Political Science 103 Final Spring 16

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

Abadgaran President: 2005-2013 First Term (2005-2009) Conservative with Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran (Abadgaran) wins presidential run-off against ex-president Rafsanjani and his Executives of Construction Party (ECP) 61.7% Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (Abadgaran) 33.9% Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani (ECP) Appealed to religious conservatives and the economically impoverished Disappointment with Khatami's inability to make real reform in the face of Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei's opposition led to low turnout among reform supporters Ahmadinejad creates international controversy in 2005 when he declares Holocaust to be a myth • Personally hosts conference that includes Holocaust deniers in December 2006 US accuses Iran of aiding Iraqi insurgents by 2006 Fifteen British sailors accused of entering Iran's territorial waters are detained • Released after thirteen days Re-opens Isfahan uranium conversion plant in 2005 and Natanz nuclear research facility in 2006 • IAEA reports Iran to the UN Security Council which imposes sanctions for violating the NPT Facing UN sanctions, Ahmadinejad raises domestic prices on oil in June 2007 • Increase leads to major protests within Iran • Agrees to allow IAEA to inspect is Arak nuclear power plan in July 2007 US imposes more sanctions in October 2007 A US National Intelligence Estimate report is released in December 2007 arguing that Iran abandoned its nuclear weapons program in 2003 • President Bush insisted Iran still a threat Ahmadinejad welcomed on March 2008 Iraq visit • First such visit since the Iran-Iraq War Conducts July 2008 Shahab-3 long-range missile, with capabilities of hitting targets in Israel Police close human rights office of 2003 Nobel Peace Prize winner Shirin Ebadi in December 2008 Ahmadinejad runs for re-election in June 2009 against independent Mir-Hossein Mousavi, a reformist backed by former President Khatami • Government announces Ahmadinejad victory by a large margin, avoiding a runoff Second Term (2009-) Despite protests, Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei backs Ahmadinejad, who is declared winner by the Guardian Council after a partial recount in June 2009 62.5% Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (Abadgaran) 33.9% Mir-Hossein Mousavi (Independent) 2.6% Others Conservatives won more than two-thirds of the Majles • After many reformists were prohibited from running Periodic new anti-government protests and violent clashes continued during 2009 • In January 2010 government executed two men for post-election protests Starts new term appointing first women to the presidential cabinet since the Revolution Increasing economic difficulties in 2010 force a replacement of general subsidies for food and gas with allowances targeted just to the less affluent New demonstrations against government began in February 2011 after leaders of Tunisia and Egypt are forced out by popular protests US accuses Iran in October 2011 of plot to to kill the Saudi Arabian ambassador to the US By April 2011, signs of tensions between Ahmadinejad and Supreme Leader Khamenei • Ahmadinejad refuses to attend cabinet meetings after Khamenei overrules his attempt to fire the country's intelligence chief Tensions with US and Israel also increase as Iran accuses those countries of cyber attacks and the killing of numerous nuclear scientists EU begins boycott of Iranian oil in July 2012 after Iran resumes uranium enrichment in January • Came on top of new UN sanctions in June 2010 and after refusal of US to accept agreement brokered by Brazil and Turkey to allow Iran to export uranium for enrichment Hardline conservative candidates backed by Khamenei make major gains during March 2012 Majles elections • Among losses for Ahmadinejad was a seat sought by his own sister • In aftermath of election, Majles forces Ahmadinejad to testify before them in order to defend his job performance Police crack down on black market currency traders in October 2012 as rial falls to just one fifth its value from the year before With women now comprising 60% of university enrollments, government forces universities in 2012 to ban them from 77 different degrees including in business, engineering, and science With Ahmadinejad forced to retire by term limits, the 2013 presidential elections became wide open • Conservatives split between supporters of President Ahmadinejad and those of Supreme Leader Khamenei • Reformists divided until former president Mohammad Khatami decided not to run and support Assembly of Experts member Hassan Rouhani • Nineteen other candidates were rejected by the Guardian Council, including former President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani

Tiananmen Square Massacre

June 3, 1989 After weeks of sit-ins by protestors demanding the late General Secretary Hu Yaobang's rehabilitation, Chinese troops are sent to clear the Tiananmen Square by force. The official death toll was 200, although many fear the actual figure is much higher.

Herrenvolk Democracy

A system of government in which only the majority ethnic group participates in government, while minority groups are disenfranchised.

Theocracy

A system of government in which priests rule in the name of God or a god.

Boko Haram

An Islamic terrorist group based in northeastern Nigeria, also active in Chad, Niger and northern Cameroon. The group's leader is Abubakar Shekau. The group had alleged links to al-Qaeda, but in March 2015, it announced its allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). Since the current insurgency started in 2009, it has killed 20,000 and displaced 2.3 million from their homes and was ranked as the world's deadliest terror group by the Global Terrorism Index in 2015. After its founding in 2002, Boko Haram's increasing radicalization led to a violent uprising in July 2009 in which its leader was summarily executed. Its unexpected resurgence, following a mass prison break in September 2010, was accompanied by increasingly sophisticated attacks, initially against soft targets, and progressing in 2011 to include suicide bombings of police buildings and the United Nations office in Abuja. The government's establishment of a state of emergency at the beginning of 2012, extended in the following year to cover the entire northeast of Nigeria, led to an increase in both security force abuses and militant attacks. Of the 2.3 million people displaced by the conflict since May 2013, at least 250,000 have left Nigeria and fled into Cameroon, Chad or Niger. Boko Haram killed over 6,600 in 2014. The group have carried out mass abductions including the kidnapping of 276 schoolgirls from Chibok in April 2014. Corruption in the security services and human rights abuses committed by them have hampered efforts to counter the unrest. In mid-2014, the militants gained control of swathes of territory in and around their home state of Borno, estimated at 50,000 square kilometres (20,000 sq mi) in January 2015, but did not capture the state capital, Maiduguri, where the group was originally based. In September 2015, the Director of Information at the Defence Headquarters of Nigeria announced that all Boko Haram camps had been destroyed.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

BJP 1996; 1998-2004 In 1996 elections Congress suffers worst ever electoral defeat • Hindu nationalist BJP emerges as largest • The BJP's Vajpayee becomes prime minister for 13 days, but is unable to hold coalition together Two replacement prime minister coalitions led by the United Front also prove unstable • 1996-1997 H.D. Deve Gowda • 1997-1998 I.K. Gujral New elections held in 1998 leads to clear plurality for BJP • BJP forms coalition government (known as the National Democratic Alliance) with a few minor parties under Prime Minister Vajpayee • First really stable non-Congress parliamentary coalition Continued economic reforms of his predecessors, including an ambitious privatization program • Sold of shares of India's profitable Hindustan Petroleum and Bharat Petroleum • But privatization program ended up moving quite slowly Detonated nuclear bomb as signal to Pakistan in 1998 test • India clearly had nuclear weapons before, but had not demonstrated them • Pakistan responded by demonstrating its own nuclear warheads • The US sanctioned both India and Pakistan by US, but lifted them shortly after 9-11 as reward to India and Pakistan in joining US "War on Terrorism" Outbreak of sporadic border fighting in Kashmir between 1999 and 2003 heightens concerns ew attacks in India by Muslim militants • December 2001 Suicide squad attacks parliament in New Delhi, killing 12 • In February 2002 Muslims set fire to a train carrying Hindus returning from a pilgrimage -Revenge killings by Hindu mobs kill over 800, mainly Muslims January 2002 India successfully test-fires a nuclear- capable Agni ballistic missile that has a 2,000 km range • Later that year Pakistan test-fires Ghauri missiles of similar capabilities Worked to improve relations with US and China • In 2000 Bill Clinton made first visit by a US President in 22 years • Reached 2003 agreement where China recognizes India's claim to Sikkim and India agrees to Chinese control of Tibet Agreed to match a Pakistani declaration of a Kashmir ceasefire in November 2003 • A January 2004 meeting between the Indian government and moderate Kashmir separatists increased optimism for an eventual peace agreement High rate of economic growth during his term led Vajpayee to be confident in 2004 elections • However opposition Congress Party wins surprise victory • Economic policies led to continued growth rate, but with greater levels of inequality domestically - Increasing support from middle class undercut Vajpayee's base among India's poor (who had been underrepresented in the polls) • Congress Party ends up winning most seats, 145 as opposed to BJP's 137

People's Democratic Party (PDP)

A generally center-right party originally based in northern Nigeria, but became the first real national party and was the politically dominant force after redemocratization in 1999 up until 2015

Tibetans

An ethnic group that is native to Tibet. They number an estimate of 7.8 million. Significant Tibetan minorities also live outside of Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) in China, and in India, Nepal, and Bhutan.

Narendra Modi

BJP 2014- With continued corruption scandals, an economic slow down, and the INC under the leadership of Rahul Gandhi, son of Rajiv and Sonia Gandhi, the 2014 general elections result in a decisive win for the BJP as led by Narendra Modi 282 seats [51.9%] BJP (31.3% of popular vote 54 seats [9.9%] Eleven other National Democratic Alliance Parties (6.7%) 44 seats [8.1%] INC (19.5%) 16 seats [2.9%] Six other United Progressive 147 Seats [27.1%] Seventeen non-aligned parties Congress Party ends up with just over one-fifth of the number of seats they had previously • In subsequent local elections, Congress Party loses ground to Muslim parties, many of whose new supporters had previously sought protection from the secular INC As chief minister of Gujarat, Modi oversaw strong growth of manufacturing jobs in the state, but had also been accused of encouraging a 2002 Hindu- Muslim riot that killed 1,000 • Supreme Court deemed there to be insufficient evidence to prosecute Modi, though the US barred his entry until his election as PM Just two weeks after taking office, acts to loosen India's environmental protection rules and rely more on "voluntary disclosure" by industry to self-police • Move seen as response to industry's criticism of cumbersome regulations and as attempt to compete with China in chemical exports • Government subsequently introduces a series of additional deregulation and tax reductions Modi visits Washington DC in September 2014, and Obama reciprocates with India trip in January 2015 Leaders push for a new $4 billion trade pact India successfully puts satellite in orbit around Mars in September 2014 Supreme Court in April 2014 recognizes transgender people (the "hijras") as a third sex • Even though the previous December, the court had re-banned homosexuality just five years after declaring such laws unconstitutional (a decision that will be reviewed again in 2016) Government threatens action against BBC in March 2015 after it broadcasts a documentary on the 2012 gang rape of an Indian medical student that the state claims painted country in an unfair light • In August government threatened to revoke licenses of three TV station for criticizing execution of a convicted terrorist • A banning of 857 internet porn sites the same month brought further civil liberties criticisms and a government reversal of the measure Federal government in March 2015 allows, India's second largest state of Maharashtra to ban the sale, consumption, or possession of beef • The BJP-backed bill had been blocked since 1995 • Controversy intensifies after Delhi-area lynching of Muslim man falsely accused of eating meat in September 2015 Decision by Modi government in 2016 to pursue sedition charges against a university student who spoke in favor of Kashmir separatism divides nation • Issue draws large protests on both sides In effort to promote greater gender equality, government announces in 2016 that it will open up military combat positions to women With a 7.5% annual growth in 2015, India becomes the fastest growing economy in the world, overtaking China, where growth rates fell to 6.9%

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

- A Hindu nationalist party that by the 1990s became a near equal rival of the dominant INC - Leads a center-right coalition known as the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) » The BJP currently has 282 seats with 11 other parties having 54 seats

Caste System

Brahmin: Priests, Academics Kshatryia: Warriors, Kings Vaishya: Merchants, Landowners Sudra: Commoners, Peasants, Servants Untouchables: Outcast-Out of caste, Street sweepers, Latrine cleaners

Indian National Congress Party (INC)

1885 - Since independence has been the dominant political party - Leads a coalition of center-left parties known as the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) » Congress currently has 44 seats, with 6 other parties having an additional 16 seats

Great Leap Forward

1958-1960 Attempted to break with Stalinist industrialization model • Mao promised:"We will get ahead of Great Britain in fifteen years" Tried to decentralize industry and move it to the countryside • "Full socialistic operatives" of about 160 households each Cooperatives tried to produce their own iron Economic effects proved disastrous • Famine killed as many as 20million Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered a cutoff of aid in 1960 • Beginning a twenty-year long "Sino-Soviet" split • Successful 1964 test of Chinese nuclear bomb furthered the country's political independence

Cultural Revolution

1966-1968 Mao decided it was necessary to eliminate emerging elites Argued for theory of the "reemergence of capitalist traits" Began "Cultural Revolution" initially against the party elites Encourage intellectuals to attack "bourgeoisie culture" Promoted a new revolutionary consciousness among the people • Students encouraged to organize "Red Guards" Some 700,000-800,000 lost their occupational positions As part of the "Down to the Countryside Movement," many urban, educated youths forcibly sent to rural areas to become agricultural workers Movement soon spun out of control • Violent clashes killed as many as 400,000 • By 1968 Mao called in the People's Liberation Army to end, though officially the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution did not end until Mao's death in 1976

Iran-Iraq War

1980-1988 The Iran-Iraq War began when Iraq invaded Iran via air and land on 22 September 1980. It followed a long history of border disputes, and was motivated by fears that the Iranian Revolution in 1979 would inspire insurgency among Iraq's long-suppressed Shia majority, as well as Iraq's desire to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state. Although Iraq hoped to take advantage of Iran's revolutionary chaos and attacked without formal warning, it made only limited progress into Iran and was quickly repelled; Iran regained virtually all lost territory by June 1982. For the next six years, Iran was on the offensive. A number of proxy forces participated in the war, most notably the Iranian Mujahedin-e-Khalq siding with Ba'athist Iraq and Iraqi Kurdish militias of Kurdistan Democratic Party and Patriotic Union of Kurdistan siding with Iran—all suffering a major blow by the end of the conflict. Despite United Nations Security Council calls for a ceasefire, hostilities continued until 20 August 1988. The war finally ended with Resolution 598, a U.N.-brokered ceasefire which was accepted by both sides. At the war's conclusion, it took several weeks for Iranian armed forces to evacuate Iraqi territory to honour pre-war international borders set by the 1975 Algiers Agreement. The last prisoners of war were exchanged in 2003.

Mohandas Gandhi

2 October 1869 - 30 January 1948 Was the preeminent leader of the Indian independence movement in British-ruled India. Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. The honorific Mahatma—applied to him first in 1914 in South Africa—is now used worldwide. He is also called Bapu in India. In common parlance in India he is often called Gandhiji. He is unofficially called the Father of the Nation.

Muhammad Khatami

2nd of Khordad President: 1997-2005 Bush includes Iran along with Iraq and North Korea as part of the "Axis of Evil" in January 2002 State of the Union address • Reformers join hard-liners in condemning speech Against US wishes, Iran begins construction on its first nuclear power plant, at Bushehr, with Russian technical help in 2002 • Begins growing confrontation with the UN, the US, and Europe over whether the country is pursuing nuclear weapons in violation of the nuclear nonproliferation treaty (NPT) Thousands join new student protest against power of the clerics in June 2003 Iranian human rights activist Shirin Ebadi first wins 2003 Nobel Peace Prize • Had been Iran's first female judge until forced out after the 1979 revolution

National Action Party (PAN)

A center-right party of former presidents Felipe Calderón (2006-2012) and Vicente Fox (2000-2006) The party was founded in 1939, and since the 1980s has been an important political party winning local, state, and national elections. It is one of the three main political parties in Mexico. In 2000, PAN candidate Vicente Fox was elected for a six-year Presidential term; in 2006, PAN candidate Felipe Calderón succeeded Fox in presidency. During the period 2000-2012, both houses of the legislature had PAN pluralities, but the party did not have a majority in either house of the Congress. In the 2006 legislative elections the party won 207 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 52 out of 128 Senators. In the 2012 Legislative Elections, the PAN won 38 seats in the Senate, and 114 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.

Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)

A centrist party of current president Enrique Peña Nieto - The PRI dominated the political system and held the presidency from 1929-2000, returning in 2012 Though it is a full member of the Socialist International, the PRI is not considered a social democratic party in the traditional sense; its modern policies have been characterized as centrist. Its membership in the Socialist International dates from the Mexican Revolution (1910) and the founding of the party by Plutarco Elías Calles (1929), when the party had a clearer social-democratic orientation. Along with its rival, the left-wing PRD (Party of the Democratic Revolution), they make Mexico one of the few nations with two major, competing parties part of the same international grouping. The PRI is the largest political party in Mexico according to membership.

All Progressives Congress (APC)

A generally center-left coalition of four parties and defectors from the PDP, which won the 2015 presidential elections. Formed in February 2013 consisting of: -Congress for Progressive Change (CPC) A party formed by Nigeria's current and former leader Muhammadu Buhari after he split from the ANPP -All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP) Highly conservative party, also based in northern Nigeria -Action Congress of Nigeria (ACN) Liberal political party based mainly in south, formed from 2006 merger of three smaller parties -All Progressives Grand Alliance (APGA) Party formed in 2003 by a former leader of the Biafra rebellion

Washington Consensus

A set of 10 economic policy prescriptions considered to constitute the "standard" reform package promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, D.C.-based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and the US Treasury Department. Austerity Reduce or eliminate the federal deficit Cut government spending Close or sell off money-losing firms the state owns End policy of cheap government loans and allow interest rates to rise to market rates Raise taxes and improve tax collection, if necessary Structural Adjustment: Promote growth based on trade and foreign investment Cut tariffs and enter into trade agreements Eliminate restrictions on foreign investment Devalue currency to reflect market exchange rate Privatize even profitable and potentially profitable firms, including to foreign investors Weaken and/or reduce enforcement of labor laws

Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)

A trade and economic policy which advocates replacing foreign imports with domestic production. ISI is based on the premise that a country should attempt to reduce its foreign dependency through the local production of industrialized products. Protection of infant industries through tariffs and quotas Provision of state subsidies for domestic manufacturers, especially through cheap loans Limitations on foreign ownership and investment Government ownership of strategic industries State promotion of higher wages

Han

An ethnic group native to East Asia. They constitute approximately 92% of the population of Mainland China, 93% of the population of Hong Kong, 92% of the population of Macau, 98% of the population of Taiwan (Han Taiwanese), 76.2% of the citizen population of Singapore,[citation needed] 24.5% of the population of Malaysia,[citation needed] and about 19% of the entire global human population, making them the largest ethnic group in the world. The Han Chinese are often referred to as "Chinese" or "ethnic Chinese" in English.[30][citation needed] They are regarded as a subset of the Chinese nation (Zhonghua mines). They sometimes refer to themselves as Yan Huang Zisun, meaning the "descendants of (god-emperors) Yan and Huang"

Yoruba

An ethnic group of Southwestern and North central Nigeria as well as Southern and Central Benin known as the Yorubaland cultural region of West Africa. The Yoruba constitute over 40 million people in total; the majority of this population is from Nigeria and make up 21% of its population, according to the CIA World Factbook, making them one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa. The majority of the Yoruba speak the Yoruba language, which is tonal, and is the Niger-Congo language with the largest number of native speakers

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

An international organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., of "189 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world." Headquartered in Washington DC Set up fund for Keynesian-type of infusion of funds to stabilize economies Works as a type of international insurance cooperative among 185 member countries • Countries join and contribute to a loan fund US was and remains only country with enough votes to veto important measures • Since it has more than 15% (currently 16.4%) • Legislation requires 85% majority • Head of IMF traditional chosen by Europe USSR refused to join and created its own Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA or COMECON) in 1949

Hassan Rouhani

CCA President: 2013- Hassan Rouhani wins on a reformist platform on the first round of the June 2013 elections 50.9% Hassan Rouhani (Combatant Clergy Association) 16.5% Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf (Islamic Society of Engineers) 11.3% Saeed Jalili (Front of Islamic Revolution Stability) 10.6% Mohsen Rezaee (Moderation and Development Party) 10.7% Others and Invalid Votes In one of his first acts, Rouhani frees 11 prominent political prisoners Quickly moves to improve relations with US • Accepts phone call from Obama during a visit to UN in New York in September • During trip denounces the Holocaust and promises to never develop nuclear weapons Upon returning from New York, orders the removal of numerous anti-American billboards in Tehran Allows Iranians to access Twitter and Facebook for the first time in five years in September 2013 • Soon after, called for greater academic freedom and lifted some restrictions of scholars visiting foreign conferences Agreed to help Iraq fight ISIS rebels in June 2014, backing militias, sending advisors, and launching airstrikes by the end of the year • Blames West for helping to fuel terrorism with its actions in September 2014 speech to the UN After a series of acid attacks on Iranian women, thousands take to the streets to protest in city of Isfahan in October 2014 Khamenei pushes Iran to double its population by banning vasectomies and further restricting access to contraception in 2015 Government pushes austerity measures inn the face of continued sanctions, diminishing value of the Rial, and falling oil prices by 2015 • Cracks down on widespread tax fraud while ending targeted subsidies for food and gas In January 2015 speech, Rouhani suggests the possibility of organizing rarely used direct referendums • Suggestion seen as way of pressuring clerics to not block his reforms Nuclear agreement with the "P5+1" nations (US, UK, France, China, Russia, and Germany) reached in July 2015 after two years of discussions initiated by Rouhani • In return for a lifting of Western sanctions,Iran agrees to UN inspections to ensure that it will not pursue nuclear weapons • Rouhani's approval rating surges to89% • Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei backs deal,but forbids further negotiations with the United States Iranian protestors torch Saudi Arabia's embassy after January 2016 execution of a key Shi'i cleric "Coalition of Hope" reformist coalition makes major gains in February 2016 Majles elections • Win more than 100 of 290 seats, as the harliners fall to 112 seats • Reformist candidates, including Rouhani himself, gain seats on Assembly of Experts as well

Deng Xiaoping

CCP (1978-1997) Secretary or President, but was China's de facto "paramount leader" until his death in 1997 • His ally Hu Yaobang formally held position of General Secretary (1982-1987) Rehabilitated "capitalist roaders" removed during Cultural Revolution Launched the "Beijing Spring" (1977-78) where the excesses of the Cultural Revolution were denounced publicly •A temporary period of openness In 1978 began controversial "one-child policy," levying fines on urban copies having more than a single child • It reduced population growth by some 200 millions over the next decades, but limited personal liberties and contributed to a 117:100 male to female birth ratio by 2000 Restored full diplomatic relations with US by 1979

Mao Zedong

CCP 1949-1976 Led successful revolution by emphasizing tactic of guerrilla war based in the Chinese countryside Begins extensive rural land redistribution in 1950 Sends forces to "liberate" Tibet, absorbing it into China in 1950 • The Dalai Lama,the Tibetan Bhuddists' spiritual leader, goes into exile in India • Mao suppresses independence revolution 1959 Sends troops to defend North Korea during Korean War (1950-1953) • Leading tumor than 100,000 Chinese combat deaths, but turning the course of the war so as to allow the survival of North Korea Begins the Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956-1957) promoting public criticisms of intellectuals under to slogan "Let a hundred flowers bloom, let the hundred schools of thought contend" • But soon after cracks down on dissidents when criticisms started to get out of hand • Mao also feared trend in the USSR with Nikita Khrushchev secret speech denouncing Stalin's crimes Launches Anti-Rightest Campaign (1957-1959) • Works to purge "Rightists," such as those advocating market reforms, from the CCP

Hu Jintao

CCP 2003-2012 Hu handpicked as successor by Jiang Zemin Facing of rural protests and growing Communist Party corruption, Hu has tried to re-emphasize the Communist ideology rhetorically SARS outbreak in 2003 stopped by large-scale quarantine effort Launches China's first manned spacecraft in October 2003 • In 2007, China successfully shot down one of its old weather satellite with a missile and launched a spacecraft to orbit the moon • In 2008 the first spacewalk by a Chinese astronaut is completed Signs trade agreement with ASEAN in 2004 joining organization in 2010 Opens railway line to Tibet, the highest train route in the word, in 2006 In 2006 Country hit be worst drought in 50 years Tours Africa in 2007 • Part of policy of increasing trade and investment with the region • Many in West criticize trade deals with the Sudan and other human rights violators Pro-Independents protests leads to widespread rioting and unrest in Tibet in March 2008 • The Dalai Lama accused Beijing of "cultural genocide" • Unrest and subsequent crackdown came as China attempted to have a smooth lead-up in hosting the 2008 Olympics Attempts to counter what was seen as an increasing decline in moral values by issuing his 2006 "Eight Honors and Eight Shames" code to encourage good citizenship rather than greed May 2008 Earthquake measuring 8.0 hits interior province of Shichuan killing at least 68,000 • Government faced criticism for permitting poor construction thousands of schoolrooms which collapsed during quake Summer Olympics held in Beijing August 2008 widely considered a success Facing scandals over the exporting of unsafe food, drugs, and consumer products in 2007 • China executes the head of its food and drug agency for taking bribes Six infants killed and hundreds of thousands of children are sickened by tainted milk in 2008 • Three managers of the private company responsible tried and sentenced to death China initially hit hard by 2008 economic crisis, but is among first countries to begin recovery • China proposes IMF issue a global currency to reduce reliance on the US dollar Protests by ethnic Uighurs in the western province of Xinjiang leads to violent clashes with police and at least 160 deaths in July 2009 • Violence continues in the months following, leading to an intensive, ongoing crackdown by security forces • New attacks by Muslim Uighur separatists in Summer 2011 leave dozens dead Massive celebration to 60th Anniversary of Chinese Revolution held in October 2009 China protests awarding of 2010 Nobel Peace Prize to Chinese human rights activist Liu Xiaobo • Liu is currently serving 11-year sentence for "inciting subversion of state power" after calling for the end of one-party rule Inspired by the Arab Spring, new set of pro-democracy protests emerge in February 2011 • "Jasmine Revolution" largely crushed by March as security forces arrest dozens China's central back reported in June 2011 that thousands of corrupt officials had stolen an estimated $120 billion of a period of two decades • Many believed to have escaped the country China launches its first aircraft carrier in September 2012 Country faces criticism during US presidential elections as a "currency manipulator" • Although renminbi had increased in value 11% relative to the dollar in previous 4 years, Chinese exports had increased 5% in previous year In run-up to leadership succession, Bo Xilai, a prominent and populist leader of Chongqing, was ousted from his position in April 2012 • Both he and his wife later convicted of corruption and the murder of a British businessman, and are sentenced to life • Some critics see move as effort to reduce the influence of the left within the CCP

Xi Jinping

CCP 2012- In a widely expected move, Vice-President Xi Jinping, 59, replaced retiring Hu Jintao, 69, as General Secretary of the Communist Party in November 2012 • Made State President in March 2013 • Also named head of the state and party Central Military Commissions, consolidating his position as Hu's successor Is the son of Xi Zhongxun, who was one of Mao's top lieutenants until he was jailed during the Cultural Revolution • Xi Jinping himself was sent to work in the countryside as a result In inaugural address emphasized the need to root out corruption and increase the responsiveness of the country's central bureaucracy • His administration has emphasized "sustainable growth" as its top priority Party loosens one child policy in 2013, allowing two children if at least one parent was an only child Violent clashes in Xinjiang in April 2013 result in 21 deaths • Government denounces action as "terrorism," although Western reports suggest that government enforcement on a ban on full veils for women to blame • Two Uighurs sentenced to death for violence in August as attacks continue Controversial "re-education through labor program" abolished in November 2013 • Program, which was begun under Mao and widely used against political dissidents, allowed incarceration without trial for up to four years • But overall arrests of dissidents increase in number, particularly in Uighur region, while Chinese language websites of New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Reuters and others are blocked China's "Jade Rabbit" lunar rover successfully sent to surface of the moon in 2013, although probe stops functioning earlier than planned Alarm raised in Japan and South Korea in 2013 when China establishes an East China Sea air defense zone covering islands disputed by the nations • By 2016, country deploys surface-to-air missiles to disputed islands in region, raising concerns even as Taiwan elects a more pro-independent president that year Country faces slowdown to 7.5% growth by 2013 to 7.4% in 2014, and 6.9% in 2015 • At first government seems willing to tolerate lower growth in order to produce better balance between export and domestic growth • As "slow growth" continues, central bank slashes interest rates in 2015 Introduces reforms in 2014 to solidify "Rule of Law" within China • Attempt to address growing perception of judicial corruption • But little control of the Communist Party over the court system

Jawaharlal Nehru

Congress Party 1947-1964 Mahatma Gandhi assassinated by Hindu extremist in 1948 First of several India-Pakistan War over disputed territory of Kashmir begins in 1948 • India sought to continue rule over largely Muslim region as per British partition as part of an effort to have a multi-ethnic, multi- religious country • Pakistan sought referendum, which most assumed Pakistan would win • War led to ongoing stalemate over control of region New Indian Constitution passed in 1950 • Democratic constitution based in part on British model • Included universal franchise • Prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, caste, and religion Congress Party (INC) wins first general elections under leadership of Nehru in 1951 Nehru emphasized development utilizing a large state sector • Model for development somewhere between traditional import substitution and a command economy • Nehru hoped to industrialize India in a generation Nehru became most important leader of the "Non- aligned movement" • Foreign policy declared as neutral in the Cold War between the US and USSR India lost brief border war with China in 1962 The INC's Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964-66) takes over as prime minister upon Nehru's death in 1964 • Fought second war with Pakistan over Kashmir in 1965

Manmohan Singh

Congress Party 2004-2014 Again led by Sonja Gandhi, the Congress Party and its "United Progressive Alliance" coalition won the May 2004 elections • As in 1991, she again subsequently refused the prime minister's position, this time in favor of Manmohan Singh As a Sikh, Singh became the first non-Hindu PM in Indian history • Has doctorate in Economics, and formerly worked with the IMF • As Finance Minister under Narasimha Rao, he was considered "Father of Economic Reform" • Came in with a strong middle class base of support and a reputation for honesty Favored mixed economy, with government ownership in many areas of infrastructure and agriculture Faced December 2004 tsunami as well as Monsoon flooding in July 2005, each which killed thousands Built upon Vajpayee's peace efforts with Pakistan • Partial Kashmir troop withdrawal in 2004 • Nuclear risk reduction treaty signed in 2007 To fight corruption, introduces a widely praised Right to Information Act in 2005 A 2006 agreement with the US on nuclear weapons inspections led to an attempted no-confidence vote • BJP accused Congress Party of using bribery to win vote Passed National Rural Employment Guarantee Act in 2005 granting every rural worker the right to 100 days of paid work per year at minimum wage India's first commercial rocket in 2007, an unmanned lunar probe in 2008, and a mars probe in 2013 India elected first women, Governor Pratibha Patil with the Congress Party, as president in 2007 India's growth rate reached 9% by 2007, the strongest in decades

Umbrella Movement

Fall 2014 A series of mass protest began on September 26, 2014 after the Chinese government announced restrictive electoral reforms giving it a veto over candidates for the local Hong Kong elections set for 2017. After pushing for a pro-democracy referendum in October, organizers back down due to internal divisions after failing to win concessions from Beijing.

Hausa-Fulani

Hausa-Fulani is a term used to refer collectively to the Hausa and Fulani people of West Africa. The two are grouped together because since the Fulani War their histories have been largely intertwined within Nigeria. For example, when the Fulani took over the Hausa city-state of Kano during the expansion of the Sokoto Caliphate, the new emirs ended up speaking the Hausa language instead of Fulfulde over the years. However, a significant portion of Fulani society are opposed to the use of this term, which has been made popular most especially in recent times by its increased use in mass media. The Hausa and Fulani together account for about 29% of Nigeria's population according to the CIA World Facebook. Nigeria's other major ethnic groupings are the Yoruba and Igbo.

Lok Sabha

Lower House of Parliament Parliament elected from single member districts, much as in Great Britain 5 year terms, subject to dissolution by vote of no confidence Terms may be extended one year with a Proclamation of Emergency 545 members currently 530 elected by states, in proportion to population 2 member appointed by President as representatives of the Anglo-India community, if not adequately represented President can also appoint 20 members from the Union territories if he believes they are otherwise underrepresented Has ultimate power over financial bills Business conducted in both Hindi and English

Chibok Kidnappings

On the night of April 14, 2014, 276 schoolgirls were kidnapped by Boko Haram in the north-east city of Chibok. Though some 53 managed to escape, most were reportedly forced to convert to Islam and sold as "brides." Even as a "Bring Back Our Girls" campaign trends internationally on social media, the government fails to secure the girls' release despite a ceasefire and repeated announcements of breakthroughs in negotiations with Boko Haram.

Muhammadu Buhari

Military 1984-1985; also 2015- In reaction to accusations of fraud in Shagari's election, General Muhammadu Buhari (who was also a Hausa-Fulani Muslim) led a new military coup Cracked down on government corruption • At one point attempting to kidnap a former Nigerian minister while he was in London in order to have him brought back and tried for embezzling $1 billion Launched "War Against Indiscipline" • Included whipping those who did not queue correctly and forcing public servants who showed up late to publicly do "frog jumps" Refusing IMF demands for a massive devaluation, slashes budgetary expenditures 15% in 1984 • At the same time, pushed import substitution industrialization policies Cracked down on public dissent, arresting numerous political opponents

Ayotzinapa Kidnappings

On September 26, 2014, 43 students from the Ayotzinapa Rural Teachers' College went missing after they were stopped by the police while traveling in commandeered busses to Iguala, Mexico for a protest. Popular outrage ensued as an investigation showed that the local police had turned the students over to the Guerreros Unidos cartel. The Iguala mayor and his wife were later arrested by the federal government for ordering the kidnapping and presumed killing of the students (remains of only two of the students have been found).

Vicente Fox

PAN 2000-2006 Fox elected as first non-PRI president in 71 years 42.5% Vicente Fox Quesada (PAN) 36.1% Francisco Labastida (PRI) 16.6% Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas (PRD) Though lacking a PAN congressional majority, Fox manages to implement several important reforms • Passes a subsidized health insurance plan in 2001 for • Secures legislation opening many government files those outside the formal sector by 2010 • Begins Progresa program of conditional aid to the poor "Oportunidades," which expanded Investigated PEMEX money financing PRI PAN was soon charged with receiving money from US supporters But a number of high-profile efforts fall short • Campaign promise to solve the Chiapas rebellion "in five minutes," fails after Congress unilaterally modifies an agreement with the EZLN • Negotiations to change the Federal Labor Law to reach any agreement • Proposals for a major tax reform initiative is blocked by Congress Attempts to have close ties with U.S. prove difficult • Hope for migration accord dashed by the September 11, 2001 attacks • Mexico opposes the US on the Iraq War in the Security Council • Growing protests over end of agricultural quotas under NAFTA • US votes to extend border fence 700 miles by the final days of Fox's term With US recession and growing competition from China, economy started to weaken after 2001 Political and social conflicts only increase after midterm elections lead to further setbacks for Fox in 2003 • Growing clashes and strikes by the nation's mining and steel workers • Police repression of a Oaxaca teachers' strike leads to a five month takeover of the town square • Police attempts to arrest flower vendors in San Salvador Atenco ends in violent clashes in 2006 and charges of police sexual abuse Mexico City Mayor and then-presidential frontrunner Andrés Manuel López Obrador of the PRD was criminally charged in April 2005 for refusing a judge' order to stop construction of a hospital access road • Move threatened to prevent him constitutionally from running for office in 2006 • Charges dropped only after a widespread domestic and international outcry

Felipe Calderón

PAN 2006-2012 Swearing-in ceremony in front of Congress marked by loud protests and scuffles between PAN and PRD deputies In one of his first moves, Calderón sent three thousand troops to cracks down on drug traffickers in Tijuana • More than 40,000 troops eventually sent throughout the country Negotiated "Merida Initiative" in 2008 for $1.6 billion in US aid to Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean to combat drug traffickers Interior Minister Juan Camilo Mouriño killed along with seven others when their plane crashed into downtown Mexico City on November 4, 2008 • While government declared crash was an accident, suspicions that drug traffickers were responsible increased after a November 11. 2011 helicopter crash killed Interior Minister José Francisco Blake Mora Kidnappers hold ex-presidential candidate Diego Fernandez de Cevallos from March to December 2010 Makes substantial cuts in spending, with executive branch salary cap saving $2.3 billion • Only military budget increased Mexican police make major arrests • Vicente Carrillo Leyva, a leader of the Carrillo Fuentes cartel arrested in April 2009 • Carlos Beltran Leyva of the Beltran Leyva cartel in January 2010 • Sinaloa Cartel leader Ignacio "Nacho" Coronel of the killed by police in July 2010 Rodolfo de la Guardia Garcia, second in charge of fighting drugs, arrested in 2008 for receiving monthly payments from Sinaloa Cartel After March 2010 killing of three US consular officials in Ciudad Juárez, Calderón called upon US to do more to combat its domestic drug sales and stop the flow of its guns into Mexico With just 62 killed in drug-related violence in 2006, the Cálderon years see violence surge • 2,837 killed in 2007 • 6,844 killed in 2008 • 11,753 killed in 2009 • 19,546 killed in 2010 • 24,068 killed in 2011 • 18,061 killed By October 31, 2012 In March 2011, after his son is killed by poet Javier Sicilia leads a series of marches joined by thousands calling for an end to the Drug War • Marches mark a major turn in public opinion against the drug war and growing reports of disappearances and human rights violations Early on sends in federal police forces to breakup ongoing occupation of the town square in Oaxaca PRD-led government in Mexico City legalized abortion during first 12 weeks of pregnancy in April 2007 Introduces "First Employment Program" giving bonuses to companies hiring first time workers • Seen as effort to reduce migration to US Faced protests in 2007 as US demand for ethanol drives up corn prices • Responds with "Tortilla Pact" with business sector to limit prices to 35 cents per pound Hard hit by world recession, Mexico's GDP contracted 6.0% in 2009 July 2009 congressional midterm elections result in sharp loses for the PAN and PRD • PRI becomes largest party in Congress, with 45% of seats in both Senate and Chamber of Deputies In October 2009 closes Mexico City's public electric company, citing firm's inefficiency • Provoked an ongoing conflict with one of the country's oldest and most democratic unions

Olusegun Obasanjo

PDP, Military 1976-1979; 1999-2007 Took power after the 1976 assassination of Gen. Murtala Muhammed during a failed coup attempt by pro-Gowon military • Had been the second in command under Muhammed Agreed to hold democratic elections in 1979 • Oversaw the adoption of a new constitution based on that of the US rather than Great Britain Including the creation of a directly elected President for the first time After election, retired from the military • As an ethnic Yoruba, his willingness to hand over power to a non-Yoruba made him quite unpopular with his own people Released from prison (where he was facing a death sentence) upon Abacha's death, Obasanjo won relatively clean elections with 62.6 percent of the vote • Had become born-again Christian in prison •Won support from both the North and East,but lost in his own Yoruba region of the West, which went for his opponent and fellowYoruba Christian, Olu Falae •Election marks start of the "FourthRepublic" Formed a "Truth and Reconciliation Commission" to investigate human rights abuses under Abacha •Although without the power to grant amnesty to those who testify, it proved effective than the one it was modeled after in South Africa Faced an impeachment drive among members of his own PDP party in 2002 after he cut the National Assembly's budget in light of falling oil revenues •Crisis later resolved when he apologized and negotiated certain concessions Raised the minimum wage substantially Led campaigns against corruption in Nigeria and (as head of the African Union) the promotion of democracy in Africa Won re-election in 2003 with 61.8 percent, against against another former military leader (and future president), Muhammad Buhari •Election marred by voting irregularities and a return to voting along ethnic lines, with Buhari winning in the North and Obasanjo in the East andWest Faced drive by Northern states to implement shari'a •Has led to political clashes over harsh criminal sentences handed down in the North Sporadic violence between Christians and Muslims in the North has led to more than 15,000 deaths •Including internationally reported rioting over the initial locating of a "Miss World" pageant in Kaduna

Carlos Salinas

PRI 1988-1994 Salinas officially gained majority after computers fixed a day later: 50.3% 30.1% Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas (FDN) 16.8% Manuel Clouthier (PAN) Conservative National Action Party (PAN) finishes third and votes with the PRI to immediately destroy the ballots from the election Carlos Salinas (PRI) Salinas greatly increases the pace of p • Including Telephones (Telmex), Banks, Mines, rivatizations Petrochemicals and Continued wage-price agreements Government-owned Media • With low inflation, introduces a "New Peso" in support of his economic Received new US loans program Targets social spending through "National Solidarity Program" PRI turns around politically by 1991 midterm elections Negotiated North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), taking effect January 1, 1994 Very popular domestically and internationally through 1993, but faces a series of crises in 1994 • Indigenous uprising in the southern state of Chiapas on January 1 • Assassination of his anointed successor, Luis Donaldo Colosio in March • A second political assassination of the #2 man in the PRI in September • A very severe currency crisis shortly after he steps down in December The PRI's replacement for Colosio, Ernesto Zedillo, does poorly, until his main opponent mysteriously stops campaigning a month before the election

Enrique Peña Nieto

PRI 2012- Reorganized federal police force and de-emphasize fighting drug trafficking, focusing more on other crimes • Forms 10,000 member national "Gendarmerie" force of soldiers with general police duties their success in ousting the Knights Templar cartel from their town was popular nationally Passes extensive education reform law over objections of teacher's union in February 2013 • Measures include new standards for teacher hiring and advancement The day after the reform's passage, the powerful head of the teacher's union, Elba Esther Gordillo, was arrested for embezzling $200 million in Funds • Gordillo had been key PRI supporter for two decades until backing Calderón in 2006 election Army in April 2014 groups that had fought drug traffickers in Michoacán begins disarming "self defense" • Though accused of vigilanteism by the government In the face of rising obesity rates, adds 10% tax on soft drinks and 5% tax on junk foods • Obesity rates tripled in years since NAFTA, surpassing the US to have the world's highest rate (32.8% of population) by 2013 Pushes through 2013 reform bill to bring more economic competition to telecommunications Mexico in broadcasting and • These sectors currently controlled by large monopolies and oligopolies, particularly Televisa and Carlos Slim's América Móvil Signs controversial law in August 2014 opening petroleum sector to foreign investment, ending PEMEX's monopoly • Shares oil profits with investors, while keeping production Mexican held Amends Constitution to allow re-elections for members of congress in 2014 for the first time since the Revolution

Combatant Clergy Association (CCA)

Party of current President Hassan Rouhani and one-time party of former president Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani (1989-1997)

Goodluck Jonathan

People's Democratic Party 2010-2015 Elected Term (2011-2015) With military corruption and mismanagement, anti-Boko Haram efforts falter and other forces take up fight • Anti-Boko Haram vigilantes begin attacks, many withunofficial government support • As attacks spread to Cameroon, Niger, and Chad, those countries begin to fight Boko Haram, with Chad showing particular effectiveness By end of Jonathan's term, Boko Haram conflict killed an estimated 17,000 and displaced more than 1 million • Attacks included a July 2014 assassination attempt against then ex-president Muhammadu Buhari, the use of children as suicide bombers by 2015, and a raid on the northern border town of Baga killing some 2,000 in January 2015 • In March 2015 the terrorist group declared its allegiance to ISIS as its "West African province," controlling some 20,000 square miles of territory After $20 billion in oil revenues was reported lost 2013, Jonathan fired the man investigating the issue Jonathan in January 2014 signs a controversial ban on same-sex relations, marriages, or gay rights organizing • Violators can receive up to 14 years in prison Estimated size of the Nigerian economy increased by 89% after long-delayed technical revisions released in April 2014 • With GDP now at $509 billion, Nigeria surpassed South Africa as the continent's largest economy World Health Organization declares Nigeria Ebola-free, in October 2014 praising its effective response to the diagnosis of 20 people the month before After accusing him of "high corruption," ex-President Obasanjo and other PDP leaders quit and join newly-formed APC when Jonathan seeks re-election in 2015 despite "gentleman's agreement" In one of his final acts in office, Jonathan signs legislation banning female genital mutilation • Nearly 20 million women in Nigeria are estimated to have had procedure

Muhammad Mosaddeq

Prime Minister 1951-1953 In 1953, his government was overthrown in a coup d'état orchestrated by the American Central Intelligence Agency and the British Secret Intelligence Service. An author, administrator, lawyer, and prominent parliamentarian, his administration introduced a range of progressive social and political reforms such as social security, rent control, and land reforms. His government's most notable policy, however, was the nationalization of the Iranian oil industry, which had been under British control since 1913 through the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC/AIOC) (later British Petroleum and BP). Many Iranians regard Mosaddegh as the leading champion of secular democracy and resistance to foreign domination in Iran's modern history. Mosaddegh was removed from power in a coup on 19 August 1953, organised and carried out by the CIA at the request of MI6, which chose Iranian General Fazlollah Zahedi to succeed Mosaddegh. While the coup is commonly referred to in the West as Operation Ajax after its CIA cryptonym, in Iran it is referred to as the 28 Mordad 1332 coup, after its date on the Iranian calendar. Mosaddegh was imprisoned for three years, then put under house arrest until his death and was buried in his own home so as to prevent a political furor.

Muhammad Reza Pahlavi

Shah 1941-1979 In a reaction by religious conservatives to his modernization program, and by others to his dictatorial rule, massive street protests and rioting begin in 1978 • The Shah responds by declaring Martial Law in September 1978 Forced into exile by protests on January 16, 1979 • By April 1, 1979, the "Islamic Republic of Iran" is declared by referendum The former Shah enters the US for medical treatments, leading to the new government's demands that he be extradited • Iranian student's seized the US embassy on November 4 demanding his return • Reza Pahlavi leaves the US, but dies of cancer in Egypt on July 27, 1980

Ruhollah Khomeini

Supreme Leader 1979-1989 From exile in Paris, led a 1979 revolution against the Shah • Became central figure in a broad anti- Shah movement that included everything from an Islamist right to a Communist left After period uncertainty during the revolution's first, was able to consolidate his position as the country's Supreme Leader for life Allowed students to take over US embassy in December 1979, and hold embassy personnel hostage for 444 days Ousted first post-revolutionary President Abolhassan Bani-Sadr (1979-1981) after he denounced the theocratic government as a dictatorship

Ali Khamenei

Supreme Leader 1989- Had served as president of Iran (1981-1989) for most of Ayatollah Khomeini's term • Elevated in spite of lacking the strong religious credentials of a Grand Ayatollah • Was replaced as president by Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani (1989-1997), who would go on to serve a full two terms Alleged sponsorship of terrorism and efforts to develop nuclear arms led to the US to impose oil and trade sanctions on Iran in 1995 Election of reformers in 1997 result in eight year conflict over the direction of the Iranian Revolution • One in which Khamenei eventually prevails

Igbo

The Igbo people are an indigenous linguistic and cultural people of southern Nigeria. Geographically, the Igbo homeland is divided into two unequal sections by the Niger River- an eastern (which is the larger of the two) and a western section. Culturally and linguistically, the Niger River has provided an easy means of communication and unity amongst the Igbo natives on both sides, as well as promoted ancient trade and movement of peoples between Igboland and rest of the world.

Kashmir Dispute

The Kashmir conflict is a territorial conflict between India, Pakistan, and to a limited degree, China. It started just after the partition of India. India and Pakistan have fought three wars over Kashmir, including the Indo-Pakistani Wars of 1947 and 1965, as well as the Kargil War. Furthermore, the two countries have been involved in several skirmishes over control of the Siachen Glacier. India claims the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir, and, as of 2010, administers approximately 43% of the region. They control Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, and the Siachen Glacier. India's claims are contested by Pakistan, which administers approximately 37% of Kashmir, namely Azad Kashmir and the Northern Areas, or Gilgit-Baltistan. China currently occupies Demchok district, the Shaksgam Valley, and the Aksai Chin region. China's claim over these territories has been disputed by India since China took Aksai Chin during the Sino-Indian War of 1962.

Uighurs

The Uighurs are a Turkic-speaking Muslim ethnic group native to China's far western region of Xinjiang, which was sporadically controlled by Chinese dynasties over the centuries.

General Secretary

The true chief executive, has the primary powers of a head of government • Selected by Party Congress upon recommendation of Politburo & Secretariat • The General Secretary will often also take on the title of President once he has consolidated his position politically • Position called "Chairman" until 1982 Constitution where it was dropped because the term was too associated with Mao

Majles

Unicameral Legislature 290 seats elected with staggered four year terms - Seats are taken by top runners in multi-member districts - Can remove cabinet members and investigate government officials - All laws must also be approved by the Council of Guardians

Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

Unofficially, the most powerful positions within the government are those of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), effectively the only real political party (although since 1993 eight other loyal "United Front" parties are permitted and are officially consulted with). General Secretary • The true chief executive, has the primary powers of a head of government • Selected by Party Congress upon recommendation of Politburo & Secretariat • The General Secretary will often also take on the title of President once he has consolidated his position politically • Position called "Chairman" until 1982 Constitution where it was dropped because the term was too associated with Mao Politburo (AKA Political Bureau) • Approximately 20 members • Acts as a type of executive committee, where there is a certain degree of discussion and internal debate • Elects a smaller (6 member) and more powerful Central Advisory Committee (or Standing Committee) who are the most important leader Secretariat • 11 member Cabinet, with most members also in the Politburo • Serves as a proving ground for new leadership Central Military Commission (Party CMC) • Controls the People's Liberation Army (PLA) Less powerful positions within the Chinese Communist Party include: Central Committee • 200+ members • Rubber stamps leadership choices for Politburo & Secretariat Party Congress • Held every five years • Rubber stamps nominations to the Central Committee that are made by the Politburo & Secretariat • Currently around 2,000 delegates at each Rank and File Party Members • Honorific title conferred on citizens who are most favored • Grants certain economic positions and social mobility, although they lack real power unless they reach the Politburo or Secretariat

Biafra War

Was a war fought to counter the secession of Biafra from Nigeria. Biafra represented nationalist aspirations of the Igbo people, whose leadership felt they could no longer coexist with the Northern-dominated federal government. The conflict resulted from political, economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions which preceded Britain's formal decolonisation of Nigeria from 1960 to 1963. Immediate causes of the war in 1966 included a military coup, a counter-coup, and persecution of Igbo living in Northern Nigeria. Control over oil production in the Niger Delta played a vital strategic role. Within a year, the Federal Military Government surrounded Biafra, capturing coastal oil facilities and the city of Port Harcourt. The blockade imposed during the ensuing stalemate led to severe famine—accomplished deliberately as a war strategy. Over the two and half years of the war, about two million civilians died from starvation and diseases. This famine entered world awareness in mid-1968, when images of malnourished and starving children suddenly saturated the mass media of Western countries. The plight of the starving Biafrans became a cause célèbre in foreign countries, enabling a significant rise in the funding and prominence of international non-governmental organisations (NGOs). Britain and the Soviet Union were the main backers of the Federal Military Government in Lagos, while France and some independent elements supported Biafra. France and Israel provided weapons to both combatants.