Poli 11 Final Study Guide

nation

the group of people that commands your loyalty. Can be based on blood/heritage or allegiance to a set of civic ideals.

government

the group of people who occupy positions of power (control the state) at any given time. Governments change often and take many forms. Made up of a legislature (makes laws) and an executive (which carries out laws, typically headed by a single person)

District magnitude (M)

the number of representatives elected from a given district to the same legislative body. Single-member districts are ones in which one representative is elected per district (UK, USA, etc). Multi-member districts are one in which MORE THAN one representative is elected per district (South Africa). When we hold fixed the number of seats in a legislature, the MORE electoral districts there are, the lower the M

The State

the set of permanent or nearly permanent institutions and structures of authority with sovereignty in a particular territory. It has domestic AND international faces. State change is very rare and often only happens in the wake of cataclysmic events

regime

the set of rules by which political power is allocated (leadership selection, leader replacement, leader power). There are two main types of regimes: democracy and autocracy. Regime change can go between these two, and is more common than state change

If a 400 seat legislature has 400 electoral districts, then what is district magnitude (M)? a. 1 b. 10 c. 40 d. 400

A. 1

What are the core norms of beliefs of liberalism?

1. Limited Government (protection of individual rights and liberties from the predation of powerful groups and governments) 2. Diversity of viewpoints (competition and disagreement > harmony and consensus) 3. Tolerance of dissent 4. Egalitarianism > hierarchy 5. Separation of church and state

PW Botha, also known as "die groot krokodil," played what role in South Africa's democratization? A. As president, he initiated limited reforms but these largely backfired, and true change had to wait until he was no longer in office. B. As a leader of the anti-apartheid movement, he met with representatives of the South African state in London in the late 1980s to discussion negotiations to end apartheid. C. Although a member of the conservative wing of his party, as president, he released Nelson Mandela and legalized opposition parties. D. None of the above

A. As president, he initiated limited reforms but these largely backfired, and true change had to wait until he was no longer in office.

How do different theoretical approaches explain democratic consolidation? Discuss economic, institutional, and cultural explanations for this outcome, evaluating specific theories. When possible, match theories to the writers who advanced them.

1. Modernization (economic) theory explains democratic consolidation. As a middle class forms, education becomes more widespread, literacy rates go up, communication and transportation networks improve, desire to become involved in politics and community life is facilitated, and finally, a desire for self-governance and democracy becomes entrenched in the society. 2. Linz argues that institutions determine democratic consolidation. If a Presidential system is chosen, many weaknesses in the system can lead to democratic collapse (dual legitimacy, confused mandate, outsider winning the Presidency, term limits over confidence, and shortcomings of winner-take-all). Further, a multi-party system can lead to ineffectual collation governments. Parliamentary systems meanwhile allow for governments to be chosen on confidence, common origin and survival eliminate the legitimacy problem, and coalition governments are cooperative and easily formed. Government instability leads to new ideas and fresh leadership. 3. Putnam argues that culture create democratic consolidation. As civic culture begins to spread, and citizens view the public domain as an area to address public interests, they read more/stay informed, and work together to solve collective action problems, the institutions which represent them are better inclined to win their vote and stay loyal to constituents rather than outside interests. This effectively leads to a consolidated democracy.

Divided Government

A characteristic of Presidential democracies (NOT Parliamentary) in which one party controls the Legislature and a different party controls the executive. This can lead to gridlock if partisanship, polarization, and party loyalty are high. Can be de-stabilizing if there are many parties within the democracy

Political Culture

A set of attitude and practices held by a people that shapes their political behavior.

Minority Government

A type of Consensual Parliamentary government where one party with less than a majority rules solo, and requires support from other parties to survive. This is common in multi-party systems. It is inclusive, requires cooperation, and is consensual. However, it is even MORE unstable than a coalition government, and can be hard to form. It is easy to identify who is in charge, but it is still formed after the election by elites.

Coalition Government

A type of Parliamentary government where multiple parties form a coalition that combined has a majority in Parliament, and they rule together and have a split cabinet. This is common in multi-party systems. It is inclusive, requires cooperation, and is consensual. However, it can be unstable, hard to form and suffers from accountability issues in that its difficult to identify who is in charge and is formed AFTER an election by elites.

Majority Government

A type of Parliamentary government where one party has a majority of sears in Parliament and rules by itself. This is most common in 2 party systems. It makes government reform easy, is stable, it's easy for constituents to identify who is in charge. However, power is highly concentrated in the majority, and the minority is almost always excluded.

Single Member Plurality (SMP) Rules

A type of electoral formula (also called first past the post) in which the party which receives the most votes (or a majority in single member majority) wins the single seat offered in the district. Obviously, PR cannot occur in single member districts.

Common survival in parliamentary systems means: A. Cabinet must maintain the confidence of parliament (majority support) or resign and terms of office are not fixed. B. The executive and legislative branches are elected at the same time, in a single election C. The executive and legislative branches are elected in different elections, for fixed terms. D. Cabinet is a subset of parliament.

A. Cabinet must maintain the confidence of parliament (majority support) or resign and terms of office are not fixed.

Which of the following was NOT a reason given by Lipset for why George Washington was indispensable to American democracy? A. His military brilliance on the battle field B. He lent charismatic legitimacy to a new system of government C. He demonstrated tolerance of religious minorities D. He rejected all suggestions to become president-for-life

A. His military brilliance on the battle field

What kinds of reforms did Deng Xiaoping support? A. Introduction of market forces and private property B. Great Leap Forward C. Free and fair elections D. Cultural Revolution and class struggle

A. Introduction of market forces and private property

Separation of power is created by: A. Separate origin and survival of executive and legislative branches B. Functional independence of executive and legislative branches C. Impeachment powers of the legislative branch D. Executive veto over legislation

A. Separate origin and survival of executive and legislative branches

Reactive power in presidential systems involves: A. Using vetoes to block legislation B. Attempting to shift the policy status quo through decrees C. Issuing executive orders D. Building bipartisan coalitions with members of the legislature

A. Using vetoes to block legislation

FW de Klerk

Acted as President in South Africa. Despite being part of the conservative wing, he replaced many of the racists acts in the country like the Group Areas Act and legalized black opposition political parties. He let Mandela out of prison, which ended up undermining his own power in the future. Nevertheless, they worked together to bring reform to the South African government by sharing power with the ANC.

Apartheid

Apartheid was the crushing system of oppression which was instituted by the National Party in South Africa. Though it officially began in 1948, apartheid had been around as a social construct for decades in the form of the minority of white men having control over the government and the de facto segregation of blacks. During the official period of apartheid, blacks were barred from living in certain cities (and forced into "Homelands"), could not vote, and could not own land. Eventually, the ANC's influence, pressure from the outside world, and de-stabilizing violence from the government forced the country down the road to change, culminating in De Klerk ending apartheid and Nelson Mandela being elected as the country's President.

Government crises in Belgium assume what form? A. Budget crises due to divided government. B. Difficulty forming and maintaining governments. C. Beer riots D. Incompetent caretaker governments.

B. Difficulty forming and maintaining governments.

What are political institutions? A. State prisons for political dissidents B. Formal rules for allocating political power and responsibilities within a state C. Informal practices and customs that members of society follow D. Organizations founded for a religious or social purpose

B. Formal rules for allocating political power and responsibilities within a state

Parliamentary democracy is associated with which of the following: A. Divided government B. Party discipline C. Outsider candidates D. Democratic instability

B. Party discipline

In her explanation of the emergence of democracy, Geddes emphasizes which of the following factors: A. Economic factors like the distribution of wealth and asset mobility B. Political factors like leadership and institutions C. Cultural factors like respect for rule of law and tolerance of dissent D. Social factors like the size and number of ethnic divisions

B. Political factors like leadership and institutions

What type of electoral system is most likely to produce consensual style parliamentary government? a. Single member plurality b. Proportional representation c. Single member majority d. Mixed member plurality rules

B. Proportional representation

The 1913 Natives' Lands Act of South Africa did which of the following? A. Provided Native South Africans with a small allotment of land, creating a class of independent black farmers in South Africa. B. Removed the rights of Africans to own land in South Africa, forcing them into wage labor. C. Established a set of public parks and protected areas in South Africa, including Kruger National Park. D. Cemented Apartheid as the central policy of the National Party.

B. Removed the rights of Africans to own land in South Africa, forcing them into wage labor.

According to Lawrence and Martin, which of the following should be considered China's leading political institution? A. The National People's Congress B. The Chinese Communist Party C. The People's Liberation Army D. The State Council

B. The Chinese Communist Party

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of presidential systems? A. The executive and legislative branches are elected independently B. The executive and legislative branches are fused C. Neither branch can remove the other from office except in very unusual circumstances D. The executive and legislative branches are separate

B. The executive and legislative branches are fused

Distributional Theory

Boix's theory that the distribution of wealth in a society (rather than the level) determines the emergence of democracy. Where there is unequal wealth distribution, democratization is slower, violent, and prone to fail. Boix claims the rich class does not want democratization, as it will result in redistribution (which will be more radical in highly unequal societies). The difficulty in bringing about democracy in unequal societies is exacerbated even more when assets are fixed/immobile and cannot be moved.

FW de Klerk played what role in South Africa's democratization? A. As president, he initiated limited reforms but these largely backfired, and true change had to wait until he was no longer in office. B. As a leader of the anti-apartheid movement, he met with representatives of the South African state in London in the late 1980s to discussion negotiations to end apartheid. C. Although a member of the conservative wing of his party, as president, he released Nelson Mandela and legalized opposition parties. D. None of the above.

C. Although a member of the conservative wing of his party, as president, he released Nelson Mandela and legalized opposition parties.

Which of the following factors created an obstacle to democratization in South Africa? A. Rising income levels and increased urbanization B. The homelands policy C. Income inequality and labor coercive practices based on fixed asset wealth D. The absence of protest movements demanding change

C. Income inequality and labor coercive practices based on fixed asset wealth

A positive feature of coalition government is: A. It is very stable B. Government formation is easy C. It is inclusive and forces compromise across parties. D. It facilitates accountability

C. It is inclusive and forces compromise across parties.

Candidates X, Y, and Z are running in an election operating according to SMP rules. Voter Bob has the following preference ordering: Z>X>Y. Z has virtually no chance of winning the election, which is a close race between X and Y. If Bob is a strategic voter, what does he do? a. Vote for Z b. Vote for Y c. Vote for X d. Abstain, voting is dumb anyway.

C. Vote for X

Compare and contrast "civic culture" with "amoral familism." According to Robert Putnam, how do these cultural differences explain variations in the ability of communities to solve collective action problems? In your answer, define social capital and discuss its significance.

Civic Culture is, as Putnam argues, the natural precursor to democratic consolidation. Putnam observed a strong civic culture in Northern Italy: it is marked by an engaged citizenry who stays informs, participates in the political process, views the public domain as an area of community advancement, and high social capital in the forms of dense networks of social relationships and norms of reciprocity. Institutions take note of the citizens' engagement, and so are more responsive to their constituents. Amoral Familism (which Putnam viewed in Souther Italy) meanwhile is marked by loyalty which does not extend beyond the family, a maximization of short-run material gains for the family, a citizenry which is not engaged, and the use of the public domain for individual advancement. In these communities, politicians are approached only when favors are needed, and as a result, don't represent their constituents as well. Social capital is necessary for fostering trust, overcoming collective action problems, and eliminating free-riders. When communities can come together, everyone has an incentive to help fix the problems which plague them, such as in Northern Italy. However, if amoral familism reigns supreme, social capital will be lacking, and trust cannot possible be brought about. This results in a loss of social capital, and the exacerbation of the free-rider and collective action problems.

According to Juan Linz (discussed by Mainwaring and Shugart), presidential democracy is associated with: A. Good economic outcomes B. Weak legislatures C. Budget crises D. Democratic instability

D. Democratic instability

In his explanation of the emergence of democracy, Boix emphasizes which of the following factors: A. Political factors like leadership and institutions B. Cultural factors like respect for rule of law and tolerance of dissent C. Social factors like the size and number of ethnic divisions D. Economic factors like the distribution of wealth and asset mobility

D. Economic factors like the distribution of wealth and asset mobility

Which of the following is not true of the African National Congress (ANC)? A. It formed in 1912. B. Many of its leaders, including Nelson Mandela, were imprisoned or fled South Africa in the early 1960s. C. Its first leaders were well-educated African aristocrats whose primary goal was inclusion of African elites in the South African political system, not inclusive democracy for all. D. It originally consisted of radical Marxist revolutionaries, but later moderated its policies in the Freedom Charter of 1955.

D. It originally consisted of radical Marxist revolutionaries, but later moderated its policies in the Freedom Charter of 1955.

What is the difference between correlation and causation? Give two examples of correlations discussed in class, and alternative causal explanations for them.

Correlation is when two events SEEM related, in that one may be caused by the other or one is affected by the other, such as strong civic cultures seem to be CORRELATED with stable democracies. Causation is knowing for sure that one thing leads to another, such as inflation CAUSES the purchasing power of money to decrease. Ex 1: Strong civic cultures lead to consolidated democracy (Putnam). This is a correlation, which Berman argues is wrong. Rather Berman states that it is the institutions which are either strong or weak which will lead to either a consolidated democracy or totalitarianism. Ex 2: Lack of democracy in the Middle East is correlated with the presence of Islamic culture. Huntington argues that this is the Clash of Civilization. Inglehart and Norris, meanwhile, argue that the lack of democracy can instead be attributed to the lack of tolerance and gender inequality.

According to Robert Putnam, social capital helps communities: a. Identify free riders. b. Solve collective action problems. c. Improve the quality of governance. d. All of the above.

D. All of the above

Liberalism is which of the following: a. A political philosophy that emerged in Western Europe during the Enlightenment that opposed the hierarchical nature of feudalism and emphasized individuals as the constituent unit of politics and society. b. A correlate of democracy around the world. c. Associated with diversity and tolerance of political viewpoints. d. All of the above.

D. All of the above

Divided government in presidential systems occurs when: A. There is a bicameral legislature. B. The legislature brings impeachment charges against the president. C. There are concurrent elections between the legislature and executive. D. One party controls a majority in one or more chambers of the legislature, and a different party controls the executive.

D. One party controls a majority in one or more chambers of the legislature, and a different party controls the executive.

Deadlock

Deadlock is a characteristic of Presidential democracies which grows worse with the more parties which are present in the system. Deadlock occurs when there are debilitating disagreements between branches of government which prevent policymaking and shut down the government (debt ceiling crisis, budget crisis). This grows more likely with divided government, though it is typically manageable with 2 parties, debilitating with many parties which are highly polarized

What is democratic consolidation? How is it different from democratic transition?

Democratic consolidation is process of fully entrenching the idea of democracy, whereas the democratic transition is just the introduction of democracy/the trying-out of democracy within a society. Democratic consolidation is achieved through the adoption of liberal values (according to Huntington), via a strong civic culture (Putnam), or by choosing a Parliamentary system over a Presidential one (Linz).

Authoritarian Resilience

Depending on the type of authoritarian regime which is created (military, personalist, single-party), we can expect different longevity. Military regimes are the most likely to fail, as they're are loyal to the military first and foremost. Policy making is not their favorite pastime, and they are usually looking forward to returning to the barracks. Personalist regimes have middle-of-the-road longevity. It is often hard for them to survive the death of their leader, and exogenous shocks can have a big impact on them. Autarkic countries such as North Korea have incredible longevity as personalist regimes since they have set their whole bloodline up to be deified, and exogenous shocks never resonate with their people or economy. Single-party regimes have the best longevity. Because of their willingness to co-opt opposition groups, their is never really a huge resistance group which wants to alter the status quo. They are usually quite adept at managing exogenous shocks.

Explain the causal logic behind Duverger's Law. 1) Explain the relationship between SMP and disproportionality and 2) How does strategic behavior by voters compound the effects of disproportionality in SMP systems?

Disproportionality is a symptom which plagues SMP systems. It is the idea that since seats in a single-member district cannot be divided up proportionally, the biggest plurality create big winners and big losers, or in other words, the percentage of votes won by the winner (which could be, for example 48%) is way out of line with the percentage of seats won (which, in SMP systems, is always 100%). The loser who got 44% of the vote gets 0% of the single seat. Meanwhile, strategic voting comes about as a result of this disproportionality. Since a sincere vote toward a small party crushed by disproportionality would be a wasted vote, voters often forger this sincere vote in favor of a strategic vote where the voter's preferred candidate with little chance of winning is passed up on in favor of the second-favored candidate who has an actual chance of winning. This kills small, ineffective parties even more when coupled with the mechanical component

Does social capital promote healthy democracy? Why or why not? Give at least one example from class in which social capital facilitated non-democratic outcomes.

Does social capital promote democracy? Well, it depends on who you ask. Putnam will argue yes after evaluating the democratic divide between Northern and Southern Italy. In the Northern Region, which was marked with high social capital, strong democratic regional governments were responsible to the citizens' needs and desires. In the South, where social capital was lacking, amoral familism ran rampant, and institutions were unresponsive and worked on more of a quid-pro-quo basis. However, Berman argues that social capital may NOT lead to consolidated democracy; instead, it is only if institutions are strong and responsive that social capital leads to healthy democracy. In the case of the Weimar Republic, institutions were weak and ineffectual, and often ignored the gripings of their constituents. As a result, citizens of the Republic aggressively involved themselves in their civil society, creating a strong social capital along class lines (as opposed to across them). This form of social capital divided the already ailing country, and created space for the totalitarian NDSAP to take power. Therefore, it can be proven that a high social capital may not always lead to a burgeoning, healthy democracy.

Nelson Mandela

He was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, political leader, and philanthropist who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial reconciliation. Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.

National Socialist German Worker's Party/Nazi Party/NSDAP

Hitler's party which turned the Weimar Republic into the totalitarian Nazi state. The NSDAP went from 2% of the vote in 1928 to controlling the country in 1932 by infiltrating civil society. They began at low ranks in towns across the Weimar Republic, and worked up to leadership positions where they kicked out non-Nazis. Eventually, bowling clubs and the like became Nazi-Bowling clubs. They also had a flexible platform to include everyone, and promised to rid the country of class distinctions.

Does a correlation between tolerance of opposing viewpoints and democratic consolidation prove that liberalism is a precondition for democracy? Why or why not? What are some alternative explanations for the correlation?

Inglehart and Norris would argue that yes, in the case of tolerance (and hence, liberalism) and democratic consolidation, correlation DOES equal causation. The two argue that a lack of sexual parity and acceptance of other ways of life (homosexuality, divorce, etc) are holding back the democratic process in the Middle East, despite the fact that many Middle Easterners desire democracy. Before one can be a democrat, he/she must be a liberal. An alternative explanation is that liberalism is not the precursor to democracy, but rather, a strong civic culture. This argument comes from Putnam after he studied the divide between Northern and Southern Italy. When a high civic culture is achieved (that is, citizens engage in politics, view the public domain as a place to advance community interests, and stay informed) and develop high social capital (in the forms of dense networks of social relationships and norms of reciprocity), democracy will thrive and become consolidated.

Military Authoritarian Regime

One of Geddes' 3 Regimes. A group of military officers controls access to public office/sets policy. These officers owe primary loyalty to the military. Highly institutional and rule based. (Eg: South Korea). Worst endurance out of the 3 regimes

Personalist Authoritarian Regime

One of Geddes' 3 Regimes. Discretion of leader is paramount, he/she is unconstrained by rules and institutions, has a small inner circle built on trust, there is a narrow group of beneficiaries, and personnel is rotated to prevent alternate centers of power. (Eg: Kim-dynasty in North Korea). Middle of the road endurance when compared to the 3 regimes.

Single Party Authoritarian Regime

One of Geddes' 3 regimes. Controls office and sets policy, the party organization exercises some control over leader, controls career paths of individuals, distributes benefits, mobilizes and includes citizens. Oppositions are co-opted, and goodies are widely shared. (Eg: CCP in China). Typically the most enduring of the 3 regimes

Common Origin

One of two defining characteristics in the Parliamentary system. Common Origin indicates that there is simply ONE election in the country which elects Parliament (the legislature), and then the Parliament elites choose their PM, who in turn chooses the cabinet (the executive). There is NO direct election for the executive, as the origin of the executive is the legislature. In short, the cabinet and the PM are a subset of Parliament.

Common Survival

One of two defining characteristics of the Parliamentary system. Common Survival indicates that each branch has the power to dismiss the other. The cabinet and PM (the executive) must maintain the "confidence" of Parliament (support of majority of members on any vote), or they must resign. However, since terms of office are not fixed, the Cabinet can dissolve Parliament (the legislature) at any time and call for a snap election when it sees fit (such as Theresa May did in the summer of 2017)

Separate Origin

One of two defining characteristics of the Presidential system. Separate Origin says that the Legislature and the Executive have separate elections (though they may be concurrent). This enables split ticket voting, as well as each branch of government owes their loyalty to different parts of the electorate.

Separate Survival

One of two defining characteristics of the Presidential system. Separate survival is brought about with the adoption of FIXED terms of office; in other words, the Executive cannot remove the Legislature, and vice-versa (impeachment is a rare and formal process).

Consensual Parliamentary Systems

Parliamentary governments with more than two parties which end in either coalition or minority control. Though they are inclusive and consensus based, they are difficult to form, may be unstable, and policymaking is difficult as bipartisanship may be hard to reach (Belgium governmental crises)

Majoritarian Parliamentary Systems

Parliamentary governments with two parties which end in majority control. They are easy to form, stable, and exhibit smooth policy making. However, they are exclusive and adversarial (UK pre-2017)

Party Discipline

Party Discipline is a characteristic of both the Presidential and Parliamentary systems. In Presidential systems, there is less party discipline, as legislators are beholden to their local constituents rather than the national party to which they belong. For example, Susan Collins is beholden to the state of Maine, so she was able to vote against health care repeal despite the Republican Party wanting it done. In Parliamentary systems, party discipline is insanely high and important. A defection from the party could lead to a breakdown in the government, so it is strictly enforced. The members of the Legislature are beholden to the national party so that government can continue to function

Polarization

Polarization is found within both Presidential and Parliamentary systems. It is the stark divide between differing political ideologies. For example, polarization in America has grown huge in recent years, whereas it was not as drastic in the 90s. Polarization can lead to breakdowns in coalitions and bipartisanship, which can send Presidential democracies into deadlock and, if there are many parties, destabilization

Compare/contrast sincere and strategic voting. Give a recent example of a situation in which a voter might have faced a choice between these two ways of voting. What are the pros and cons of each option? What factors might induce a voter to vote sincerely?

Sincere voting is when a voter votes for the candidate they most wish to vote for. A strategic vote is a vote in which the voter passes up voting for his/her most preferred candidate (i.e. sincere voting) in favor of a candidate who is more likely to actually win the race. A recent example of this was the 2016 general election. Jill Stein had virtually zero chance of winning, and the candidates with a chance were Trump and Clinton. If a supporter voted for Stein, knowing her chances, he/she was practicing a sincere vote, where they were more interested in voting their heart than voting their mind. A strategic vote in this case would be passing up on voting for Stein (despite wanting to vote for her very much) in favor of voting for Clinton, who was, for that voter, the "lesser-of-two-evils" when compared to Donald Trump. They voted for their second most-proffered candidate so that their least preferred candidate had less of a chance of wining. The pro of sincere voting is that you vote for what you actually want; a con is that it may be a waster vote. A pro of strategic voting is that you have better influenced the outcome of an election; the con is that your preferred candidate loses even more of their already-dismal support. A factor which may indue a sincere vote is a system which is not SMP; that is, a PR system with an open list vote where small parties can win based purely of percentage of votes won. Therefore, if voters vote 2% for the Green Party, the Green Party is likely to receive 2% of the available seats (and the open list allows voters to choose which candidates from the Green Party get these seats as well), as opposed to the 0% of seats they would have gotten under an SMP system which would have induced a strategic vote.

African National Congress

The ANC was the leading opposition group to the apartheid-enabling National Party. Led by Nelson Mandela and Thabo Mbeki, they rallied black/African people in South Africa to rise up against racist tyranny. Though the group was outlawed in 1960, it continued to operate both as an underground organization and outside of the country (Thabo Mbeki went into exile to spearhead this operation). The ANC is far-left leaning, with certain tenets of socialism built into their platform. When De Klerk opened up South Africa to opposition parties and began to bring down apartheid, the ANC won a majority in the new government and elected Nelson Mandela as President. More recently, the ANC seems to be in a bit of internal struggle, as Jacob Zuma was just ousted from office in favor of Cyril Ramaphosa.

Chinese Communist Party

The Communist Party of China, often referred to as the Chinese Communist Party, is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China. Leadership: Xi Jinping (General Secretary) Founders: Mao Zedong, Chen Duxiu, Zhou Enlai, Li Dazhao Founded: July 1, 1921, Shanghai, China Ideology: Communism, Socialism, Maoism, Marxism-Leninism, MORE

Weimar Republic

The Democratic Republic which replaced Germany between WWI and WWII. It was marked by a semi-presidential system where the President could dismiss Parliament, call snap elections, and appoint PM/Chancellor. Parliament could dismiss President, though rarely. The Republic was a PR system in which small parties could slice up seats, thereby leading to high government AND democratic instability. center parties were slow to respond to economic plights, and so constituents lost faith in the institutions. As a result, they turned to civic life which was diced up ALONG class lines rather than across, which fostered amoral familism in the form of lack of trust, opposition to opposing ideas, and a rejection of egalitarianism. The Nazis eventually took over

Amoral Familism

The antithesis of civic culture in which all loyalty and trust are centered in the family; material, short-run gains for the family are maximized; citizens re not public spirited; and public domain is a battlefield for pursuing self-interest

Parliamentary Democracy

The defining characteristics of this system is Common Origin and Common survival. The PM is selected from the Legislature, so there is no direct election for the head of government. Government is formed when the head of state chooses a formateur to propose a government (the cabinet), which then must be voted on "with confidence" by the Parliament. Failure to maintain confidence results in a dissolution of the government. Ministers in the cabinet develop policies which go along with their portfolios, and the whole cabinet needs to support the policy before bringing it before Parliament. If even a single bill doesn't pass Parliament, government is dissolved. In this system, divided government is impossible, and party discipline is insanely high.

According to Duverger, how does the electoral system shape the party system?

The electoral system shapes the party system through Duverger's law that SMP systems tend to produce 2 parties, while PR systems tend to produce more than two. This is due to the mechanical and psychological components of the hypothesis. Mechanically, SMP systems drive down the number of parties by creating disproportionality between percentage votes won and percentage seats captures. Psychologically, voters are aware of this driving down of weak parties, and so often practice a strategic vote in place of a sincere vote in order to elect the lesser of two evils (which hurts the small parties already driven down by the mechanical component). At the same time, campaign funders are subject to the psychological component as well, by feeling that donating to these small parties is a waste of money, thereby resulting in small parties receiving little funding. Meanwhile, PR systems do NOT promote disproportionality as much, allowing voters to practice sincere voting and for campaign funders to practice sincere funding.

Duverger's Law

The hypothesis that SMP systems tend to produce 2 parties, while PR systems tend to produce more than two parties. Essentially, the higher the M in a district, the more parties a system can produce. The mechanical component to this is that SMP drives down the number of parties winning seats (effective parties) due to disproportionality. The psychological component is the knowledge of the mechanical effect forces voters to either "waste" a sincere vote on candidate they like with little chance of winning, or use a strategic vote and choose the lesser of two evils. Another psychological component is that campaign funders strategically allocate money away from these small parties which are not part of the strategic vote

Effective Number of Parties

The number of parties which have an actual chance of winning an election and influencing policy (typically two in SMP systems, more than two in PR). In Parliamentary systems, more effective parties increases the chance of coalition or minority government (government instability), while in Presidential systems, more effective parties increases the chances of serenely divided/destabilizing government (democratic instability)

Modernization Theory

The theory that economic development is the prime factor which contributes to democratization (Economic development -> Demand for Change -> Capacity for Change -> Democratization) by triggering a series of social changes (e.g. unionization, literacy). The mechanics of this theory are that rising economic conditions turns peasants to factory workers, promulgates education, increases urbanization, expands communication and transportation networks, and expands wealth and civil society. These changes increase demand for self-governance and political participation. Changes also increase capacity for collective action and protest

Presidential Democracy

This form of Democracy was spearheaded by America. The defining characteristic(s) of the system is Separation of Powers, which is organized into separate origin and separate survival (NOT functional independence). In this type of democracy, the legislature proposes most policies, but the President does hold some power. His/Her Constitutional powers include decrees and EOs (which are proactive) and vetoes (which are reactive). His/Her partisan powers include using his/her legislative majority to influence policy, as well as utilizing coalition building to organize a majority in the name of bipartisanship. Presidential democracies are marked by divided government and deadlock, which can either be simply aggravating or completely de-stablizing depending on the party system. Compared to parliamentary systems, Presidential systems have a mild amount of party loyalty.

Unified Government

Unified government is a contrasting characteristic to divided government in Presidential democracies. This is where the same party which controls the Executive also controls the Legislature. This is similar to how a 2-party majoritarian Parliamentary structure works, as it makes the minority party quite powerless. As long as party discipline remains mild-high, the governing party can pass much of what it desires

Sincere Voting

Voting as an expression of preference without thought to outcome. Vote for the party you ike best, regardless of likelihood to win (This is equivalent to voting for Jill Stein, even though you were fully aware of her inability to win and that your wasted vote effectively helped Trump). This is one of two psychological effects in VOTERS (not campaign funders) which comes about as a result of Duverger's law.

Strategic Voting

Voting with a goal of influencing the outcome. Vote for the party you like best from set of parties with a realistic chance of winning (If you LOVED Jill Stein, a strategic vote says to vote for Clinton because Stein is definitely going to lose). Can also be thought of as voting for the lesser of two evils. This is one of two psychological effects in VOTERS (not campaign funders) which comes about as a result of Duverger's law.

How does the choice of electoral rules shape governance in presidential and parliamentary systems? If you wanted to induce more coalition governments in the UK, how would you change its electoral system? If you wanted to reduce coalition and minority governments in Belgium, what electoral reforms would you initiate?

When deciding between SMP and PR systems, the outcome will inevitably be how much democratic stability you have (in Presidential systems) and how much governmental stability you have (in Parliamentary systems). Choosing SMP for Presidential systems will result in two effective parties controlling the legislature (according to Duverger's law), thereby creating majorities and therefore democratic stability. However, PR will lead to small parties dividing up the legislature, making coalitions difficult and threatening democratic stability. In Parliamentary systems, PR leads to small parties which work together in order to keep the government in order, and so coalition and minority governments are common. In the UK's SMP Parliamentary system, small parties exist, but there are only two effective parties which almost always result in majority control. To allow for more coalition governments in the UK, you would change from an SMP system to a PR system, thereby allowing smaller parties a chance to thrive and strike coalition deals. In Belgium, the best way to change to a Presidential Democracy WITHOUT small, fractious parties would be to switch to an SMP system which will result in majority governments due to the mechanical and psychological components of Duverger's Law.

Evaluate different theoretical approaches to democratic consolidation in the light of the experience of the Weimar Republic. Which theory or theories does the best job of explaining this famous example of democratic collapse?

While Putnam argues that a strong civic culture leads to democratic consolidation, it's no secret that the Weimar Republic was ripe with associations which depicted the faltering republic's love for civic culture. Berman argues that civic culture is a neutral force who's outcome for democracy is dependent on the effectiveness of the institutions of the country. If institutions are weak (as they were in the Weimar Republic), then citizens will use their political apathy to drive them into associations which are determined along class lines rather than across. In this way, there will be schisms in society, and democracy is likely to collapse

Does the absence of democracy in China and the Middle East suggest support for Huntington's "World Religions" theory?

While some argue yes, it is important to realize that this may be a correlation rather than a causation. Some Muslim-majority countries ARE in fact democracies, and China is slowly democratizing itself (prior to Xi Jinping anyway). Further, Inglehart and Norris' theory that lack of democracy in these cultures is due to gender inequality and a lack of tolerance deserve to be looked at as well.

Civic Culture

a culture of being involved in civil society, where involvement creates a social capital which mobilizes citizens. Civic culture is marked by a participatory attitude toward politics AND community life, repeated interactions with community members, high trust within communities, and high social capital (dense networks of social relationships and norms of reciprocity). High civic culture allows for communities to overcome collective action problems and eliminate free-riders.

Electoral District

a geographic unit which elects members to political office

autocracy

a regime in which the highest offices of government are NOT selected through periodic, competitive elections in which virtually all of the adult population is eligible to vote

Huntington definition of democracy

a regime in which the highest offices of government of government are selected through periodic competitive elections in which virtually all of then adult population is eligible to vote. (highest offie = executive and legislature, not necessarily direct elections, regularized and repeated elections, opposition parties legal and can campaign freely, voters have freedom to choose, respect for civil/political liberties, free of systemic and consequential fraud)

Social Capital

a symptom of strong civic culture, marked by norms of reciprocity (you do something because it is right, not because you expect something in return) and dense networks of social relationships

Disproportionality

a symptom which plagues SMP systems. It is the idea that since seats in a single-member district cannot be divided up proportionally, the biggest plurality create big winners and big losers, or in other words, the percentage of votes won by the winner (which could be, for example 48%) is way out of line with the percentage of seats won (which, in SMP systems, is always 100%). The loser who got 44% of the vote gets 0% of the single seat.

Liberalism

a system of political beliefs that emerged in Europe during the mid-17th century in response to feudalism; a political philosophy of individualism. The core norms of Liberalism are 1) limited government (protection of individual rights) 2) Diversity of viewpoints (competition is better than consensus) 3) Tolerance of dissent 4) Egalitarianism > hierarchy 4) Separation of church and state. Huntington argues that liberalism is incompatible/democracy cannot be consolidated in the Confucian, Catholic, and Islamic world due to the clash of civilizations (religious incompatibility), while Inglehart and Norris argue that inability to adopt liberalism is not a religious issue, but a sexual inequality and non-tolerance issue. Liberal norms and beliefs are a pre-cursor to Democracy

Proportional Representation (PR)

a type of electoral formula in which seats are allocated PROPORTIONALLY according to the percentage of votes won. There are different formulas within this category, such as the d'Hondt or the Saint-Hare formula. Closed list PR systems give the party more control, while open list PR systems give the voter more control

According to Robert Putnam, amoral familism is: a. The political culture of Northern Italy. b. Associated with dysfunctional government. c. A product of high social capital. d. None of the above.

b. Associated with dysfunctional government.

Closed-list Proportional Representation involves: a. Primaries to determine who runs on party lists b. Party lists with a fixed set of candidate in a fixed order c. Input from voters about the party's list of candidates d. None of the above

b. Party lists with a fixed set of candidate in a fixed order

According to Duverger's Law, how does the electoral system shape the party system? a. Single-member districts with plurality elections tend to favor a multi-party system b. Single-member districts with plurality elections tend to favor a two-party system c. Single-member districts with proportional representation tend to favor a two-party system d. Multi-party systems are more democratic than two-party systems

b. Single-member districts with plurality elections tend to favor a two-party system

Which one of the following is NOT a key norm of Liberalism: a. Tolerance of opposing viewpoints. b. Trust in government. c. Separation of church and state. d. Limited government.

b. Trust in government

Robert Putnam defines social capital as: a. Financial resources held collectively by a group. b. The quality of social events in a particular neighborhood. c. Social networks and norms of reciprocity. d. None of the above.

c. Social networks and norms of reciprocity.

electoral formula

how votes in a district are converted into a distribution of seats. There are three main types. Majoritarian (majority wins ALL seats), Plurality (party with most votes wins ALL seats), and Proportional Representation (seats allocated proportionally according to percentage of votes won)

civil society

non-state movements, organizations, and institutions that manifest the interest and will of citizens. Not necessarily effective or civil

Electoral System

the set of rules governing how votes get converted into an allocation of political offices (e.g seats in a legislature). The 3 central components of electoral systems are 1) District magnitude, 2) electoral formula, and 3) rules governing allocation of seats WITHIN parties

Democratic consolidation

when democracy becomes fully entrenched in a society. Different explanations for consolidation exist. Some argue modernization and economic development lead to a stable democracy. Linz argues it is institutions (aka, Parliamentary > Presidential) which determine consolidation. Still, Putnam says that a strong civic culture will propagate democracy, while Berman notes that this Neo-Tocquiville theory of civic culture can be either good or bad deepening on the effectiveness of institutions