Psy 116 Observational Learning

What is Bandura's account of social learning?

*Presence of a model*: increases/focuses attention to the situation *Encoding of model's actions*: learner must store memories of the actions in an accessible format for later recall *Action reproduction*: Learner must be able to reproduce the actions encoded in memory (e.g. must be able to execute the dance move observed) *Motivation*: learner must have a reason to select observed behavior -have to have a model, have to encode their actions, have to produce their actions, and have to keep motivated

Studies of True Imitation

*Two-action test* detects true imitation and is passed by young humans and chimps Procedure: Adult human models opened a box by a) taking pins out of its latch OR b) twisting and pulling the pins out of the latch Next, young chimps and humans observed to see if they would copy the precise style of opening Results: -Human children precisely copied the actions of the human model they observed, demonstrating true imitation -Young chimps exhibited a mix of true imitation and emulation -interestingly, adult humans also show a mix of imitation and emulation -young humans and chimps can exhibit more true imitation in this two-action test (though chimps less so that humans) -In other two-action tests, at least some imitation in birds and rodents as well-indicating true cognitive representation of their models -two-action test--> have two things you have to do to get a goal -children who saw poke also poked -chimpanzees more equally distributed between doing one or the other -strong argument for cognitive interpretation

Observational Learning in Animals

-Early researchers such as Thorndike (1898) were not able to show imitation in animals experimentally -Research on observational learning was shelved until around the 1930's, and became popular in the 1960's with Bandura's work -Currently, there is research suggesting that observational learning is an important source of information about an animal's environment

What is Social Transmission of Information?

A process in which an observer learns something through experiences involing other agents e.g. If you see someone lose his or her money at a soda machine, you probably won't try that machine yourself Social transmission of information is *ubiquitous* in human society (TV, internet, books, college classes) If you talk about people, this is most of our learning -how do we choose our classes? -very powerful--> social media Ex: Evidence in rat for Transmission of information via Social Behaviors -Rats housed in pairs -One of the pairs eats a food with a smell/flavor: Chocolate or cinammon -After eating it is exposed to it's pair inthe home cage -The next day give other rat access to both chocolate and cinnamon flavored/smelling food -Animals are more likely to eat the food that they were exposed to the day before by the paired rat

Autism Spectrum Disorder

A syndrome defined primarily by impaired social function: -Poor social interactions -Need to have strict routines -Sensory overload -Stereotypical/repetitive movements -Echolalia --> repeating words and spoken phrases -Symptoms are quite varied across those afflicted Autism has been suggested to be a type of "mind blindness"- an inability to understand the mental life of others -According to this theory, autistics should have great dificulty with true imitation, as they lack the processing necessary for this type of social learning -The evidence on this is mixed, though... -Autism is a syndrome that impairs social function--> poor social interaction -highly-sensitive to sensory information -huge variation in how severe symptoms are -theory of mind--> you understand someone else can have different thoughts than you do --> if this is true, should have problem with imitation --> studies mixed Autism is associated with some deficits of imitation: -Some studies have shown strong-deficits, others less so -Autistic children can complete do-as-I-do tasks for simple actions (e.g. drinking) but had difficult with action sequences. -In the two-action task (model demonstrates, then observe to see if specific model behavior is copied), older autistic children tested normally, but younger autistic children were impaired -Probably not a global deficit of all social learning, but some specific impairments seem common

What is Social Conformity?

A tendency to adopt the behaviors of a group -Social transmission of information can lead to this -Enables adaptive behaviors to spread rapidly through a set of conspecifics (e.g. this cheese is a good food source) -Similar to blocking effects, though, social conformity can also impair learning of novel situations

What is Emulation?

Accomplishing the same overall goal as the model, *but in a different way* -e.g. a child might puncture Bobo, which is aggressive, but not in the same exact same way as the adult modeled -Although fascinating, psychologically ambiguous. Learner could have just wanted to achieve the same end and learned their own way of accomplishing it. Doesn't demonstrate full cognitive representation of the model. -achieve the same goal, but do not do it in truly imitative way -could call cognitively complex, but then it is like what is their understanding of the situation? -have trouble; gets messy from theory perspective

What is the Controversy in Social Learning?

Bandura's results challenge Behaviorist approaches in at least two ways: -Strong learning in the absence of any specific reinforcement (*self-motivated learning*) -Apparent *need for complex cognitive processing* (couldn't be understood in simple S-R terms) Since Bandura, there has been intense effort to ensure that both these pints are really true: -Isn't it possible that what seems like social learning is just a form of instrumental or classical conditioning? -Isn't is possible that actions could be copied without complex cognitive operations? -These debates have led to fine distinctions between *true imitation* (self-motivated and cognitively demanding) and copying -a lot of self-motivated learning that goes on -Since Bandura, there is a debate --> Behaviorist say can't you just do what you watch without cognition--> No understanding of what you are doing --> Difference between true imitations and simple copying

What are the Bobo Doll Experiments?

Children watched an adult model show aggressive behavior toward a Bobo doll Exposure: Children watched an adult modeling aggressive behavior (beating on an inflatable Bobo doll) or an adult modeling quiet play Test: Children were watched while playing with toys, including the Bobo doll Some children were provoked by taking away their first toy of choice Also looked at the role of conditioning: -The model was praised -The model was punished -The model received no consequences for the aggressive behavior -Have a kid watch an adult do aggressive behavior (exposure condition) or quiet play -have a test where children are in play room, one of which is a Bobo doll -some children provoked by saying they could not play with the first thing they go up to in the room--> provoking aggression -measured what did the child do? Looked at how the child interacted with the Bobo doll -Bandura was also interested in the conditioning--> in another set of studies, same experiment but added social reinforcement or punishment factor -a lot of variations on this experiment -not just being aggressive, but modeling the behavior they observed -can specifically see modeling particular aggressive behavior that they saw

What is True Imitation?

Copying specific actions learned from one another -e.g. not just hitting Bobo but hitting it the same way the adult did and yelling the same phrases -Demonstrates that the learner has encoded the specific actions of the model and selected those precise memories to guide their ongoing behavior. Without a doubt, cognitively complex Behaviorists and others have pointed out, however, that what may seem like true imitation may actually be more simple forms of learning that are compatible with their theories of learning: -Emulation -Observational conditioning -Contagion -Stimulus Enhancement Bandura's point: -aggressive in the same EXACT way the adult was aggressive with the Bobo doll

How can Social Conformity block learning of novel situations?

Ex: guppies! -Demonstrator guppies trained to swim to one of two open holes in a net to escape an aversive stimulus -Naïve guppies then tested with the presence of the demonstrators and an additional, better escape route -Naïve fish tended to follow the demonstrators to the less optimal opening--> Decreasing the number of demonstrators decreased conformity Note: also occurs without social conformity: demonstrators also stick with their initial escape route -No maximizing. Doing what everyone else is doing because everyone else is doing it. Idea that social conformity is going to block the best situation (best thing to pick in the situation)

Social Transmission of Information **WATCH VIDEO

How does social learning and transmission inform our use of media? -Violent movies and video games -Sexualized behavior in the media -Images of health and beauty... Observing Violence Does watching TV violence increase aggression in kids? YES --> Evidence from correlational studies, field studies, and controlled laboratory experiments --> Also true for violent video games Effect Size: how big is your effect--> always a consistently small effect--> there, but always small Does modeling apply to prosocial behaviors? YES Seeing positive role models increases helping behavior -Media influences -Famous People -What we encounter in our everday life

Mirror Neurons in Humans

Humans *do seem* to have mirror neurons -Not usually possible to record directly -However, EEG and fMRI both indicate that some brain regions are activated for both observing and performing action -Areas of joint activity match those where mirror neurons are found in primate relatives -evidence that brain areas are activated in the same way

What is Contagion?

Inborn tendency to react to cues from other members of the same species -e.g. a friend yawns, and then you do too -e.g. someone throws up, and you may too -Not really learned, and definitely not true imitation. Just a complex reflex. Doesn't require complex cognitive operations

What is Vicarious Learning?

Learning by seeing the consequence of another's behavior -Bandura said that reinforcement is *not essential* for learning to occur, but the expectation of reinforcement affects the performance of what has been learned -Bandura said do not need reinforcer for learning, but expectation of reinforcement does affect performance -Vicarious learning--> learn by wathching consequences to others -seeing a consequence of something and living vicariously through person and realizing should not do the same thing--> consequence someone else undergoes influences own behavior

What is Social Learning (aka Observational Learning)?

Learning in which the learner actively monitors events involving other individuals and then chooses later actions based on their observations -Informally, often called copying or imitating -Powerful form of learning in humans: Learn from watching others, watching video, reading books, etc. -Difficult to study, especially in non-humans: -->Usually, no reward/punishment specifically given during training -->Depends on the learner's attention to and perception of the situation they observe -->Up to the learner to decide when/how actually perform behaviors that have been observed -->Hard to predict and measure what is learned -hard to study when you get to non-humans -not necessarily reward of punishment -depends on whether you are paying attention--> aspect of attention of the observer that matters -perception of situation, your skills: can you do it? -have to decide when and how you are going to do those things -hard to predict what you learned

Socially Transmitted Food Preferences

Learning paradigm: -A demonstrator rat is fed food with a novel odor (e.g. cinnamon-flavor food) -The demonstrator rat is then placed in a cage with a food-deprived observer -The observer smells the scent of food on the demonstrator's breath, and will form a long-lasting preference for that flavor food Lesion studies indicate important roles for the *hippocampus* and the *basal forebrain* -Hippocampal lesions produce retrograde amnesia with a temporal gradient (most recent food preferences are most affected) -Basal forebrain lesions completely eliminate ability to retrieve socially learned food preferences, but new preferences can be formed -Anatomically, very similar to the brain substrates of episodic memory

Autism Spectrum Disorder: What about Brain Substrates?

One brain abnormality found in autism patients if slower activation of mirror neuron networks while imitating facial expressions -mirror neuron network -people with autism tend to have abnormal neuron circuits -autistic patients show slower activation of circuit, especially when have to reproduce facial expression -motor, integrative, visual components of circuit -together this is the mirror neuron activating circuit -Posterior STS <--> Rostral IPL Human PF/PFG <--> Ventral PMC/posterior IFG

Modeling Prosocial Behavior

Prosocial Role Models -L.A. drivers are more likely to offer help to a female driver with a flat tire if a wuarter of a mile earlier they had witnessed someone helping another woman change a tire -New Jersey Xmas shoppers were more likely to drop money into a Slavation Army kettle if they had just seen someone else donate -Found British adults more willing to donate blood if they were approached after observing a confederate agree to donate -Students who had heard a lecture on bystander intervention were more likely to help in a staged emergency 2 weeks later -Heard lecture 43% helped -Did not hear lecture 25% helped -bystander effect--> the more people that are around, the less likely people are to receive help

What are Mirror Neurons?

Recordings from awake primates have revealed so-called *mirror neurons*: neurons that fire for both watching and doing an action -e.g. A mirror neuron might fire when a monkey grasps an object and when it sees another monkey grasp an object Mirror neurons seem to represent a neural component of social memory, linking observed behaviors with motor outputs -*True imitation*: Some mirror neurons fire only during specific activities, when observed and performed -*Emulation*: Other mirror neurons fire for specific outcomes, regardless of how achieved, when observed and performed Do humans have mirror neurons?

Brain Substrates of Social Learning

Same or Different as other forms of learning? Same: -Social learning involves memories for both episodes (I saw her to this) and skills (now I'm going to do the same) -Perhaps, then, are the brain substrates the same as for traditional episodic and skill memory? Different: -Strong social learning is only evident in some species -Perhaps, then, it takes specialized brain structures How is it done? -Encoding: Visual or auditory observations (what the model did) -Retrieval: Actions or speech (what you do) How are memories for model actions translated into motor plans? -watching someone do something--> visual component -transfer aspect -motor-watching interface going on -can do social learning for episodic and skill -have to encode -how does the visual or auditory map onto a motor action?

What is the Social Learning Theory?

Social behavior can be learned by observing others and imitating them Ex: -Bandura's Bobo doll study -Watching violent TV, video games, movies Early *social learning theory* adapted Behaviorist principles: -Focused on the incentives for a behavior: punishments and rewards -Saw social learning as a form of vicarious instrumental learning, enabling learns to observe about the consequences of a behavior without have to try it first hand: --> Jill observes Bill crying, and sees his mom pick him up to sooth him --> Jill now knows that crying is reinforced and is more likely to try it Modern Approaches take a more cognitive approach, seeing social learning as self-motivated (not needing explicit punishment/reward) and guided by cognitive appraisals -Bandura has proposed 4 basic processes for true imitation

Social Transmission

Transmission of information via Social behaviors Other influences? *Availability Heuristic* Tendency to base a judgement on the ease with which they can bring something to mind -If we can come up with examples readily then we assume that they are commonplace as well -Highlights a basic principle of social cognition --> People are very quick to infer general truth from one instance -Heuristic--> used to make judgements -brain is trying to be efficient -heuristics are judgements you have to make a lot -Availability heuristic: cognitively available to you --> how quickly you think of something

What is Stimulus Enhancement?

When a teacher directs the attention of the learner to particular parts of the environment -e.g. Parents point out wet floor and tell child to take care. The child may then be faster to learn that when the floor is wet, running will cause falls -The learner still undergoes traditional instrucmental or classical conditioning; the stimulus enhancement just makes association more salient (e.g. highlighting a discriminative stimulus) -Again doesn't require complex cognitive operations -somehow making someone more aware of the stimulus will lead to better conditioning -Ex: Wet floor; parent points out wet floor and kid runs across it and eats caca --> idea is thsat because told it was wet first, should have learned faster instead of having to continuously run across and it and wonder why falling

What is Observational Conditioning?

When cues in the environment become associated with contagion reactions -e.g. a naïve monkey sees a snake. Other monkeys, who have experiences snakes, freak out. the naïve monkey freaks out too, due to contagion. The snake now becomes linked to freaking out, so on the next sight of the snake, the monkey now freaks out This allows social transmission of learned associations, but it fits all the basic principles of classical conditioning -Moreover, no complex cognitive processing is required (Monkey doesn't need to understand why the other monkeys are afraid; it simply reacts to their fear and associates this with stimuli around at the time) -This form of learning can really seem like true imitation, but clever experimental design can show that it does not involve any complex cognition... -if naïve monkey sees other moneys freak out to the snake, the naïve monkey is going to freak out--> that's just conditioning -more due to seeing another cue in the environment becomes associated with that response -do not understand why the other monkeys are afraid--> just see and associate with other stimuli that are around Observational learning is "dumb", not cognitively complex: -"Model" blackbird has learned to attack a stuffed owl, which preys on blackbirds -Naïve blackbird observes attack behavior from the model, but is shown only a plastic bottle, not the owl. Contagion sparks its attack behavior, but it pairs it whatever stimulus around, in this case the bottle Naïve blackbird learns to attack the bottle *Obiously, not true imitation, just a complex form of classical conditioning*

What are factors that increase imitation?

You're more likely to imitate: -People who are rewarded for their behavior -Warm, nurturant people -People who have control over you or have the power to influence your life -People are smilar to you in terms of age, sex, and interests -People you perceive as having higher status -When the task to be imitated is not extremely easy or difficult--> more likely to imitate mid-level task -If you lack confidence in your own abilities in a particular situation; lack confidence in own abilities--> imitate someone else -If the situation is unfamiliar or ambiguous -If you've been rewarded for imitating the same behavior in the past