop: stress, receptor, integrator/controller, effector, response. Recognize the steps & put them in order, if given an example.

Receptor: receptors are nerve cells - they have special proteins that change in shape in response to stimulus and that triggers the nerve signal Controller: the brain orders the effector into action Effector: the response to return back to homeostasis. This can come in the form of sweating when it is hot out or shivering when it is cold.

What are the advantages of the DASH diet, & other traditional regional diets?

The advantages of DASH diets is that they contain all the regular food you would eat without going to the extremes and completely cutting out certain nutrients or foods. It is very easy to add to your own diet.

Describe the organization of the liver's epithelial cells & their role in both glycogen (complex sugar) and lipid storage. Predict when the liver has more glycogen & lipid stored.

The liver is focused on breaking down fats. The epithelial cells has more lipid storage due to this fact.

What is the structure of a phospholipid molecule? Which region of this molecule is hydrophilic? hydrophobic? How are phospholipids arranged in a membrane? How does membrane flexibility alter if phospholipids contain more saturated fatty acids than normal?

The structure of a phospholipid molecule is a phosphate head with two fatty acids with non polar covalent bonds. The head is hydrophilic because it's not a lipid while the tails are hydrophobic for being made of lipids. They are arranged where the heads face out and away while the tails face each other. The more saturated fatty acids are there, the more rigid the structure is. The more polyunsaturated fats there are, the more flexible it is.