PSY 212 - Midterm Exam
Ways too assess validity and reliability empirically
scatterplots and statistically (e.g; correlation coefficient)
criterion validity
the measure is associated with a concrete behavioral outcome it theoretically should be associated with often relies on concrete behavioral outcomes
________ validity tends to be higher in experiments than in other types of studies. A. Content B. Internal C. External D. Statistical
B. Internal
Another word for hypothesis is a(n) A. theory. B. observation. C. prediction. D. outcome.
C. prediction.
Sampling bias
"self-selection"
divergent validity
(aka discriminant validity) Does the measure discriminate between constructs that are different? used for establishing boundaries of construct should be used in combination with convergent validity measures should be more highly correlated with similar constructs than with dissimilar constructs
types of variables
- Nominal vs. numeric - Interval vs ordinal vs ratio - Measured vs. manipulated - IV/DV vs predictor/outcome
Non-probability methods
- convenience sampling - quota sampling
Types of hypotheses
- describing phenomenon or population - difference between groups - relation between variables - mediator - moderator
types of research
- descriptive - correlational - experimental
construct validity types
- face validity - content validity - criterion validity - convergent validity - divergent validity
types of claims
- frequency - association - causal
Types of measurements
- self report - other report - observational/ behavioral - physiological
Sampling Biases
- self-selection - convenience
Probability methods
- simple random sampling - stratified random sampling - systematic sampling - cluster sampling
Reliability types
- test-retest reliability - interrater reliability - internal reliability
peer review
-The journal editor sends the paper to multiple experts on the subject -The experts inform the editor of the work's virtues and flaws -Based on the reports from the experts, the editors decide whether or not to publish the work -Experts comment on the importance of the work, how it fits with the existing body of knowledge, how competently the research was done, and how convincing the results are
Steps of the scientific process
1. Question 2. Observation/Research 3. Hypothesis 4. Experiment/test 5. Collect and Analyze Data 6. Conclusion 7. Communicate Results
If a sample is biased, then it is ________ the population of interest. A. unrepresentative of B. unrelated to C. incorrectly compared to D. unfairly applied to
A. unrepresentative of
Availability heuristic
A biased intuition in which people incorrectly estimate the frequency of something It relies mainly on instances that easily come to mind rather than using all possible evidence
Variable
A characteristic that can assume different values
Confound
A general term for a potential alternative explanation for a research finding; a threat to internal validity
Comparison Group
A group in an experiment whose levels on the independent variable differ from those of the treatment group in some Enables us to compare what would happen with and without salt lamps or online games Experience DO NOT have a comparison group
Hypothesis
A testable, falsifiable prediction based in theory
Which of the following is true of the difference between basic and applied research? A. Basic and applied research have different goals. B. Applied research is more important than basic research. C. Basic research is more difficult to conduct than applied research. D. Applied research is done by consumers of research.
A. Basic and applied research have different goals.
How are quota sampling and stratified random sampling similar? A. Both identify subgroups that need to be studied. B. Both randomly sample subgroups to be studied. C. Both result in nonrepresentative samples. D. Both result in representative samples.
A. Both identify subgroups that need to be studied.
Which of the following statements is true of random assignment and random sampling? A. Random assignment is necessary for internal validity, whereas random sampling is necessary for external validity. B. They both are necessary for frequency claims. C. They both mean the same thing. D. Random sampling is more important than random assignment.
A. Random assignment is necessary for internal validity, whereas random sampling is necessary for external validity.
RESEARCH STUDY: Dr. Kang, a cognitive psychologist, conducts an experiment examining the effect of emotion on memory. He provides lists of 15 words to two groups of participants at his university. He puts the names of all the participants in a hat. The first 20 names he assigns to Group A and the last 20 he assigns to Group B. Group A is given a list of words that are very emotional in content (e.g., passion, murder). Group B is given a list of words that are neutral in content (e.g., houseplant, desk). He then measures how many words each group is able to remember after being distracted for 5 minutes by watching a video about the history of the university. He finds that Group A remembers 15% more words than Group B. Which of the following makes Dr. Kang's study an experiment? A. The study included a manipulated variable and a measured variable. B. The study included a distractor task. C. The study was conducted at a university by a psychologist. D. The study investigated a theory of emotion on memory.
A. The study included a manipulated variable and a measured variable.
Theory-Data Cycle
theory, research questions, research design, hypothesis, data
Why are techniques like cluster sampling and systematic sampling just as externally valid as simple random sampling? A. They all contain elements of random selection. B. They all measure every member of the population of interest. C. They all use lists of all population members. D. They all rely on large samples.
A. They all contain elements of random selection.
Which of the following is a problem presented by the availability heuristic? A. We do not examine all of the evidence, only what we can quickly think of. B. We rely on the opinions of others rather than on our own opinions. C. We do not carefully examine our own experience. D. We will never be right in our conclusions.
A. We do not examine all of the evidence, only what we can quickly think of.
Sasha believes that she is a nice person. To confirm this, she asks all her friends whether she is a nice person; they all agree that she is. Sasha concludes that she is a nice person and says she has evidence of it. Sasha would likely draw a different conclusion if she did which of the following? A. asked her enemies if she was a nice person B. counted up all the times she was nice in the past C. asked all her friends the same question again in another six months D. considered all the times she was nice to her enemies
A. asked her enemies if she was a nice person
After reading the chapter, Cyril says to himself, "I am sure other people might engage in faulty thinking, but I never would." What is Cyril experiencing? A. bias blind spot B. confirmation bias C. faulty intuition D. motivated thinking
A. bias blind spot
In the theory-data cycle, theories first lead to A. questions. B. answers. C. data. D. research.
A. questions.
A correlation coefficient and a scatterplot both provide which of the following pieces of information? A. the strength and direction of the relationship between two measurements B. the path and significance of the relationship between two measurements C. the validity and reliability of two measurements D. the outliers present in the two measurements
A. the strength and direction of the relationship between two measurements
basic research
work for a general understanding of the field
RESEARCH STUDY: Dr. Sheffield is a clinical psychologist who specializes in treating pathological gambling. Pathological gambling is defined as being unable to resist impulses to gamble. Bothered by not having a good measure that he can give to clients to determine whether they are suffering from this condition, he creates a new measure of pathological gambling. The measure has 15 questions, and it takes 20 minutes to complete. If Dr. Sheffield's measure does not actually measure pathological gambling, his measure is said to lack which of the following? A. validity B. Reliability C. conceptualization D. operationalization
A. validity
Being swayed by a good story
Accepting a conclusion because it makes sense or feels natural
Salma conducts a study and finds that her data do not completely support her theory. Which of the following statements should she avoid saying? A. "My data are inconsistent with my theory." B. "My data disprove my theory." C. "My theory needs amending." D. "My data partially prove my theory."
B. "My data disprove my theory."
In order to use the known groups paradigm to establish criterion validity, which of the following is necessary? A. At least three groups must be used. B. After testing, the groups should have significantly different scores on the measure. C. Prior to testing, similarity between the groups must be demonstrated. D. The groups must be composed of experts in the field of psychology.
B. After testing, the groups should have significantly different scores on the measure.
Dr. Gonzalez is a peer reviewer for a manuscript submitted to a journal. He is likely to provide comments on which of the following? A. how well the general public will understand the study B. how well the research was conducted C. the prestige/reputation of the author D. previous studies from the same research group
B. how well the research was conducted
Which type of measure operationalizes a variable by recording the answers of a participant using a questionnaire? A. physiological measure B. self-report measure C. observational measure D. conceptual measure
B. self-report measure
RESEARCH STUDY: Anderson is reading his morning paper and sees the following headline: "Men Should Avoid Rock Music When Playing Board Games." (This headline is based on a study conducted by Fancourt, Burton, & Williamon, 2016.) In the study, men and women played the game "Operation" when listening to different types of music. Male participants performed worse when listening to AC/DC than when listening to Mozart, but female participants' performance did not differ based on music. How many measured variables are included in this study? A. one B. two C. three D. four
B. two
Bias blind spot
Bias about being biased
Professor Adeyemi is examining well-being after retirement in a city, and it is important to have excellent external validity. Professor Adeyemi selects two random numbers, 4 and 6, and gets a list of all of the retired people in the city. If Professor Adeyemi obtains the sample by starting with the 4th person on the list and selecting every 6th person, which of the following sampling techniques is most likely being used? A. cluster sampling B. stratified random sampling C. systematic sampling D. quota sampling
C. systematic sampling
James is asked about the best way to study for an exam. He responds that the best way to study is by making flashcards. He easily thinks of all the times he used flashcards and got an A. However, he fails to take into consideration all the times he got an A and did not use flashcards and the times he used flashcards and did not do well. His faulty thinking is an example of A. cherry-picking evidence. B. the availability heuristic. C. a present/present bias. D. asking biased questions.
C. a present/present bias.
Which of the following may lead to a biased sample? A. using people who accept compensation (e.g., money) to participate B. using people who agree to participate C. using people who are readily available to the researcher D. using people who have participated in other research studies
C. using people who are readily available to the researcher
Dr. Hoda measures job satisfaction and number of years of education. In examining her scatterplot, she sees the cloud of points has no slope. This indicates which type of relationship? A. negative association B. positive association C. zero association D. causal association
C. zero association
Cofound
Cofounds occur when you think one thing caused an outcome but in fact other things changed, so you're confused about what the cause really was
internal validity
The extent to which we can identify a single, trustworthy explanation of results Aspects of the study that limit interpretation of its findings
Why do studies that use probability samples have excellent external validity? A. They also ensure excellent internal validity. B. They study every member of the population of interest. C. They use a larger number of measures. D. All members of the population are equally likely to be represented in the sample.
D. All members of the population are equally likely to be represented in the sample.
Stefan wants to make a causal claim in his dissertation. Which of the following is necessary? A. He must make a frequency claim first. B. He must manipulate all of his variables. C. He must measure all of his variables. D. He must conduct an experiment.
D. He must conduct an experiment.
Angel reads about a study in which smartphone use is associated with migraine headaches. He says, "Well, that study is not valid because I use a smartphone more than anyone I know, and I never get migraines." Based on his comment, Angel may be forgetting which of the following? A. Science is based on empiricism. B. The study has been replicated. C. The study did not properly define smartphone use. D. Science is probabilistic.
D. Science is probabilistic
Tim tells you that the best way to make friends is by opening the conversation with a joke. He can easily recall all the friends he met by telling a joke and also the times he opened with chitchat and didn't befriend the person. If you were concerned that Tim was making the present/present bias, what would you ask him? A. How many people have you met and befriended? B. Do you think the times you made friends by telling jokes might come more easily to mind? C. Did you go into conversations where you opened with jokes thinking that you would make friends? D. What about the times you opened with a joke and didn't become friends with the person?
D. What about the times you opened with a joke and didn't become friends with the person?
Which of the following is the correct ordering of the sections of an empirical journal article? A. introduction, abstract, results, discussion, method, references B. introduction, discussion, method, results, abstract, references C. abstract, introduction, results, method, discussion, references D. abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references
D. abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references
Which types of reliability can be analyzed with scatterplots? A. all types of reliability B. internal reliability and test-retest reliability C. internal reliability and interrater reliability D. interrater reliability and test-retest reliability
D. interrater reliability and test-retest reliability
If Jamal wanted to test the consistency of participants' responses on a survey at two different times, what would he use? A. internal reliability B. interrater reliability C. criterion validity D. test-retest reliability
D. test-retest reliability
Confirmation bias
The tendency to only consider the evidence that supports the hypothesis Including only asking questions that will lead to the expected answer
Dr. Hadden wants to conduct a study that will allow him to make claims that apply to all college students. Which of the following validities is he prioritizing? A. the statistical validity of the study B. the internal validity of the study C. the construct validity of the study D. the external validity of the study
D. the external validity of the study
RESEARCH STUDY: Anderson is reading his morning paper and sees the following headline: "Men Should Avoid Rock Music When Playing Board Games." (This headline is based on a study conducted by Fancourt, Burton, & Williamon, 2016.) In the study, men and women played the game "Operation" when listening to different types of music. Male participants performed worse when listening to AC/DC than when listening to Mozart, but female participants' performance did not differ based on music. Which of the following is a variable in this study? A. the gender of the researcher B. the volume of the music C. the type of game D. the gender of the participant
D. the gender of the participant
RESEARCH STUDY: Anderson is reading his morning paper and sees the following headline: "Men Should Avoid Rock Music When Playing Board Games." (This headline is based on a study conducted by Fancourt, Burton, & Williamon, 2016.) In the study, men and women played the game "Operation" when listening to different types of music. Male participants performed worse when listening to AC/DC than when listening to Mozart, but female participants' performance did not differ based on music. In this study, the authors were interested in participants' board game performance. Which of the following would be a reasonable operational definition of performance? A. an earnest attempt to finish quickly B. which board game participants chose to play C. performance when playing a board game D. whether participants won against a partner
D. whether participants won against a partner
Kalei is studying the relationship between vitamin consumption and cognitive ability. Which of the following is a categorical way to operationalize vitamin consumption? A. the number of vitamins consumed in a day B. the number of milligrams of vitamin C consumed during the study C. the frequency of buying vitamins from the store D. whether the participant consumed vitamins in the 24 hours prior to the study
D. whether the participant consumed vitamins in the 24 hours prior to the study
Finding a research topic
Decide what to study and what you want to learn from a study about it: -Personal experience -Personal observation -Intellectual curiosity -Societal challenge -Previous research
Theory
Describes general principles for how variables relate to each other
Probabilistic
Describing the empirical method, stating that science is intended to explain a certain proportion (but not necessarily all) of the possible cases
content validity
Does the measure capture all parts of the defined construct? Relies on conceptual definition
convergent validity
Does the measure show a similar pattern to other related measures? Distinction from criterion validity Criterion validity focuses on key behavioral outcomes Convergent validity focuses on pattern among similar measures
What is data?
Facts and statistics collected together for reference or analysis
sampling methods
▪ Probability sampling (e.g., simple random sample) ▪ Non-probability sampling (e.g., convenience sample)
Describing a phenomenon or population
Focuses on a single variable within a single population -Percent -Proportion -Frequency -Amount
Systematic Comparison
In a controlled study, researchers can set up the conditions to include at least one comparison group Contract the researcher's larger view with the more subjective view, in which each person consults only their own experience Researchers can also control for potential confounds
face validity
Is it a plausible operationalization of the construct? Align well with the conceptual definition Does it appear to measure what it says it is measuring?
Behavioral research is probabilistic
Its finding are not expected to explain all the cases all the time (i.e.; there are exceptions)
interrater reliability
Only relevant for measure that combine multiple items that measure the same construct People should respond consistently across items are independent observers consistent in how they score participants?
Where do you find legitimate scientific sources?
PsycINFO Google Scholar Paywalled versus open access sources
Searching for a journal article
Search terms (e.g., "and", "or", "not") Databases (e.g., PsycINFO, Google Scholar)
Learning From Prior Research
Studies already conducted and reported: Offer scientific evidence for theoretical or empirical claims that logically or creatively lead to the research hypothesis of a new study
internal reliability
do people respond consistently across all items of a measure?
interval variables
equal interval
asterisk
help get all related terms
reliability
how consistent are the results of the measure?
statistical validity
how well do the data support the conclusions? do you have a large sample?
or
if you get few results, "or" will combine terms and give wider range
and
includes wider range of results
ratio variables
interval with an absolute zero
numeric variables
numbers
Elements of a journal article
o Abstract o Introduction o Method o Results o Discussion o References
Biases of Intuition
o Being swayed by a good story o Confirmation bias o Availability heuristic o Present/present bias o Bias blind spot
conceptual definition
of a variable focuses on it as an abstract or hypothetical construct (self) how well is your measure actually measuring what you want it to?
operational definition
of a variable focuses on it as an observable or inferable measure (questionnaire/survey)
ordinal variables
rank or order
Present/present bias
When people incorrectly come to a conclusion by focusing on the time the event, and outcome
correlational research
requires association claims = predictor variable is measured / outcome variable is measured
experimental research
requires casual claims = independent variable is manipulated / dependent variable is measured
descriptive research
requires frequency claims = single measured variable
External validity
The extent to which we can generalize results of research beyond specific instances in the study how well can you generalize your results beyond the participants in your sample? is your sample representative of the population?
not
restricts results, if too many results, "not" narrows results
applied research
addresses real-world problems
test-retest reliability
are the scores for a participant consistent across timepoints?
nominal variables
categories
