Prehistoy/ Near East/ Egypt

Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes. Persepolis, Iran. Persian. c. 520-465 B.C.E. Limestone.

Content: 72 columns each 24 meters tall extremely intricate The column capitals were animals bulls, eagles, and lions; all symbols of royalty 2 monumental staircases The walls were carved with illustrations of hundreds of figures bringing offerings to the king from all the states conquered by the Persian Empire Form: Carved primarily of Limestone The carvings on the walls were bas-relief Display the importance and authority of the King The column capitals were high-relief Only a few examples remain The hall was hypostyle architecture columns holding up the roof Context: Built in Persepolis in the Persian Empire, modern day Iran 6th century BCE Built by Darius I The Persian empire was very tolerant for the era represented in the bas-relief carvings displaying all the ethnic groups the Persians conquered Was later conquered by Alexander the Great Even he was impressed by the Persian empire and culture as he respectfully buried the last Persian Emperor (Darius III) Function: Represent the expansive nature of the Persian Empire and Emperor's power Ceremonial Hall Served as the center of the Persian Empire's capital

WHite temple and its ziggurat. Uruk . Sumerian. c. 3500-3000 bce Mud brick

Content: White temple: - bright white - high above the town (40 feet tall) - 17.5 by 22.3 meters - tri-partite plan - long rectangular central hall with rooms on either side - three entrances (none face ramp) - walk around the temple once exiting the ramp to be able to enter - turn 90 degrees once entering the temple to face the altar Inside the White temple: - north, east and west chambers have staircases - chambers in middle of northeast room had wooden shelves and (possibly) a solid door - north end of central hall had a podium (accessible through a staircase) - north end of central hall had altar with fire-stained surface Ziggurat - raised platform with 4 sloping sides - sides are broad but broken up by recessed bands from top to bottom - steep stairway from bottom to ramp - ramp wrapped around the north end Form: - Ziggurat is made from mud bricks - flat top of ziggurat is coated with bitumen (asphalt) - bitumen overlaid with brick to create protection from water - temple itself was whitewashed Context: - located in Uruk (modern Iraq) - this is where the first written story is from (where writing first emerged) - most ziggurats had religious connotation Function: - Used for both government and religion (theocratic) - used for rituals and sacrifices (leopard and lion bones) - fire pit - altar - scribes found / tablets found - signifies centralized authority - both god and government in one building - Dedicated to the sky god Anu

House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Italy

Context Many wealthy families of Pompeii fled to other Roman cities after Earthquake of Pompeii in 62 CE Created a vacuum of wealthy families; a new upper class emerged consisting mainly of freedmen Conviva and Restitutus were both freedmen, new to wealth and status. House owned by Aulus Vettius Conviva and his brother, Aulus Vettius Restitutus. Conviva was an augustalis, a position of the highest civic office a freedman could attain. To become augustalis like Conviva, one had to make a significant donation to a public works project. House excavated first from 1894-1896. 2 of the rooms opening onto the peristyle were still being painted at the time of the eruption Speculated the brothers got their wealth from being wine merchants, and effectively bought their elite status Domestic art (wall painting and sculpture) after the Earthquake became markedly sexual and less morally clean. Newly rich homes had art with mythological and cult paintings to impress their guests and pronounce their status. Form Covers 1,100 sq. meters Demonstrates Pompeii's late artistic and architectural styles (was still being completed at Vesuvius eruption.) No office space (tablinum): could show they have no differential between public and private affairs (they were social climbers; not extremely private perhaps.) The house's paintings and interior decoration indicate a theme of forward-thinking Layout demonstrates the relatively public nature of Roman houses Large entertainment rooms also served as places of commerce and business Only rooms that were truly private were servant's quarters and women's "gynaeceum" Content Wall paintings, called "decorative schema" have meaning disputed amongst Art Historians Some think wall paintings represent the transition from Pompeii's 3rd to 4th style of painting Others think the paintings are examples of only 4th-style-Pompeiian painting. Fourth style wall paintings were generally expansive and imitated higher art; they turned rooms into galleries* Contains two large, central halls (atria) Largest of the rooms opening on the peristyle contains wall paintings in red and black Has detailed motif of putti/erotes: mythical winged gods of love The impluvium (water basin) lies at the center of the atrium for collecting rain. Increasedly sexual nature of the paintings and artwork marks a decline in Pompeii's moral standards and decency. Phallic figures, god Priapus, females being sexual objects and raped by men and gods. Depictions of nude males, however, symbolized "fertility" and protection of the house... Graffiti found on the house suggests prostitution was a common and inexpensive ordeal in Pompeii at the time Wall paintings depict Cupids collecting grapes; it was later discovered that Pompeii was home to great vineyards Function To display the wealth and status (albeit newly gained) of the brothers Vettii 2 lockboxes for storing valuables were displayed proudly in the vestibulum Painting of the god Prianus was displayed in the vestibule; he weighs phallus against money Painting may have showed the Vettii's unique ambitions and motivations for wealth, differing from the traditional Roman wealthy families' ways. The smaller atrium functioned as a service area Peristyle and its rooms functioned for dining and entertainment Insight into Pompeiian domestic architecture and design (specifically at the transition from 3rd to 4th style) Significant in size Indicates the changes in design of Roman Houses around the 3rd quarter of the first century CE. Indicates social mobility in Pompeii around that time; brothers went from freedmen to very wealthy Leads to historical discoveries (like in 1970 --> discovered that Pompeii had grown grapes; paintings in house depict grape-picking)

Peplos Kore from the Acropolis

Context c. 530 B.C.E. Acropolis (ancient citadel on a hill) at Athens, Greece Artist unknown Content Kore statue (young maiden) Most likely one of the maiden goddesses A peplos robe (not confirmed*) Arm extended with the intent of holding something, breaks mold of static Archaic statues Object was lost to time (may indicate which goddess is depicted) Classical Egyptian stance (prior to Contrapasto) Facial expression alludes to unearthly wisdom, association with transcendance and being above humanly emotion Form Brightly pigmented paint Much of which still remains (red of the hair and eyes) Skirt formerly colored, designed with animals (such as the sphinx, horses, and possibly goats) Fine-grained Parian marble (white) Missing left arm Tightened waist Breasts revealed beneath drapery Rounded, naturalistic face Hair falls naturally on her figure (natural theme) Free-standing Function (*interpretations) To honor and depict a Greek goddess (likely Artemis) Place holder for altar in Greek temple > Acropolis Kore often used to mark graves, were offerings to the gods (6th-5th c. B.C.E.) Physical representation of a deity (specifically the goddess Artemis or Athena), which is the most likely option as she is clothed differently than all other korai found at the Acropolis "Kouros and kore figures stand frontally, bolt upright, and with squarish shoulders. Hair is knotted, and the ears are a curlicue. Figures are cut free from the stone as much as possible, although arms are sometimes attached to thighs. As in Egyptian works, kouros figures have one foot placed in front of the other, as if they were in mid stride. The shins have a neat crease down the front, as Egyptian works do." --Greek Art, Content Area: Ancient Mediterranian, p. 105 Unlike its male counterparts, this Kore statue is clothed. She is assumed to be wearing a peplos, a rich outer robe or shawl worn by women in ancient Greece, hanging in loose folds and sometimes drawn over the head, which is where the name comes from--although there really isn't a way to tell what it actually is. Originally, she was painted in bright colors, and her arm was once extended, presumably holding an object. Scholars say she was most likely Artemis or Athena, but it's impossible to be sure because we don't know whether she held a bow or not. Artemis is the most likely choice, due to how her appearance contrasts with the other Kore figures, and the color and decoration of the figure's costume. Overall, the Peplos Kore reflects the Classical ideal.

Anavysos Kouros Archaic Greek. c. 530 B.C.E. Marble with remnants of paint Geometric almost abstract forms predominate, and complex anatomical details, such as the chest muscles and pelvic arch, are rendered in beautiful analogous patterns. It exemplifies two important aspects of Archaic Greek art—an interest in lifelike vitality and a concern with design.

Context: 6th century B.C.E. Archaic period (700-480 BCE) First obtained iron Chisels in this period Iron, being much denser than anything earlier works were carved with, allowed the Greeks to carve out of harder stones like marble Unknown artist Found in the cemetery of Anavysos Grave marker for Kroisos Died in a war, "Slain by the wild Ares" Content: Slightly larger than life size roughly 6'4" Representation of ideal male youth gives the work its name "Kouros" literally means youth Form: Extremely idealized male figure very muscular and lean Egyptian style stance Tense and flexing his muscles Completely naked shows off the realistic and proportional anatomy Neatly Braided hair Function: A Kouros was very popular in ancient Athens Thousands were made and were used in a couple different ways Most commonly used as grave markers (like this particular Kouros) offerings to a god less common but as a representation of god, usually Apollo This Kouros was set up by aristocratic family as a grave marker for their son Is not a portrait but simply an idealized figure Anavysos Kouros is a transition for this type of work sculptures from earlier in the 6th century BCE were more abstract The focus on Realism indicates a society that revered the human form, and desired to understand the natural environment as a series of cause and effect arguments. Differed from the Egyptian statues in this way The only real similarities between the cultures is the body position

Sarcophagus of the Spouses Etruscan. c. 520 B.C.E. Terra cotta The Sarcophagus of the Spouses as an object conveys a great deal of information about Etruscan culture and its customs. The convivial theme of the sarcophagus reflects the funeral customs of Etruscan society and the elite nature of the object itself provides important information about the ways in which funerary custom could reinforce the identity and standing of aristocrats among the community of the living.

Context: Found in an Etruscan tomb in a necropolis, Banditaccia at Cerveteri This is considered the most important work ever found in one of these tombs Only history of the Etruscans being the art and the inscriptions that came with them there are two versions of this work One in the Louvre in Paris The other in the Etruscan Museum in Rome Both are meant to be appreciated as the same work The Etruscans were in Northern Italy just North of the Romans Before the Romans became the vast empire that they are remembered as Made in 520 BCE, 11 years before the last Etruscan King was kicked out of Rome Found in approximately 400 hundred pieces other Important work being "The Tomb of Triclinium" Form: Painted Terra Cotta High-relief Relaxed figure Odd considering concurrent works would be the Kouros in Greece those being extremely stiff Split twice Once sagittally and once to separate the lid and the base Most likely so that it would fit in a kiln Content: two figures Man and a woman Previous greek statues were mostly free standing With both together, it creates a sense of intimacy Both are seemingly reaching out, creating depth and a 360 degree work of art The figures are thought to have held something in their hands, however, what exactly that was is not clear Could have been objects relating to a banquet Not a portrait Have the Archaic Smile Function: takes the form of a bed, upon which the deceased are resting Serves similarly to the Kouros Gravemarker Indicative of burial practices Displays the importance of the woman in Etruscan culture by displaying the woman with her husband In greece, the banquets were reserved for just men

Battle of the Romans and Barbarians (Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus), c. 250-260 C.E. (Museo Nazionale Romano-Palazzo Altemps, Rome)

Context: sarcophagi start to appear more commonly in the beginning of the second century found at a tomb near Porta Tiburtina (a gate in the Aurelian Walls of Rome) no one knows whose sarcophagus this is, but whoever it was was rich (to buy such a large piece of marble and high such a skilled sculptor would have been expensive) created at a time in Roman history which was marked by instability and civil wars (and preceded by stability and peace) this historical shift is clear in the chaotic, complex nature of this piece moves away from high classic Greek art (in fact, it's almost the opposite!) less focused on the beauty of the human body and more focused on the interactions between people an example of the typical artistic style of Late Imperial Rome (also includes aspects common to the Late Antique period) this style is marked by emotional subject matters and a lack of realistic space inspired by the Hellenistic style (as seen the movement and density of the composition) named for its first modern owner, Ludovico Ludovisi Form: made of white marble high (like REALLY HIGH) relief some of the figures are almost completely disconnected from the base incredibly detailed carvings made with a drill used to mimic the intensity and chaos of the battle at some places, this piece has 4 layers of figures on top of on top of each other (!!!) the figures along the bottom are physically smaller makes a viewer feel like they are looking down upon them the sculptor uses shields and other aspects to frame and intentionally highlight certain figures this piece greatly utilizes the alternation and contrast of light and darkness to guide a viewers eye the shadows caused by the multiple layers of carving and the extremely high relief greatly contribute to the piece Content: generally the figures lack individuality Romans = very clearly the noble soldiers and good guys in this piece. This can be seen through their appearance. The Romans have... attractive characteristics serious expressions smooth skin The Goths/the Barbarians/The Gauls (celtic tribes that were in Western Europe) = the enemy They are displayed disdainfully (in the same way the Greeks portrayed them) with... puffy cheeks and noses wild expressions uncivilized, primitive features rough, uneven skin The Hero - the man in the top center of the sarcophagus the clear focal point (the only somewhat open space in the midst of a tangled mess) splayed out open-chested strong fancy, heavy draped armor no weapon likely a general no helmet = invincible Everything is MOVING! Movement is KEY to this piece. a narrative piece the sarcophagus displays dozen of stories through the individual interactions between figures Function: Created to mark the grave of a rich, unidentified Roman (many scholars believe that the sarcophagus belongs to the splayed-out-focal-point-man in the carvings)

Acropolis Athens, Greece. Iktinos and Kallikrates. c. 447-410 B.C.E. Marble The most recognizable building on the Acropolis is the Parthenon, one of the most iconic buildings in the world, it has influenced architecture in practically every western country.

Iktinos and Kallikrates are credited with the architectural design of the Parthenon artists begin to sign their names to their work for the first time in Ancient Greece move from artisans to artists Parthenon housed the treasury civic purpose rather than religious, ritual purpose written inventory discovered kept record of valuables Phidias responsible for Athena Parthenos (tall statue of Athena featured in interior of Parthenon) worship happened OUTSIDE greek temples at individual altars or smaller neighboring temples visible from far away, visual focal point of city symbol of ritual power and political power perfect proportions and harmony columns carved exactly the same entasis: slight bulge in the taper of the columns affect perfection by tricking the imperfect human eye allusion of perfection x=2y+1 was pretty well preserved for almost 2000 years only in the modern era that it became a ruin balance between theoretical and physical architects designed this building to elicit a specific response from the people who visit it

Great Pyramids of Giza

Pyramids of Giza and general layout Pyramid of Khufu Pyramid of Khafre Great Sphinx Pyramid of Menkaure

Temple of Minerva (Veii, near Rome, Italy) and sculpture of Apollo. Master sculptor Vulca. c. 510-500 B.C.E. Original temple of wood, mud brick, or tufa (volcanic rock); terra cotta sculpture.

Vocabulary Terra cotta - a hard ceramic clay used for building or for making pottery Tufa - a porous rock similar to limestone Tuscan order - an order of ancient architecture featuring slender, smooth columns that sit on simple bases; no carvings on the frieze or in the capitals Temple of Minerva (Portonaccio Temple) Completely Identify: Artist Unknown 15th-16th century Tufa, terra cotta Etruscan Assisi, Central Italy Form: Doric columns The temple itself is completely dilapidated, only the model and the floor plan remain accurate and interpretable information Original etruscan temples had stone foundations (longer lasting) and wood, mud brick, or terracotta superstructures that were brightly colored Most etruscan temples no longer exist today because of the fragility of the materials they were made of Divided into two parts Deep front porch with widely-spaced Tuscan columns Back portion divided into three separate rooms Triple cella → see content for more information High podium and frontal entrance → different from Greek temples Made of wood (all Etruscan temples were) NOT** made from stone (unlike Greek temples) Function: Was dedicated to the goddess Minerva (Athena) Demonstrates an Etruscan assimilation of Greek gods Etruscan versions of Greek gods/goddesses would take on different names Values of the gods/goddesses would occasionally be adjusted slightly to fit more with Etruscan values/beliefs Happened when the Etruscans assimilated with the Greeks after a victory against the Persians Content: Long enduring tufa-block foundations provide the only remaining context for the location, function, and structure of this temple Square footprint is reminiscent of Vitruvius's description of a floor plan with proportions that are 5:6 (deeper than it is wide) Three-room configuration ("triple cella") Reflects strategic planning to indicate a possible divine trio (Menrva, Tinia, Uni) Temple contained masks, antefixes, decorative details Terra cotta figures were originally placed on the ridge of the temple's roof (see statue of Apollo!) Set up as a tableau, creating a horizontal register that can be viewed from far away Context: How do art historians know what Etruscan temples looked like? Documented in Vitruvius' book De Architectura in the late first century B.C.E., in which he documented key elements of Etruscan temples Inspired Renaissance architects with the use of 'Tuscan' columns Worship of Etruscan Gods and Goddesses originally happened out in nature with ritual spaces, but contact with Greek culture eventually lead to the creation of Etruscan temples Etruscan temples were generally located in ritualistically sanctified groves open to the sky Location: Veii near Rome, Italy 18 kilometers north Date: 15th-16th century (dated by knowledge of the floor plan) Themes: Sacred spaces Connection to the divine Depictions of the human body Cultural assimilation Sculpture of Apollo (Aplu, or Apollo of Veii) Completely Identify: Artist Unknown 510-500 B.C.E. Painted terra cotta Etruscan From the roof of the Portonaccio Temple, Veii, Italy Form: 5 feet 11 inches tall Painted terracotta Skin, clothes, and support painted in vibrant, contrasting colors to accommodate viewing from far away and in direct, harsh sunlight Frozen in motion; taking a stride (Contrapposto) Right arm extended, both hands broken off (right at the wrist, left at the beginning of the forearm) Non-naturalistic depiction of the body, idealism common in depictions of both gods and humans Drapery displays and conceals certain parts of the body (beginnings of the "wet clothing technique") Creation of shadows to create depth and realism Outlining of limbs to emphasize motion Archaic smile, but definite gaze at someone/something in the distance Hair is knotted and twisted into knobs Similar to the Kouroi statues of the archaic period Part the sculptural program of the temple of Minerva, and was placed on the peak of the temple's roof Function: Placed at the peak of the temple's roof On display for all to see from any distance Might have been part of a larger telling of a myth or legend shown with other terracotta sculptures of gods on the roof This statue of the Etruscan interpretation of Apollo was likely a central figure in this narrative A statue of Hercules (or Hercle to the Etruscans) was also found at the site Struggled in a contest for the Gold Hind, a deer sacred to his sister Artemis Other figures found on the roof seem to be spectators or an audience watching the scene happen The Etruscans were the first to introduce the idea of tableaus on a temple's roof Creates a dramatic scene with the sky as the backdrop Viewable/distinguishable from very far away, which is needed when considering the scale of the temples being built at this time Content: Depicts the Etruscan interpretation of the Greek god Apollo (not original Greek style) Headdress, donned in drapery lined with gold Folded in looplets Broad shoulders, defined abdomen, prominent facial features Dark skin (stylistic) Idealized figure represents greek celebration of the human form Attached to an intricately carved pillar/support Holds the statue upright and compensates for its weight Facing Herakles in opposition, part of the supposed narrative being displayed (see function for more information about the myth this part of the program might represent) Part of a narrative: the counterpart (no longer intact) was Heracles battling the Gold Hind of Diana Context: Location: Veii near Rome, Italy Roof of Portonaccio temple Date: c. 510-500 B.C.E. Possibly sculpted by Vulca, an Etruscan artist from the city of Veii Associated with the workshop that produced this sculpture Worked for the last of the Roman kings, Tarquinius Pliny, a Roman writer in the 6th century B.C.E., recorded Vulca's summoning from Veii to Rome to decorate the most important temple there at the time, the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Highly prestigious and famous for the amount of skill needed to produce such large terracotta sculptures Date: c. 510-500 B.C.E. Similar time frame and use of techniques/motion as Sarcophagus of the Spouses Themes: Myth/narrative art The human body Ritual objects of belief Divinity War and violence

Niobides Krater. Anonymous vase painter of Classical Greece known as the Niobid Painter. c. 460-450 B.C.E. Clay, red-figure technique (white highlights).

Content: - 2 sides - one side is of war almost - the other is more peaceful - kind of like the Standard of Ur? - Front: - Shows the story of a woman named Niobe - Niobe (a mortal woman) had 14 kids; 7 girls and 7 boys - She bragged that her kids were more numerous and more beautiful then the kids of goddess leto - Leto was the mother of Artemis (huntress) and Apollo (sun and music) - Artemis and Apollo exacted revenge for their mother by killing all of Niobe's kids (this is the scene on the front) - Artemis is reaching into her quiver for another arrow - Apollo is drawing his bow back - can see tension in Apollo's body and drapery - dead children litter the field - god and goddess are in perfect profile - Niobe's kids are more frontal - Back - Herakles (aka hercules) in the center (place of importance) - half mortal half god - holding a club and wearing a lion skin - his feet don't touch the ground - everyone is placed around him - Herakles is surrounded by warriors some standing some reclining - Athena (wisdom) is on his left - maybe it's not a painting of herakles but rather a painting of a statue of herakles - maybe greek soldiers are coming to honor him and ask for protection before they go into battle - 490 bce - greeks battle enormous Persian army and somehow won - maybe this is showing soldiers asking for protection before battle at Marathon - there could have been very faint lines that show Herakles on a podium - which would make sense bc statue of a god with men rather than a god amongst men figures are stiff - early classical - severe style - made of clay - red figure bc bodies are part of red clay pot and then black background — lots of detail allowed - in the past: greek vases before this had only one "line" - now figures occupy different levels - sense of an illusion of space - foreground and background but all figures are the same size - suggesting depth - might be a copy of a wall painting by Polygnotus - polygnotus painted in Athens and sanctuary of delphi (north of athens) - he was credited with the thought of being the first artist to paint figures in depth - no ancient greek wall paintings have survived Context: - Created during the classic period (look below for classic period pottery characteristics) Greek Pottery: - Made of terracotta (fired clay) - Methods : - Throwing - clay is centered on rotating wheel - While rotating, the potter pulls up the clay and forms it to the desired shape - Turning and Joining - trimming superfluous or uneven clay to refine the shape of a vase/reduce the thickness walls after it has been thrown - put on wheel -- wood, metal or bone tools used - Burnishing - used to create a perfectly smooth surface for painting - when clay is leather-hard - rubbed with a hard, smooth object, most likely made of leather, wood, or smooth stone - Each period of time had its own technique - Geometric Period (c. 900-700 B.C.E.) - geometric patterns - Orientalizing Period (c. 700-600 B.C.E.) - animal processions and Near Eastern motifs - Archaic and Classical Periods (c. 600-323 B.C.E.) - vase-paintings primarily display human and mythological activities - painted scenes should not be thought of as photographs that document reality - aid in reconstructing the lives and beliefs of the ancient Greeks - To produce the characteristic red and black colors - used liquid clay as paint (termed "slip") - 3 step process 1) kiln at 800 degrees centigrade - turns vase red 2) seal vents in kiln change temp to 900-950° centigrade- turns black; places with slip transformed into a glassy substance 3) vents reopened and unpainted zones become red again; slip / the painted areas retained a glossy black hue Red figure technique - invented in Athens around 525-520 BCE - inverse of black-figure - light-colored figures are set against a dark background - thick slip used to create "relief lines" to help outline - lines raised prominently from the surface White-ground technique - polychrome figures on a white-washed background Black figure technique - black figures with light background - developed by about 700 B.C. in Corinth - not adopted by vase-painters in Athens until about 620 B.C.E. - surface was first burnished and polished - ocher wash might have been applied for orange/red - burnished again - outlined design of the figures then filled in with black. - firing, incisions were made through the black gloss with sharp pointed tool show details of the figures - in the lighter color of the underlying clay Function: - Type of vessle: Calyx-krater: - Large punch bowl - used to mix water and wine

Statues of votive figures, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna, ca. 2900-2600 BC, Square Temple at Eshnunna, Alabaster

Context: 2900 B.C.E. Aspect of Mesopotamian religion is the votive figure of mortal men and women Worshipers would set up images of themselves in a shrine before a larger image of god as part of devotional practice Content: Alabaster (soft stone) Pedestals (standing up during worship) 1 to 3 ft tall Figures of donor males and females Hierarchical scale of individual parts of the body -- eyes are larger than the hands Form Individualized vs. stylized or symbolic Realistic anatomy Detailed eyes → significant, intricate Made of Lapis Lazuli Materials → gypsum inlaid with shell and brick limestone Faces and bodies in a V-shape with the skirt kicking out It is not a true portrait where you could recognize the individual Function Portable; temple away from place of worship Stand-in for owner (stylized for a specific person but not an individual) Inscription Reminds anthropomorphic god to look favorably upon the donor Wish to be granted Increase the representation and status of the donor by showing the wealth of the votive offering Standing Male Worship Content: Small bearded + robed statue Wide eyes (childlike) (Material) Gypsum alabaster, shell, black limestone, bitumen Context: Mesopotamia, Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar) ca. 2900-2600 B.C. Early Dynastic I-II Sumerian Form: Hands folded in reverence Wide-eyed with head tilted upward -- allow for continuous eye contact with the god Arched brows inlaid with dark shells, limestone, and bitumen Stocky muscular body with heavy legs, large geet, and big shoulders -- shows strength which is important because the statue needs to be strong enough to endure the constant worship Function: Serve as a stand-in when the owner couldn't come to prayer Preserve faith to god(s) after death

Tomb of the Triclinium. Tarquinia, Italy. Etruscan. c. 480-470 B.C.E. Tufa and fresco.

Context: Etruscan culture = advanced Iron Age culture wealth based on Italy's natural resources -- metal and mineral ores iron to Greece and North Africa exchanged through medium/long-range trade routes/networks because they were rich, they were attacked by surrounding countries Etruscans believed that their lives in the afterlife would be very similar to their life on earth kind of like Egyptians funerary customs Etruscans did not bury their dead inside city limits, but still sought to provide peace and comfort mainly elite members of society participated in intricate funerary rituals funerals often accompanied by games, feasts, and music and dancing which both men and women could go to banquet -- reinforced the socio-economic position of the deceased person + family show community their importance with: visual reminders of socio-political status indications of wealth civic achievements notably public offices held Other Etruscan tombs have furniture that people would use in them and showed paintings of everyday life they also had demons depicted (maybe symbolize the threat of other countries) most had a door to the after life painted on the back wall Etruscans vs Egyptians vs Greeks Etruscans buried their dead in carved coffins + buried them in houses with necessities for the after life + for the elite similar to the Egyptians (sarcophagus for pharaohs) but Egyptians didn't bury they covered? (with giant Pyramid) Greeks cremated or buried urn (with ashes in them) This tomb gets name from Greco-Roman Mediterranean three-couch dining room --> triclinium located in Monterozzi necropolis a cemetery, especially a large one belonging to an ancient city Tarquinia (where this tomb was found) was a very powerful and prominent center this area is known for its painted tombs Tombs are the only remains because the Romans (when they took over) destroyed everything (or changed it) Content: The tomb is meant to be a single chamber with wall decorations painted in fresco Chamber tombs = subterranean rock-cut chambers accessed by an approach way --> dromos Wall paintings from Triclinium give information on funeral culture but also living society (not intended use) left wall shows four dancers (three female + one male) and male musician playing the barbiton ancient stringed instrument like the lyre right wall shows similar scene back wall shows banqueters enjoying a dinner party Fresco is partial, it probably had: 3 couches each with a pair of reclining diners and 2 attendants one male one female (attendant and diner) diners dressed in bright and expensive robes (elite status) three legged tables with many vessels on top in front of couches animals under couches large cat stalking a large rooster and a partridge trees and shrubs all around the figures - rural setting? Nude cup bearer with wine jug sieve in the corner Tomb's ceiling painted checkered (scheme of alternating colors) meant to evoke the temporary fabric tents near the tomb for celebration of the funeral banquet? Form: Chamber tombs = subterranean rock-cut chambers stylistic comparisons between banquet scene and 5th century B.C.E. Attic pottery from Greece figures are angular and stiff awkward, artists did not know body fluidity and proportions correctly ? clothes do show outline of body underneath -- not as sophisticated as Greek/Roman art typical gender depiction female skin tone = light in color male skin tone= tinted/darker orange-brown Function: Tombs were a huge part of the funerary rituals contain remains of the deceased and various grave goods or offerings like Egypt (Pyramids of Giza) share a final meal with the deceased as deceased transitioned to the afterlife portion of the meal + appropriate dishes + utensils were deposited in the tomb reinforce the socio-economic position of the deceased person + family show community their importance with: visual reminders of socio-political status indications of wealth civic achievements notably public offices held

Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) or Canon, Roman marble copy of a Greek bronze, c. 450-440 B.C.E. (Museo Archaeologico Nazionale, Naples)

Context: found in a palestra (a place for athletes to work out in) in Pompeii one of the most copied Greek sculptures everyone want Greek art because it was representative of a luxurious and leisurely life + they were super high quality and when they raided, they got them for free! created at time when the Greeks were in awe of the mathematical perfection of the human body Polykleitos created a canon (a set of guidelines) outlining the ideal man based on ratios and measurements experts believe the Spear Bearer was made to represent the idealized version of the perfect Greek man (men should aspire to be him even though it's impossible) as outlined in Polykleitos' canon extremely significant because of it's relative realism when compared to the Anavysos Kouros shows an ever-advancing understanding of the human body depicted normal life, a sculpture of a man walking shows that human potential was/is hugely important to this society manipulated symmetry Form: made of white marble subtractive sculpture lifesize aprox. 84 in. (213 cm.) Content: naked = celebrates the nature human body, its beauty, and its strength marks this as a Greek sculpture one of the earliest examples of contrapposto includes a strong a sense of harmony and counterbalancing: left arm and right leg = relaxed right arm and left leg = tensed the man has with broad shoulders and thick torso and is just generally muscular used to hold an iron spear the face isn't individualized he's made to depict everyone's ideal self Function: for enjoyment: to showcase the beauty of the human body Contrapposto - a graceful arrangement of the body based on tilted shoulders and hips and bent knees Canon - a body of rules or laws; in Greek art, the ideal mathematical proportions of the figure Doryphoros was created between these two iconic pieces, the Anavysos Kouros and the Kritos Boy.

THE CODE STELE OF HAMMURABI Babylon (modern Iran).-Mesopotamian- SANBAN Basalt.

Current Location: Louvre, France Size: 7.4 ft tall Material: Basalt (hard volcanic rock) -longevity Form: Visual art but also a form of written document helping to preserve history Function: piece of art AND code of law hierarchical scale enormously important and cherished source before biblical texts high relief sculpture of the king Hammurabi receiving the code from the god of justice (Shamash) Sitting vs Standing despite this, it is clear the artists decision to make both visually the same height to portray equal importance Context: What was happening at the time? Art and Societal Control Power and Posterity perception of society Devine elements destiny Content: These laws were written in cuneiform Order Predates 10 Commandments Covered in small registers right to be king ode to glory over 300 forms of laws that govern Babylonia cuneiform in the acadian language (language very accessible)--wanted for it to be a legacy for understanding laws and consequences were very serious outlines actions (beginning in a tradition in saying laws are uniform) Judah Christian Belief

Colomn of Trajan

Detailing on the column of the crossing of the Danube. This is where the story of the wars begins. May have been painted Form Luna Marble originally painted 125 ft tall (monumental sculpture) actual column 98 ft atop the pedestal weights 1,110 tons top drum weights 53 tons made from multiple blocks, hollow, there is a staircase inside (spiral, 185 steps) topped with a bronze statue of Trajan (but was replaced by a statue of st. peter in 1588 CE) Function narrates two campaigns that Trajan fought the Dacians defining event of Trajan's 19 year rule brought back tons of gold and silver and land to commemorate the victory, Trajan commissioned a forum towering over the forum, stone column Content 155 scenes carved into a spiral frieze bas-relief (58 feature Trajan) 2,662 intricately carved romans and Dacians romans orderly and uniformed, Dacians less so romans clean shaven, Dacians shaggy scenes of Trajan leading the army, judging prisoners, and holding war councils, addressing troops, performing sacrifices when he is in the scene, all figures focused on him to draw the viewer's attention some of the scenes they are building camps and fortifications very solid, regular, and well designed compared to humble Dacian buildings bottom - bearded naked man with back to us - representation of the Danube river, where the war started (Germany-ish) all rivers depicted as bearded half-naked men 190 m long narrative goes from the beginning of first war to second war to scene of enemy leader Decebalus killing himself 22 layers total, each layer 1 yd (layers not registers b/c spiral) each campaign separated by a scene with a shield and victory trophies Base: the defeated weapons (not people) representation of typical dacian weapons shows them as powerful opponents base of the column was a victory crown Inscription on base reads "The Senate and the People of Rome To Emperor Caesar Nerva Trajan Augustus, son of the divine Nerva Conqueror of Germany and Dacia, high priest, with the office of the tribune 17 times Proclaimed Imperator 6 times, elected consul 6 times, father of the Empire Here shows the height which this hill once stood Now removed for such great works as these" Context completed 113 CE Dedicated to Emperor Trajan (b 53, d. 117 CE) in honor of his victory over Dacia (101-02 and 105-06 CE) Dacia = modern day Romania they were a "troublesome neighbor" to rome and were also rich in natural resources First campaign - Trajan defeats Dacian leader Decebalus Then dacians were hostile second war - Trajan won again 100 days of celebration over the victory as Rome exploited Dacia's natural wealth celebration of the greatness of the roman people, the empire, ability to bring civilization, their ingenuity, their ability to build. victory, the reign of Trajan, he was able to build something lasting, like the forum. Celebration of the person, not one aspect of his life. Trajan's ashes buried within the foundations of the column building this was really freaking hard demonstrates the complex tasks that roman architects could complete was the first of many honorific columns (column of marcus aurelius, column of arcadius, column of Justinian) nowadays used to study the equipment, weapons, and tactics used by the roman army Monumental sculpture "The Triumph" military ritual celebrated by the Romans whenever they would win a victory, there would be a big festival but then it was over (ephemeral) would anyone remember the armies? thats how monumental sculpture came in Started tradition of Triumphal monuments early ones were columns (like Caius Dulius (c260 BCE)) then moves into the arch the later construction of permanent monuments (like the Arch of Titus) served to make an impact on the urban landscape (and the collective memory of city dwellers) that lasted far longer than the events of the day itself. Monumental sculpture is not just big sculpture shows ideals shows what a culture values ex: the kouros is a monumental sculpture shows how the greeks valued athleticism and youth and beauty Column of Trajan shows how the romans value victory, expansion, strength, and power. They value their ability to build and to conquer

Markets of Trajan 110 CE

FORM - Engineered by Apollodorus of Damascus o Commissioned by Trajan - A market complex with more than 150 shops and offices - Multi-story - High wide space o Made with groin vault brick face concrete § A barrel vault that is intercepted with another barrel vault perpendicular to it § There is one main barrel vault lined with other intercepting ones - There are offices located on either side of the market - Huge windows that let a lot of light in o This is a big deal because it shows their sophistication with concrete CONTENT - Lots of shops and offices - May have been used to re locate shops that were displaced by the building of the Trajan Forum - Ground floor offices = cashiers of the imperial treasury - Upper-level rooms = leased out or used by imperial officials FUNCTION - Mercantile and offices CONTEXT - Shows the power and focus of Trajan and his rule o Emphasis on the people - Important because more emphasis on people rather than the individual ruler - May have been built to relocate the offices that were moved by the building of the Trajan Forum

King Menkaura and Queen Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2490-2472 B.C.E. Greywacke Representational, proportional, frontal viewpoint, hierarchical structure. They were perfectly preserved and nearly life-size. This was the modern world's first glimpse of one of humankind's artistic masterworks, the statue of Menkaura and queen.

FORM Carved greywacke figures Depicts Egyptian King Menkaure & wife (disputed) Approximately life-sized Both extend one foot forward & maintain erect posture Menkaure's fists are clenched and hold ritual cloth rolls Wears traditional false beard & headdress Backed into stone wall No rear detail Both are nude in the upper body Menkaure wears a wrapped kilt Wife wears an obscure, flat skirt Menkaure is barely taller than wife Without headdress they are around the same height Menkaure protrudes further from the rock than his wife Both have individualized & youthful features Unfinished Area around legs remains unpolished Statue lacks an inscription FUNCTION Communicates the divinity & absolute power of the ruler Likely emerged from a niche in a memorial structure Made them seem as if they were striding out of the building Highlights enduring power & influence of pharaohs Hierarchy of scale further emphasizes his power over the Egyptian people Paint may have been intended to slowly wear away, gradually revealing the black stone and their ultimate transformation into Osiris Although queen is an essential figure of the structure, its purpose was to ensure that Menkaure would successfully reach the afterlife CONTENT Greywacke was difficult to carve Commitment to carving shows devotion to ruler Tough stone lasts/doesn't erode Demonstrates enduring influence/importance Pharaoh's left feet were typically extended in traditional Egyptian art Striding towards the afterlife Unusual for woman to be doing the same Many women were depicted with their legs together Slight hierarchy of scale, but Menkaure's wife is almost his height This lead some to believe that she could be his mother, or the goddess Hathor Displays no divine symbols Statue imitates structure of many other royal votive statues Likely confirms the theory that the woman is Menkaure's wife, and not his mother She is standing slightly behind him, showing that she is below him in status but still has importance Idealized musculature and youth highlight the divine perfection of royalty Individualized features balance their divine destination with their human identities Their gaze into space intimates their superiority over earthly beings The woman's femininity, highlighted by her perfect proportions and clinging garment, balance Menkaure's masculine virility Menkaure wears the traditional headdress and false beard, marking him as a pharaoh However, he is not portrayed with the typical protective cobra on his forehead The absence of this cobra leads some to surmise that his headdress and the queen's hair were once covered in precious metals, a decoration that would have included the cobra CONTEXT Geography allowed for them to flourish Some desert, but also lush land around the Nile River Empire lasted 3000 years Culture rooted in the Nile, which flooded predictably & frequently Seasons and concept of time that was built around the seasons and the floods World based on duality and predictable cycles A significant part of their system of belief Strongly defined social/political structure Pharaoh = absolute ruler Seen as divine & on the path to becoming a god Authority & divinity emphasized through hierarchy of scale Conventions such as this one thus remained constant throughout the Egyptian Empire Menkaure was the son of Khafre, and the smallest pyramid was built in his name This statue of him & his wife was found in an abandoned robber's pit in the Menkaure Valley Temple on the Giza Plateau Many similar statues depict a triad of a pharaoh alongside the guardian goddess Hathor and a personification of a region Hathor was connected to the wife of the current king and the mother of the future one This statue is unique in its dual composition & apparent lack of Hathor Menkaure's stature likely would have been situated in an architectural niche in a memorial temple courtyard Would have been vividly painted People connected happenings with gods THEMES Sacred Space Power & authority Ritual belief & the afterlife Gender roles Symbolism of materials Idealism & individuality The human body Divine vs. earthly influence Depiction of royalty Stylistic convention

Victory (Nike) Adjusting Her Sandal (Acropolis) : 410 BCE

FORM Contrapposto (old greek art: one leg in front of the other) Chain Folds Pull of gravity Two other nikes or nikai Coaxing on animal to sacrifice Offering trophies to a military victory How it was made? Sculptures in stone--variety of chisels to chip away at the stone hammered blows at various angles to create their effects running drill permitted sculptors to create more expressive drapery effects Sculpture in high relief lends itself to expressive contrast effects--flat with ripples Modeling lines allow sculptures to create linear patterns in drapery reveal body beneath CONTENT Nike Adjusting Her Sandals Never been clear whether its been off or on (off because walking on sacred ground) Off balance Other leg is bent while also leaning forward Wing behind her left arm (two wings) Wing help her maintain balance *Contrapposto Intentional interest to make form out of balance Relationship between the body and the drapery--accentuated it Style of Phidias drapery that clings to the forms of the body and creates very intricate folds--cascading around it (Ex. three goddesses) In this specific sculpture=transparent Peaks giving a sense of the weight of the cloth *Chain Folds Woman a Nike, the goddess of victory reaches down to fix the strap of a sandal relationship between drapery and the female anatomy FUNCTION Temple of Athena Nike Constrained space Falling off--added railing 4ft tall--with figures: Parapet Faced the walkway up High relief with figures of Nikes (figures of victory/ goddess personification of victory) CONTEXT Ionic Temple: Temple of Athena Nike A catenary is the curve a suspended line makes when hung in Greek sculpture=drapery effect created when a series of such lines are formed by fabric, often falling from the shoulders catenary pattern of parallel lines is an especially pleasing method of giving the drapery the springy qualities of actual fabric Typical of greek temples--sculpture of the goddess Athena Associated with victory and battle To show Athena's power...leading to her statue in the parthenon The Acropolis was home to several temples, one of which, the Ionic Victory against the Persian Empire (449 BCE) Peloponnesian War Athens and its allies -vs- Sparta (Athens long time nemesis) and its allies (431-404 BCE)

Augustus of Prima Porta Imperial Roman. Early first century C.E. Marble This statue is not simply a portrait of the emperor, it expresses Augustus' connection to the past, his role as a military victor, his connection to the gods, and his role as the bringer of the Roman Peace.

FORM: Imperial Roman, Early first century C.E., 20 B.C.E Marble found in the villa of Livia (his wife), at Primaporta free standing, sculpture in the round bas-relief carving on the breastplate standing contrapposto most likely a copy of a bronze sculpture, many copies would have been made CONTENT: political significance, filled with Roman political ideology idealized statue of him, very young and attractive cupid is pulling down his garment at his ankle, symbolizing his own divine lineage the cuirass, or breastplate depicts the god of the sky and the goddess of the Earth, divine convergence, on its sides there are female personifications of the nations conquered by Rome (specifically by Augustus) the sun god and sky god (Sol and Caelus) are at the top of the cuirass, and therefore shine down on all these parts of the empire spreading Roman glory and light his prestige is awarded by the use of elements from Ancient Greece wearing army garb and has his hand out, not just an orator...he is addressing his troops who will go and conquer perfect/flawless flake and body, athletic, young unlike early Hellenistic statue he is very still, calm and stately, with little movement barefoot goes against typical statues of the time and makes it more naturalistic and divine wears a tunic which at this point in history was associated to the deified Julius Caesar CONTEXT: Augustus claimed to be reestablishing the senate, but in reality, he is just trying to stabilize the Roman government so he could establish himself as Rome's first real emperor in the previous historical period (the Roman Republic) had an age requirement, an old council of elders, and it was ruled by the senate, but in the Imperial Roman period Augustus was the sole ruler utilizes the "Canon" of proportions and his statue is reminiscent of Athens during the age of Pericles (5th century BC), Polykleitos' Doryphoros the Cupid is a significant choice because Caesar Augustus claims his ancestors are: Aeneas (founder of Rome and son of Venus, hence the Cupid) and Julius Caesar (made into a god) Cupid rides a dolphin which symbolizes Augustus' win in the Battle of Actium (31 BCE) using naval power over Antony and Cleopatra, a victory making Augustus emperor named after the Italian town it was discovered in (1863) after his reign he created 200 years of peace (pax romana) so this statue is a precursor serenity of peace and even chosen imagery on breastplate (no battle scene) reflect how he recently ended civil wars doesn't have anything like sun rays or specific qualities of a god like Alexander would have had, Augustus refused to be deified or called a dictator to keep the guise of the republic and not make the people envious FUNCTION: served as a portrait of her husband considering it was found in her home there would have been many bronze copies distributed around Rome, and put in public places as a type of propaganda the statues showed the positive qualities, what he looked like (no photos so commoners wouldn't even know what the Emperor looked like), it shows how he wanted to portray himself to the people in a godlike way one scene on the breastplate depicts the Romans getting back their standards from the Parthians, showing Rome's superiority and power "visual propaganda" demonstrating Augustus' military prowess and the Religion of Rome

Alexander Mosaic from the House of the Faun, Pompeii

FORM: -floor mosaic, 2.72 by 5.13 meters -made from more than one million and a half pieces of stone and glass -found in the House of Faun in Pompeii -possibly based on a wall painting done in 315 B.C.E., Hellenistic Period by a greek artist named Philoxenos because it matches a description of the painting written by Pliny -found on the floor between to peristyles (open courtyards) crowded by columns FUNCTION: -found in the House of Faun which was the nicest mansion found in Pompeii which means it was a piece of art aristocrats would have invested in for perhaps their own enjoyment and for the enjoyment of guests -the bronze faun statue found there suggests the owners cared much for art -the subject matter is significant, it depicts the god-like (think about his breastplate)breastplate, powerful, strong historical figure, Alexander who like the Romans, wanted to conquer the world, and had qualities of strength and military genius which would have been admired by Romans -Alexander's conquest notably lead to the unification of Greece, a culture the Roman's respected and imitated, the mosaic would have been a symbol of this respect, and almost a source of inspiration CONTENT: -depicts the Battle of Issus, between Alexander the Great and Darius III -a very dramatic and chaotic scene with a sense of momentum as the massive chariot is turning around - Darius is turning his army around, his face with a desperate and, emotional quality, his hand extended in horror of his guard who has just been speared in front of him, a gesture preventing him from actually fighting and he is rather just taken aback -pretty empty at the top, considered evidence it was based on the painting -turned faces and bodies, show an understanding and respect for the human form and anatomy -excellent use of foreshortening in the horse -Foreshortening: used in art to reduce or distort (parts of a represented object that are not parallel to the picture plane) in order to convey the illusion of three-dimensional space as perceived by the human eye: often done according to the rules of perspective -incredibly detailed due to the use of so many pieces, one example being the soldier's reflection in his own shield -Alexander's breastplate has Medusa's head, which was used as a magical protection spell from evil, it also can symbolize divine birth -most, about 3/4 of the remaining mosaic depicts the Persians, but almost all their spears providing a line of focus to Alexander CONTEXT: -Republican Roman, c. 100 B.C.E. -found in the city of Pompeii which was preserved in ash after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius -it was found in the House of Faun, named after the bronze statue of a faun found there - wishful thinking on the part of art historians that it is based on a greek painting because there are none left - the Battle of Issus (333 BC) which was a turning point in ancient history because the ruler of Persia (Darius III) is ordering a retreat of his troops -Darius has a look of desperation, and history says that Alexander pitied his family and let them live -this piece's choice of subject matter and naturalism ultimately shows the Roman appreciation for greek art -Alexander is not depicted in his typical form here, as an incarnation of Zeus, Helios or Apollo with long ringlets and soft, idealized features, but is more natural THEMES: -Function of art: art as decoration -Preserving history -Commemoration

Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur (modern Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 2600-2400 B.C.E. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone.

FORM: Colorful mosaic tiles made from shell (from Persian gulf), red limestone (from India), blue lapis lazuli (from Afghanistan) , set in bitumen Very small- can be carried FUNCTION: Largely unknown "Standard" was usually a flag brought into battle in war- art historians hypothesize that this standard was once on a pole and brought into battle Also intentionally buried- very valuable object at the time May be a holder of currency used to pay for the war May be a music box A lot of speculation, little to no clear record on its use! CONTENT: The other side shows men who are bringing fish and crops to the Sumerians- suspected to be tribute paid to the Sumerians or loot the Sumerians brought back in war - known as the "War" side Very festive- end of war type scene- a large banquet occurs and people are watching one man sing and play the lyre- known as the "Peace" side Talons are holding an arrow- symbol of war Olive branch- symbol of peace Divided into three registers Bottom register- people holding bags and carrying things on their shoulders and on their bags Second register- people bringing animals to sacrifice or for tax collection to the king King (disproportionately large) sitting on a chair (legs are from animals) Celebratory mood and scene with a lot of cups- beverages Other side is divided into three registers as well Naturalistic battle scene taking place- chariots and horses running at full speed and Enemies of war (naked and bleeding) brought into the scene and given to the king A lot of detail present in the scene the registers at the bottom are less detailed and more uniform (and as you move up everything gets more detailed and singular) everyone is in profile perspective shows hierarchical scale king = bigger than everyone else + different clothes CONTEXT: Found just south of modern day Iraq Prosperous and fertile area for agriculture- profit and surplus of food built in more time for art More levels of wealth and different roles in society (wealth led to more priests and organized religion) Different classes of people reflected on the standard- poor on the bottom and rich on the top. found in the Graves of Ur- used from 2600-2000 BCE one grave could hold as many as 74 sacrificial victims very rich resources/minerals found here standard of Ur found in one of these graves THEMES: sacrifice warfare masculinity community power and authority class divide wealth and status

Head of a Roman patrician Republican Roma. c. 75-50 B.C.E. Marble the physical traits of this portrait image are meant to convey seriousness of mind (gravitas) and the virtue (virtus) of a public career by demonstrating the way in which the subject literally wears the marks of his endeavors.

Form Also known as the Otricoli Head (the name of the individual is unknown) From Otricoli, Italy; now housed in the Palazzo Torlonia in Rome, Italy Approx. 1' 2" high Republican Roman c. 75-50 BCE Marble Polychromed (painted in several colors) Terra Cotta- was used and then painted with encaustic (otherwise referred to as a hot wax process) Use of clay (additive and subtractive) process was convenient because with this form of sculpting mistakes can be fixed Veristic Style: Verism A form of realism (hyper-realistic) Over exaggerated (extremely aged and care worn) Used as a way of honoring powerful elders Unlike the Greek, the Romans believed that a head was enough to suffice as a portrait Influenced by the tradition of ancestral imagines Death wax masks of notable ancestors were kept and displayed by the family Aristocratic families Masks were used at funerals so that an actor might portray the deceased ancestors in a sort of familial parade A reminder that one's public image played a major role in what was a turbulent time in Roman history Function A veristic sculpture that accurately depicts a patrician Admire the age of the elderly (in this case, an old patrician) Symbolizes the virtues of wisdom, determination, experience, valor and strength that all Roman Republicans hoped to obtain Content Description: wrinkled and toothless, with sagging jowls The face of a Roman aristocrat stares at us across the ages Physical traits meant to convey seriousness of mind (gravitas) and the virtue (virtus) of a public career by demonstrating the way in which the subject literally wears the marks of his endeavors--in the days of the Roman Republic it was an effective means of competing in an ever more complex socio-political arena This Veristic (or surrealistic) portrait of an unknown Roman patrician depicts carefully sculpted detail in the face, especially wrinkles and changes in texture Instead of trying to make their subject appear perfect and youthful patrician portraits from the ancient Roman Republic aimed to highlight distinctive facial features wrinkles and other signs of ageing on this portrait in particular serve to point out his admirable qualities of experience, seriousness, and determination Iconography and Context Patricians Worked in the senate Wealthy and educated men who ran the Republic Busts of Roman patricians specifically embody wisdom and experience from old age Roman idealization emphasized distinguishing aspects of the individual Start of 200 B.C. individuality was increasing Sculptures were often produced to show the power and wealth of an individual such as a statesman or a military leader The Roman Empire had representational form of government run by the Senate The Senate was powerful, however, some military leaders "ceasers" who had distinguished themselves in battle and through political coups, became emperors who considered themselves living gods Often power was passed from relative to relative and through generations. Sculptures were made of these family members almost as a form of ancestor worship. Sculptures also express how the Romans viewed male and female roles in their society. Men as older and distinguished, at a time in their lives when they were most powerful Women are almost never depicted as aged, instead mostly depicted as young and beautiful Since art was mainly produced and commissioned for a male audience it is possible to draw the conclusion that art reflects a dominantly male view of the world. "male gaze."

Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon. Asia Minor (present-day Turkey). Hellenistic Greek. c. 175 B.C.E. Marble (architecture and sculpture).

Form 35.64 by 33.4 metres White marble remains; would've been painted brilliantly in its age High relief sculpture creates great drama, shadow, contrast More prominent gods and figures are in higher relief Function Worship of the Greek pantheon of Gods and their dominance over their enemies Optimism of the Greek spirit in confronting the unknown and unfamiliar cultures (like the Giants) Representation of Greek prowess and might Sacrifices may have been offered at the top of the stairs Content A battle of the Greek mythological pantheon of gods vs. the Giants to determine the controller of the universe Athena Fights Alkyoneus, the main giant, as his mother looks on in horror Appears confident and triumphant as she fights Being crowned from behind by a winged Nike Uses battle snakes to aid in defeating the giants Earned name Athena "gigantolteira" = slayer of the giants Zeus Battles 3 Giants at once, with the help of an eagle (above) and his lightning bolt Cloaked in realistically ruffled robes 2 of the three giants he has already defeated; they lie in (youthful) ruin around him Context Created during the Hellenistic Period (c. 200-150 B.C.E.) in Pergamon, modern-day Turkey, 20 miles from the coast. Alexander the Great "Hellenized," or spread Greek influence, from Egypt to the Indus Valley during his reign. When Alexander the Great died, his four generals inherited his land and reign. One of the generals saw the hilltop of Pergamon as geographically desirable, and therefore built the city of Pergamon. In the 1800s, the Prussians wanted to achieve/mimic French and British culture, so they created the Pergamon Museum. The Pergamon Museum of Berlin recreated the Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon very realistically (lots of artistic effort by the Museum.) In ancient Pergamon, the altar would've been surrounded by a library of 200,000+ scrolls, a royal palace for the king, and a garrison for soldiers. The altar was never fully completed because King Prusias II attacked Pergamon in 156 BCE. Themes Divinity Power of the gods, role of the gods Reverence towards and fear of the gods Religion Rituals and performance - sacrifice Worship

Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut and Kneeling Statue

Form Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut is cut into the stone of the cliff-side done purposefully to increase the perceived power of a structure by making it seem as though it is almost a part of nature and holds the stability of the mountainside itself we can see aspects of symmetry as well as the use of columns (Egyptians didn't know how else to hold up a roof!) Kneeling Statue is made from granite, which is very durable is also very large at almost nine feet tall (would impress any viewer, especially because it would be placed with a number of other large statues depicting the queen) Content Kneeling Statue depicts Queen Hatshepsut in a kneeling position she was one of the only, and most powerful, female pharaohs though we can tell that she is female, she has many male physical features:her breasts are de-emphasized, she has the classic beard of the pharaohs, and wears the royal male headdress her masculine depiction is consistent with the upkeep of continuity and stability for Egyptian rulers (there is no word for "queen" in Egyptian--she truly saw herself as a king) different style than other Egyptian statues--her kneeling position humanizes her, and she is depicted in offering, most likely to a deity Temple features a lengthy, colonnaded terrace you must walk up a long ramp to enter into the temple (reminiscent of the horizon, Egyptian creation mound) temple held many statues of Hatshepsut, as well as relief depictions of her as well as the gods in the afterlife aligned with the winter solstice sun Function Mortuary Temple was a funerary shrine to Queen Hatshepsut was a place for people to go and appreciate her power by looking at all of the different statues of her especially important because she was female, so she had to work extra hard to establish her authority meant to help her in her journey to the afterlife people could pray to the gods "housed" in the temple statues impressed upon people Hatshepsut's power and piety Context shows an interesting aspect to traditional Egyptian continuity break in continuity that Hatshepsut was a female, but many aspects were kept the same--she was still depicted in the stiff, idealized form for her statue, and wore the male accoutrements of office

Seated Scribe Saqqara, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynastic. c. 2620-2500 B.C.E. Painted limestone. the sculpture of the seated scribe is one of them most important examples of ancient Egyptian art because it was one of the rare examples of Egyptian naturalism, as most Egyptian art is highly idealized and very rigid.

Form Unique that the figure is seated as opposed to upright and statuary. Unique in its individualistic features Irises are inlaid with rock crystal Figure is limestone painted with red ocher. Nipples made of wood Would have been placed on top of a description piece about the scribe Function Commemorate and revere the scribe himself and his importance in preserving Egyptian history. Serves a funerary purpose to help the scribe transcend into the afterlife. The position in which the scribe was posed was originally for royal sons Content Holds a papyrus scroll Midriff fat shows his wealth and importance His tranquil face symbolizes wisdom. His calm gaze symbolizes his knowledge and intent desire to reach the afterlife He would have been seated on a larger piece that would have had descriptions of his titles and names The scribe is depicted at work which is unusual for a Egyptian statue The position of the scribe in this statue is a position of royalty in the sitting down Context Depicts a scribe from the Necropolis at Saqqara, Egypt. Scribes were revered for their literacy and writing abilities, which were not ubiquitous at the time. Egyptian sites for years have been pillaged and it is very fortunate that an artwork like this was recovered and sent to the Louvre

Pantheon Imperial Roman. 118-125 C.E. Concrete with stone facing One of the great buildings in western architecture, the Pantheon is remarkable both as a feat of engineering and for its manipulation of interior space, and for a time, it was also home to the largest pearl in the ancient world.

Form Function Content Context Corinthian columns in front are monolithic, made from marble Corinthian: last developed, most ornate of the orders imported from Egypt the porch: rectilinear upon entry, the space opens up into a curvilinear, radial interior structural system looks like it is based on a series of intersecting arches-eight in total, all where statues of deities would have been housed on the interior structural system is actually dependent on concrete the concrete would have been built on wooden forms, which where then removed after the concrete dried this allowed Romans to create vast interior spaces the barrel is made from concrete, travertine, and tufa and the walls are made from brick and concrete lighter materials used at the top of the dome barrel=terrestrial, dome=divine 141 feet tall originally used as a temple to the gods, then made into a church Emperor Hadrian would hold court inside the Pantheon originally contained sculptures of the gods and deified emperors, focused on the divine was given to Pope Boniface the IV in 608 AD and was used as a Catholic Church (part of why it has been preserved so well) an expression of Hadrian's wealth and power the oculus's light functions similar to a sundial would have originally been fitted in bronze nowadays, we step down to reach the Pantheon, but this is because the street level of Roma has risen through the years--originally would have risen above the street the current-day Piazza, or square in front of the Pantheon, was originally a larger rectangular space framed by a colonnade this would have covered up from view the conical back of the Pantheon, so visitors would have only seen the traditional column-front would have inspired a sense of shock and awe to enter and see the spherical interior the pediment would have held a sculpture that acted out the battle of the titans one enters through a set of massive bronze doors the spherical inside completely fills a person's field of vision, and is representative of human power because it goes all the way to the limits of your sight eight arches which would have housed statues of deities and emperors--the statues of Augustus and Agrippa stood in the apse at the end of the colonnaded side aisles of the entrance the center-point of focus in the interior is right smack in the center, which helps create the spherical effect huge amounts of geometric representation used on the inside--circles, rectangles, squares the floor is tiled with concentric circles and squares almost all of it is mathematically proportioned--for example, the columns on the interior line up perfectly with the fake windows on top of them, but these do not line up with the coffers of the dome, which gives the effect that the dome is independent from the barrel coffers were originally painted and had gilded rosettes hole in the top of the dome called the oculus one great window when it rains, the water comes in! reflects the movement of the heavens because of how the sharp circle of light moves across the building best preserved ancient roman monument synthesis of tradition and innovation the Pantheon was commissioned by the Emperor Hadrian c. 125 AD (new info suggests it may have been started by Trajan before him) representative of the Roman advance in architecture (mainly caused by the use of concrete that allowed spaces to open up) that a building could shape the space most influential building in architecture in the Renaissance replaced Commander Marcus Agrippa's pantheon that rested in the same place the inscription above the doorway still reads as a tribute to Marcus Agrippa bears no signature of Hadrian later, Italian kings and Raphael of the Renaissance would be buried inside

Winged Victory of Samothrace Hellenistic Greek. c. 190 B.C.E. Marble The theatrical stance, vigorous movement, and billowing drapery of this Hellenistic sculpture are combined with references to the Classical period-prefiguring the baroque aestheticism of the Pergamene sculptors.

Form/Function statue itself is over nine feet tall made of Thasian and Parian marble was found in the temple complex on the island of Samothrace called the Sanctuary of the Great Gods this was one of the principle Pan-Hellenistic sanctuaries associated with Mystery religion statue was an ex-voto (votive offering to a deity) most likely given by the people of Rhodes to commemorate a naval victory the offering would have also served to gain the deities favor, protecting sailors and armies against storms and enemies Context currently resides in the Louvre, in Paris France was made around the 2nd century BCE during the Hellenistic period the sculptor is unknown the Hellenistic period followed the death of Alexander the Great when the Greek kingdom got split up, so the constant warring between city-states and other kingdoms increased the emphasis on Nike, who would spread the message of a victory would have looked out over the Parthenon in the sanctuary, with natural winds from the coast seeming to enliven Nike's clothes stands on the prow of a huge marble ship had huge impact on the traditions of Western Art that followed Content depicts Nike, who was the messenger goddess of victory is missing her head and both arms, but may have been holding a trumpet or cupping her hand around her mouth to announce a naval victory "violent motion and sudden stillness meet" was meant to be viewed from three-quarters to the statue's right-hand side, evidenced because the other side is not as intricately carved gone is the stiff, more classical style of antiquity; in its place is a Hellenistic passion and voluptuousness texture is created in the intricate carvings of the wings she is not nude, but her clothing is coming off to reveal her body, which was typical for sculpture of the time the intense, intricate sculpting of her clothes, of how it drapes, adds to the sense of motion in the piece carved in extreme detail: we can tell where the cloth is thicker/thinner, and where it sticks to her skin because it is wet with sea water the way her body is sculpted creates a spiraling effect: her wings reach back, her chest forward, her feet down looking from the perspective from which it was meant to be viewed, follows the form of a right triangle (can see this in the picture on the bottom left)

Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater), Rome

Form: "amphitheater" two Greek theaters put together (facing each other) to create the oval-shaped amphitheater (stadium) Inner ring made from concrete required less skill, time, and money to quarry, transport, and build with concrete Romans were the first to master and employ the widespread use of concrete as a building material Outer ring (external wall) made from travertine (a limestone) Extensive use of vaults and the Roman arch could hold 50,000 to 80,000 spectators Dimensions: covered an area of 6 acres 50 meters high (187 feet) equivalent to a 12 story building 189 meters (615 feet) long 156 meters (510 feet) wide outer circumference of 545 meters (1,788 feet) the center arena measured 287' (feet long) by 180' (feet wide) construction began in 70 CE, lasted until 80 CE (completed in 10 years) very impressive feat considering its massive size and the fact that everything was constructed and transported individually, by hand. no modern machinery! ontent: massive, ellipse/oval-shaped ring four main levels (can be thought of as registers!) levels 1-3 had evenly-spaced, arched windows around the entire circumference of the amphitheater level 4 had a solid exterior wall, no windows this, being the highest section of seating, would be where the lower classes would sit (slaves, foreigners, women) there would have been statuary figures in each window arch on levels 2 and 3, but not on level 1, because those arches served as doors that people would walk through to enter the amphitheater above the 4th level, the upper rim of the colosseum was lined with bronze shields/spears a glorious, dramatic, and impressive-looking decoration could be considered a 5th 'register'? however, not a separate floor of seating, only an independent register in the visual sense flat stage filled with sand in center sand was to absorb blood and other bodily fluids from the fighting seats angled up from the stage in every direction (shallow funnel) the "hypogeum" the underground part of the Colosseum, which included animal pens, trapdoors, and a network of tunnels, was called the 'hypogeum' the "velarium" a retractable awning that would cover the arena to provide shade for spectators Three different orders of columns are used to support the arches Level 1 = Tuscan (similar to Doric, but even more simplistic, and specific to ancient Rome) Level 2 = Ionic Level 3 = Corinthian columns are sturdier, more basic at the bottom become more delicate, ornate higher up associated with femininity? women sat in the highest level of seating Function: Public Entertainment (similar function as sports stadium) Romans came to watch gladiator fights, wild animal fights, mock naval battles, etc. violence and gore were popular sources of entertainment in ancient Rome Context: Original name was Flavian Amphitheater named after the family/dynasty who paid for its construction Emperor Vespasian (r. 69-79 CE) was the first Emperor of the Flavian Dynasty "Colosseum" is just a nickname given later (in the Middle Ages?), because of the amphitheater's proximity to a colossal statue of the sun god. Vespasian built the amphitheater as a gift to the people of Rome, to win their favor back after the greedy, insane, unpopular Nero (previous Roman Emperor before Vespasian) Concept of Urban Planning unlike Greeks, who shaped their cities around the geography, Romans made the landscape work for them more aggressive builders power of man over nature also necessitated better engineering concrete! arches! their used to be a lake where the Flavian Amphitheater was built drained the lake because they wanted a building there much more similar to how we (in western, urban cities) approach urban planning now Focus on interior space shift from ancient Greek focus on exterior space best example is the Pergamon Roman Social Status/Citizenship Discrimination was not based on color of skin, but on citizenship If you were a Roman citizen, race didn't matter Rome was a very multi-ethnic empire If you were not a citizen (woman, slave, etc), you were virtually nothing Within the population of citizens, there were tiers to that hierarchy as well social mobility was difficult, but less so than in Ancient Greece people were seated in the amphitheater according to status upper-class patricians were seated closest to the stage, those of the lower class were seated farther up, and women, slaves, and foreigners were the farthest away from the action ("cheap seats" at the very top) Reflects Roman Order, Discipline, and Power POWs, slaves, and non-citizens (not women) could win their freedom/citizenship by becoming gladiators and fighting to victory This was such a dangerous risk that it often resulted in the gladiator's death before earning that freedom. Different from Ancient Greece, where it was virtually unheard of for someone to become a citizen citizenship rules in Roman Empire were similar to America's immigration/citizenship rules takes a long time and is difficult, but usually the second generation can earn citizenship if born in the Empire

Palette of King Narmer Pre-dynastic Egypt. c. 3000-2920 B.C.E Greywacke Egyptian archelogical find, dating from about the 31st century B.C, containing some of the earliest hieroglyphic inscription ever found.

Form: -carved from slate (grayish/green siltstone), in bas-relief, 2.1 feet high (very large for a palette) -typically palettes were smaller, very flat and didn't feature intricate designs, but the pallet of Narmer is unique -carved in stone, lasting, demonstrates strength of culture -found in the temple of horas (showed in his representative falcon) Function: -used as a well for grinding and mixing makeup, like dark eyeliner applied under eyes to protect from the sun's harsh glare (dessert region) -found buried under the floor of a temple in Hierakonpolis -leaders, upper class people, or anyone who had the money would give objects such as this to temples to demonstrate their piety and form a connection with the God -this palette was a ceremonial object, dedicated to a god, used for rituals, and could have been used to apply make up to the actual artistic depictions of the god in the temple -would have been ritually buried after new donations were received -makeup could have been mixed in the well formed by the the two intertwining heads of the mythical seopards Content: -uniquely displays human action, opposed to animals or just mythical imagery -contains iconography that is consistent with other Egyptian art thousands of years later, consistency representative of Egypts stability -contains several scenes, symbols and creatures of cultural significance all explained in full in the above images -features the power of the king through use of hierarchical scale, registers, (uniquely) showingkilts, royal beard, and bull tail, him in the crown of both upper and lower egypt, kilts, the royal beard, and a bull tail Context: -palettes were very widely distributed, as makeup in Egypt was accessible for men and women of all social classes -the unification of upper and lower Egypt under a single ruler was a very significant event in Egyptian history at this point in time, the duality of the piece with the king's two crowns and the two different faces of the palette represents their unity, while depicting their differences -on both sides the lowest register features the dead bodies of defeated enemies, again demonstrating Egyptian strength, this time in a military sense -could also be depicting chaos and order, an essential belief in the Egyptian understanding of the cosmos -some of the imagery could represent the journey of the sun god

Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters, House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters, limestone, New Kingdom, Amarna period, 18th dynasty, c.1350 BCE

Form: bas-relief carving limestone 32.5 cm high Content: depicts King Akhenaten, his wife Nefertiti, seated on thrones holding three of their daughters on their laps Iconography: monotheistic god, "Aten", represented by the sun disc in the center Cobra in the sun disk implies SOLE leadership, ONLY ONE GOD (monotheism); Aten is the supreme deity ankhs (symbol of life) radiate out from the sun disc and reach toward the king and his wife this shows that Aten connects directly to the royal family, and to them alone Function: this piece was meant to be a house altar the iconography of Aten and the depiction of the royal family of Akhenaten was propagated to encourage people to embrace the new monotheistic religion works such as this relief carving were present and central to everyday life; the house altar serves a practical function as well as an artistic one, so the underlying message becomes present and visible in the family's daily life. Context: Egyptian art and culture generally experienced little change; the Amarna period is an exception pharaoh Akhenaten changed state religion from worship of god Amun to monotheistic worship of a new, sun god, Aten Pharaoh and his wife, Nefertiti, were made to be the only earthly representatives of this new god this upsets the entire Egyptian priesthood because it takes all their power and influence away and leaves it in the hands of the royal family. The change in religion was not made because of the pharaoh's real, religious beliefs, but for purely selfish reasons: to make himself and his family more powerful after Akhenaten dies, Egypt returns to traditional religion so, brief "blip" in Egyptian history There are also significant stylistic changes: domestic focus, tenderness more informal softer, less rigid and permanent than what we see in typical Egyptian artwork disproportionate bodies art historians once thought that perhaps Akhenaten and his family had some genetic disease that mutated the shape of their bodies however, it is now believed that the artist just did not have the skill to proportionally render the human body, and that the sloping, relaxed forms, were meant to be an encouragement of curvilinear forms in artwork Akhenaten encouraged this stylistic change from rectilinear forms to curvilinear as another hallmark of his "new era"

Plaque of the Ergastines, East Side Frieze, Parthenon

Form: fragment from the frieze on the east side of the Parthenon Pentelic marble 0.96 x 2.07 meters high relief (?) higher relief towards the to of the frieze shallower carving (bas-relief) towards bottom of frieze This is because people looked up at this sculpture, so the gradient depth made the sculpture visible from the angle from which it was intended to be viewed. "frieze," in this case, according to Khan Academy = a band of sculpture that's about 3 feet tall, that wrapped around the entire Parthenon, just inside the first colonnade. to view the frieze, visitors to the Parthenon had to look up frieze was originally located above columns, harder to see from the ground this indicates the Plaque of Ergastines was an important part of the sculptural program, but not the main attraction. would have been easier to see when painted with bright colors This frieze was originally painted in bright colors Paint faded or wore away with time, now plain marble This inner frieze is an Ionic element of the Parthenon, which is on the exterior, a doric temple isocephalism heads of figures are all aligned at same height Function: To impress the glory of Athens upon those who see it depicts a scene of the Pan-Athenaic Procession Dedicated to the goddess Athena, patron of the city of Athens Decoration/beautification of the Parthenon temple To tell a story that is relevant and important to the Parthenon/the Acropolis, Athens, and Athena Context: High Classical style (GOLDEN AGE) acute awareness of human figure, how drapery folds and hangs around the shape of the body very intricate, curvilinear folds and drapery of cloth Phidias was one of the leading sculptors of the period helped define the classical style the height of idealized beauty we see mastery of human anatomy life, movement, and emotion represented in these figures perfection of the athenian figures depicted on this frieze reflects the idealized "perfection" of Athens and athenian democracy Athenian Renaissance of sorts end of Greco-Persian wars (499-449 BCE) once greek states were secure from Persian threat, funds from Delian League being used for military defense were turned towards the rebuilding and beautification of Athens attracted many artists (especially sculptors) to the capitol city new temples were built, old temples renovated Mythology was the subject of the vast majority of ancient greek art this frieze is an exception the choice to represent a scene of civic importance rather than mythological is significant perhaps marks the nationalistic, pro-athens zeitgeist? in wake of the Athenian victory over Persia, artist(s) now view the athenian people as worthy of being immortalized in art (?) Current controversy: Greek government is trying to get these sculptures back from museums around the world some fragments are still in Greece, some at the Louvre, but most are at British Museum Greece wants them returned to their native country British originally procured the "Elgin Marbles" from the Ottomans, who were occupying Greece at the time both sides (greek government and british) are being very tenacious tense, controversial situation Content: Historians generally agree that this scene depicts the Pan-Athenaic Procession people of Athens gathered in procession up to the Acropolis (highest and one of most important points in the city) procession was to honor the goddess Athena, the patron saint of the city of Athens, to whom the Parthenon was dedicated Who were the Ergastines? Young women from notable families brought peplos—a woven, dress-like garment worn by women—to clothe an olive-wood sculpture of Athena the olive wood sculpture does not survive today was not located in the Parthenon itself, but in an adjacent temple called the Erechtheion this ritual was part of the Pan-Athenaic procession frieze shows procession of the Ergastines, along with animals being brought for sacrifice; libations figures stand in contrapposto most women put weight in left leg, right knee is bent slightly in front fabric of dress hugs and drapes around the bent knee shows movement of figure and artist's mastery of naturalistic human form figures are serene, confident, relaxed, and graceful paragon of Athenian democratic ideal There is another theory that the scene on the frieze does not actually feature the Pan-Athenaic Procession, but a mythological event this theory is not commonly accepted by art historians however it does fit better with the usual greek focus on mythological subject matter

Pyramid of Khafre

Form: second tallest of the three (but actually looks the tallest because it's on higher ground) Function: burial site for King Khafre Content: a burial chamber, a small chamber, 2 passageways Still has some of the outer casing on top Valley Temple Held over 52 statues of the king Sphinx

Temple of Amun-re and Hypostyle Hall Karnark, near Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom, 18th and 19th Dynasties. Temple: c. 1550 B.C.E.; hall: c. 1250 B.C.E. Cut sandstone and mud brick. The Hypostyle Hall is also the largest and most elaborately decorated of all such buildings in Egypt and the patchwork of artistic styles and different royal names seen in these inscriptions and relief sculptures reflect the different stages at which they were carved over the centuries. As the temple of Amun-re is the largest religious complex in the world.

Form: - Made of cut sandstone and mud brick - Axis designed and created on the four cardinal direction points - Had both a north/south and an east/west axes - "Hypostyle"=columns supporting a ceiling - Made great usage of these columns, hence the name - One of the largest temple constructions in the world - Includes several unique forms of architecture such as a sphinx and the tallest obelisk in Egypt Content: - The Pharaohs continued to add to it over time - Clerestory lighting, meaning it was natural and coming from openings above - Creates a sort of heavenly, godly feeling - Existed in Karnak, near Luxor, Egypt - Architecture such as the obelisk and sphinx make it uniquely Egyptian Themes: - Power and authority - Religion, spirituality - Legend/mythology - God, the role of god in society - Architectural renderings and influence - Nature and the environment Function: - The principal religious center of the god Amun-Re - Also honors several other Egyptian gods and goddesses - Especially present were the gods Mut and Montu - Known as "The Most Select of Places" - There was a community of religious peoples and elites that lived there - Has a rich economic, political, and social history as well - Served for some time as a small city in a sense, epicenter of life Context: - Built and heavily used during the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, especially the 18th and 19th dynasties. - Temple was built around 1550 BCE - Hall was built around 1250 BCE - Certain areas were very restrictive and only able to be accessed by the elite individuals and Pharaohs - Currently in a poor state due to a lack of preservation - Still able to show us a lot about the architecture, religion, and life of Ancient Egypt Cross-Cultural Connections: - White Temple and its ziggurat - These two religious sites have several things in common. First, they are somewhat similar in form. Both were constructed on the cardinal directions and are built vertically to be close to the heavens. Both are also built for the elites of society to honor certain deities, and are very large in size. - Forbidden City - Both of these sites use a lot of architecture that is unique to that specific time period and location. For example, the Forbidden City includes lots of dragon carvings, courtyards, and gardens. This, however, uses obelisks, a sphinx, and lighting from above.

Tutankhamun's tomb, innermost coffin. New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. c. 1323 B.C.E. Gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones.

Form: Tutankhamen's sarcophagus had three coffins for the kings' body outer two coffins were crafted in wood and covered in gold along with semiprecious stones like lapis lazuli and turquoise. The inner coffin was made of solid gold when found it was "covered with a thick black pitch-like layer which extended from the hands down to the ankles The death mask originally rested on shoulders of the mummy inside the pure gold coffin made of two sheets of gold that were hammered together and weighs 22.5 pounds (10.23 kg) Function: Spell 151b from the Book of the Dead on the back of the mask Egyptians used as a road map for the afterlife spell protects the various limbs of Tutankhamen as he moves into the underworld The sarcophagus was meant to preserve and protect the pharaoh in the afterlife Content: Tutankhamen's sarcophagus had three coffins for the kings' body outer two coffins were crafted in wood and covered in gold along with semiprecious stones like lapis lazuli and turquoise. The inner coffin was made of solid gold when found it was "covered with a thick black pitch-like layer which extended from the hands down to the ankles pharaoh = god like The gods were thought to have skin of gold, bones of silver, and hair of lapis lazuli king is shown here in his divine form in the afterlife He holds the crook and flail -- symbols of the king's right to rule The goddesses Nekhbet (vulture) and Wadjet (cobra), inlaid with semiprecious stones, stretch their wings across torso Beneath goddesses are two more—Isis and Nephthys The death mask originally rested on shoulders of the mummy inside the pure gold coffin made of two sheets of gold that were hammered together and weighs 22.5 pounds (10.23 kg) back of the mask is covered with Spell 151b from the Book of the Dead Tutankhamen is depicted wearing the striped nemes headdress (the striped head-cloth typically worn by pharaohs in ancient Egypt) goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet depicted protecting his brow He also wears a false beard that further connects him to the image of a god He wears a broad collar -- in terminals shaped as falcon head Context: Elaborate sarcophagus's like this one were only meant for kings and the rich, others were simply mummified or buried in the sand Tut was 9 when he became Pharaoh (18 dynasty -- New Kingdom ) new kingdom after Amarna age Tut is son of Akhenaten Tut lived from 1332-1323 BCE accented moved Egypt's capital to akhenaten/ amarna (mid egypt) after dads rule and smenkhkare Tut shifted back to Amun's worship and capital back to Thebes Tut married half sis (Ankhesenamun) but no heirs died at 18 — don't know how chariot accident, a swift kick from a horse, hippopotamus attack?? Tutankhamun's older advisor (and possible step-grandfather), Ay, married Ankhesenamun (Tut's half sis) and became pharaoh after his death

Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin (modern Iraq)

Form: high relief sculpture from a monolithic stone of gypseous alabaster 13'9" tall It stands more than 4 meters high by 4 meters wide and is a meter in depth Human headed winged bulls were very large protective genies called shedu/ lamassu, and were placed as guardians at certain gates/ doorways of the city and the palace. Carved from a single block the original position of these winged bulls: This one formed the left jamb of Door K in the palace Function: Guardian figures at the city and citadel gates symbol of the king's power also architectural purpose to hold up an arch to enter the citadel Protective spiritual guardians were placed on either side of these entrances to act as guardians. They also had a strictly architectural function, as they bore some of the weight of the arch above An inscription on two panels between the hind legs of the bull: praises the ruler by rehearsing his virtues and calls down a curse on who ever should seek to harm the edifice Symbols combining man, bull, and bird, they offered protection against enemies. Content: bulls with head of man and wings combination of the natural and the supernatural v powerful Super cool crown and detail in wings, double horns, decorations, beard, earrings around the lamassu, inscriptions detailing the king's power and damnnation for those who would threaten the citadel aka the power of the king 5 legs two standing static when you look at it from the front four moving forewords when you look at it from the side High relief was much prized in the time of Sargon II (when modeling became more marked) The head, the only human element ears are those of a bull has a man's bearded face with very precisely modeled features The eyes are expressive the thick eyebrows prominent nose soft mouth thin mustache A curly beard covers the jaw and chin while the hair falls down to the shoulders= framing the face This human head wears a starred tiara= flanked by pairs of horns and topped by a row of feathers. The body: its anatomy very precisely carved to be is that of a bull the beast has five legs (not 4 legs) so that it looks as if standing still when seen from the front, and as if walking when seen from the side From the shoulders spring the wings of a bird of prey, only one being visible, curving above the back broad panels of curls cover the breast, belly, back, and butt The tail is very long and curly at the end fearsome, huge Context: Assyrians (1000-500 BCE), Iraq Mesopotamia - constantly at war, being conquered by different people Palace of Sargon II 713 BC Sargon II founded his capital, Dur Sharrukin, (present-day Khorsabad) he enclosed it, together with several palaces, within a great wall of unbaked brick pierced by seven gatesThese bulls are motifs of Syrian inspiration and one of the characteristic features of the decoration of Assyrian palacesThey make their first appearance at Nimrud in the reign of Ashurnasirpal II, and disappear again after the reign of Ashurbanipal. height of Assyrian power different Assyrian kings made their palaces in different cities. These sculptures are enormous, but they would have been dwarfed by the architecture of the citadel

Pyramid of Menkaure

Form: smallest of the three (213 ft) Function: burial site for King Menkaure Content: most complex chambers of the three pyramids held Menkaure's black stone sarcophagus. But then they lost that held many triad statues of the King, Hathor, and a nome

Pyramid of Khufu

Form: tallest of the three pyramids (481 ft) 2,300,000 blocks, over 50 tons Function: burial site for King Khufu Content: grand gallery, King/queen's chambers. King's sarcophagus. 7 boats

Last judgment of Hu-Nefer, (Book of the Dead), 1275 BCE, c. 19 Dynasty, New Kingdom (Egypt) Papyrus Thebes, Egypt (now British Museum)

Form: Drawings and painting on papyrus scroll, a reed that grew in the Nile Delta, made into paper. Function: To prove Hunefer, the white-robed priest depicted in the above scenes, had lived an ethical life and deserved to enter the afterlife. Content: In upper left, Hunefer is speaking to a line of crouching deities, explaining how he has lived a good life and deserves to life in the afterlife. He is depicted in a white robe. Hunefer is led by Anubis, a jackel-headed god, who is carrying an ankh, a symbol of eternal life. Anubis is seen with a scale, weighing Hunefer's heart with a feather from Ma'at (associated with living an ethical, ordered life.) If the feather weighs more, he has lived an ethical life. If heart weighs more, the beast Ammit (crocodile, lion, hippo beast) will devour Hunefer if he's found to have lived an unethical life. Ibis, Faaf, is the scribe recording the deeds of Hunefer, with a green ibis-like head. Horus (a falcon-headed son of Osiris; holds an ankh in his hand) introduces Hunefer to Osiris, the enthroned deity on the far right. Isis, Osiris's wife, and Neftis, Osiris's sister, stand behind Osiris and join him in making the judgment on Hunefer. Context: Book of Dead was an ancient Egyptian text with spells, prayers, and incantations that helped the dead in the afterlife. Book of Dead was part of "pyramid text" writing (instructions for afterlife.) Pyramid Text preceded "coffin texts:" instructions written on coffins, and also writing on shrouds. Originally texts for the afterlife were just for kings, but then extended to those of wealth or priestly status. Hunefer had a priestly status, this text was found buried with him. Egyptians believed that people had an afterlife only if they had lived an ethical life. Lotus blossom, ankh, and ostrich feathers depict eternal life. Horus's 4 children are responsible for caring for Hunefer's internal organs; they represent the 4 cardinal points. During Armarna period in Egypt there were very atypical, angular depictions of humans; this scroll followed that period and returned to the original Egyptian depictions of deities and the human form.

Pyramids of Giza and general layout

Form: bedrock, local core stones, Tura limestone casing, red granite, mortar. Nearly perfect pyramids. Edges aligned with cardinal pts. Function: burial sites for kings. Royal Mortuary complex. perhaps intended as a solidified version of the rays of the sun. Content: three major pyramids for three rulers over three generations and many other smaller cemeteries and temples. Representations of the passages of the dead. Context: tallest things for over 4000 years. Ancient Egypt. People had to have everything for the afterlife, so they are buried with all the things they need in life. We still don't know how these were built. Pharaohs were kings, but also divine

Great Sphinx, Funerary Complex of Khafre

Form: carved into the bedrock of the plateau next to the Khafre pyramid Function: symbol of royal power Content: Lion with the head of Khafre. a temple for the sphinx right next door Context: Lion = royal symbol = DOUBLE MEGA ROYAL POWER

Forum of Trajan Rome, Italy. Apollodorus of Damascus. Forum and markets: 106-112 C.E.; column completed 113 C.E. Brick and concrete (architecture); marble (column) It is an amazing work of art for each detail of each scene to the very top of the Column is carefully carved. It is astounded by the artistic skill it displays.

Forum (fora: plural): open civil space in a Roman city Imperial Fora - Were a new series forums built by emperors o Forums were the civic, juridical, and social heart of the city of ancient Rome o Could be found in any Roman city o Always included a temple § Shows the connection between church and state that still exists - These were forums built by Roman emperors during the Roman imperial period o Mainly to showcase power - Represent the major architectural landscapes of the city of Rome o Shows the importance of civic architecture - Illustrate the strength, accomplishments, and stability of the Roman state - Fora is the plural form of forum - There were five but the only one that we need to pay attention to is the Forum of Trajan FORM - Apollodorus of Damascus was the engineer - Almost the size of all the other imperial forms put together o Very extravagant o Had a massive entrance way - The place where Trajan was to build was already covered with the forums from previous emperors o So he got Apollodorus of Damascus to move a good portion of the hill that was in his way of building - Ceremonial entrance way that leads into the forum o Below is a depiction of the entrance way to the forum o On the top is an image of Trajan being followed by the goddess of victory - - within the center of the forum was an equestrian sculpture o the equestrian sculpture of Marcus Aurelius provides insight into how that sculpture may have looked - - past the forum was the Basilica Ulpia o this was the largest Basicila in Rome o we can still see some of it today; there are columns standing - was filled with sculptures, carvings, free standing sculpture were found all around the forum - colored marbles were found on the paving stones and the structures themselves - beyond the basic Ulpia there was another entrance way o this lead to two libraries o in the middle of these two libraries was the column of Trajan CONTENT - Basicila Ulpia o The Basicila laid the foundation for the modern cruciform church o Called the Basilica Ulpia because that is Trajan's family name - The free standing and other art that would have been scattering the forum depict the power of the emperors, politicians and military leaders of ancient Rome o Throughout the forum, there were sculptures of captured Dacians § Represented them as noble to show they the Romans are all powerful and can defeat even noble men - Column of Trajan o The point was to see the stories of Trajan's military victories o Specifically, the column highlights the battle in which Trajan defeated the Dacians o Shows that he was proud of his military acts o 125 feet tall, marks the height of the hill that was removed - Libraries o One was full of Greek literature, and the other was filled with Roman literature o This shows how much the Romans were influenced and incorporated Greek life into their lives § This is shown through their copying of ancient Greek works as well § These libraries had porches, so one was able to study the column of Trajan from within the libraries - Major theme= power o This is represented by the free-standing sculptures of the defeated Dacians o Also, the massive structure alludes to the massive power of Trajan - Major theme = making nature subordinate to man's rule CONTEXT - Trajan expanded the Roman empire to its greatest boarders - - the column was made to depict two major defeats of the Dacians for the Romans - Trajan o One of the most highly regarded Roman Emperors o Best known for his public building program - He was able to build so many things because of the large sum of money he brought home from the war on the Dacians o Which is depicted all throughout the forum and is found in detail all around the Column of Trajan FUNCTION - civic space - ceremonial space - to represent the power of Trajan - the detail of the art within it shows the importance the society placed on him and his accomplishments

Parthenon

Function: dedicated to athena place of worship and importance symbol of wealth Context: top of rocky outcropping overlooking city all cities had hill period was good for athens so they built parthenon high classic detailed huge perfect incarnation of greek ideal neo classical birth place of demo reforms allowed more people to let people participate in govt 50,000 citizens out 300-400,000 inhabitants Iquitos and kallikrates built the parthenon 447-432 BCE around this time artists started signing their work (not everyone but some people) Content/Form: trad greek temple (marble) - doric with ionic features doric - fluting vertical indentations on the columns doric - vertical lines doric - columns go straight into the ground (styloblate) doric - capitols are simple doric - little flare that gives way to rectangular block abacus -- above triglyphs and metopes friezes on all four sides scultpure in peidmonts and metopes 4 ionic columns inside temple parthenon contained giant sculpture athena frieze around building under — ionic on outside frieze maybe showed Panathenaic Procession religious procession for Athena at entrance had a story of athena vs poseidon athena gave the olive tree (peace and prosperity) poseidon gave a spring -salt water (naval superiority) metope showed battles both real and not greeks vs amazons greeks vs torjans greeks vs titans etc. frieze similar to stained glass windows in churches parthenon used to be full of color athena made of gold and ivory everything distorted to makeup for flawed perception

Grave stele of Hegeso Attributed to Kallimachos. c. 410 B.C.E. Marble and paint In the relief sculpture, the theme is the treatment and portrayal of women in ancient Greek society, which did not allow women an independent life.

orm: Stele (upright slabs with relief sculptures) (like a modern day grave stone) 5'2" Marble and paint Function: grave stones Content: Relief sculpture of Hegeso and servant girl servant holds a jewelry box, and Hegeso hold and looks at a necklace now we cant see the necklace because it was painted on the stele and has worn off might represent a dowry drapery elaborate forms and swirls very close to her body She does not touch the ground her foot is on a pedestal Composition of the drapery Inscription on top says Hegeso, daughter of Proxenos Context: in the Dipylon cemetery in Athens 410 BCE: end of fifth century BCE (High classical moment) resurgence of funerary sculpture in Athens same time as the sculpture of the Parthenon and other buildings of acropolis Big time for public sculpture, but moving into private sculpture during period of democracy the state was the most important, nobles were not, sculpture showed that Hegeso woman domestic basically in a house on the stele: two walls and a roof not citizens of Athens women were defined by their relationships to men (daughter of __, or wife of __) noble, her family grave plot was super magnificent attributed to the sculptor Kallimachos Detailing of Drapery naturalistic closely follows the fold of the body resembles the carving we see on the figures of the parthenon frieze has its own motion pools around belly area, very detailed Perception of depth with drapery delicate veil around her head that is further away drapery near her feet goes behind the leg of the chair drapery at her hips hangs in front of the chair shallow space with full width of the body in the carving vivid imagery, but somehow still quiet and appropriate for a stele.