PSY 223 Exam 2
Mere Exposure effect
- individuals show an increased preference (or liking) for a stimulus due repeated exposure to that stimulus alone.
Select all answers that apply: Our very first, initial impressions of a person serve to tell us:
+If the person is dangerous +If the person is a member of our in-group If the person will be beneficial to our goals If we will get along with the person
Similarity
- Physical attraction is important in initial attraction, but it is less important for long term relationships. · Relationships are more likely to develop and be maintained when partners share values and beliefs o Values: A moral, social, or aesthetic principle accepted by an individual or society as a guide to what is good, desirable, or important. o OR: Freely chosen, verbally constructed consequences of patterns of activity which establish reinforcers for that activity that are intrinsic in engagement in the valued behavioral pattern itself o Beliefs: Something we hold to be true
Cognitive Schema
-A collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem solving. -A cognitive structure representing a person's knowledge about some entity or situation, including its qualities and the relationships between these.
ABC's Of Attitudes
-Affective: Electric vehicles are cool and trendy -Behavioral: I look up and prepare to purchase electric vehicles -Cognitive: I like electric vehicles because they are better for the environment
-Bias (FAE, self-serving bias, actor-observer difference)
-Bias (FAE, self-serving bias, actor-observer difference)
Social attributions are complicated---
-Bias (FAE, self-serving bias, actor-observer difference) - FAE: We tend to overestimate the role of person factors and overlook the impact of situations in others. (Also called correspondence bias) -Self-serving bias: tendency to attribute events to internal causes when they are successful but to external causes when they fail. - Actor-observer difference: tendency to make more personal attributions for the behavior of others than we do for ourselves and to make more situational attributions for our own behavior than for the behavior of others. - Attributional analysis theory: When a communicator expresses an expectation for a position, and them the expectation is disconfirmed, message recipients are more persuaded than if the communicator's expectation was confirmed.
Social Attributions
-Casual attributions: inferences about the cause of an event -Social attributions: Inferences regarding the cause of a person's behavior or an interpersonal event. -Dispositional attribution: Infer that the behavior was caused primarily by the person. (Also called internal or personal attribution) -Situational attribution: infer that the behavior was caused by the situation (Also called external attribution)
Two routes to judgement change:
-Central route: Individuals engage in a high degree of thought - Peripheral route: Individuals engage in a low degree of thought
The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion
-Dual process model explaining how the social environment and communication changes attitudes.
Attitude Development
-Genetic heritability and personality -Direct and indirect experiences with attitude objects
Attitude-Behavior Consistency
-Most people aren't simply interested in changing attitudes. -They are interested in changing attitudes in order to change behavior.
Self-concept
-One's description and evaluation of oneself, including psychological and physical characteristics, qualities, skills, roles and so forth. -Beliefs about oneself -Attitudes about oneself The conscious representation of self-concept is dependent in part on nonconscious schematization of the self
Two Routes to Attitude Change
-Peripheral-route attitude change -Central-route change
Similarity
-Preferences for similar others extend beyond romantic relationships · People tend to like and associate with others who share their age, education, race, religion, level of intelligence, and socioeconomic status. Not always even particularly meaningful similarities! · Taller people tend to like other tall people · Happy people tend to like other happy people · People particularly prefer others who have the same birthday and a similar sense of humor
Issues related to the cognitive self
-Self-concept is so highly accessible that people frequently overestimate the extent to which other people are focusing on them (Gilovich & Savitsky, 1999) -Teenagers are particularly likely to be highly self- conscious, often believing that others are constantly watching them (Goossens, Beyers, Emmen, & van Aken, 2002) -Deindividuation: the loss of self- awareness and individual accountability in groups
Compliance Techniques
-The foot-in-the-doors technique -The door-in-the-face -Low balling technique -Bait-and-switch-technique
-The goal of ingratiation is to create liking by using flattery or charm. -The goal of intimidation is to create fear by showing that you can be aggressive. -The goal of exemplification is to create guilt by showing that you are a better person than the other -The goal of supplication is to create pity by indicating to others that you are helpless and needy. -The goal of self-promotion is to create respect by persuading others that you are competent.
-The goal of ingratiation is to create liking by using flattery or charm. -The goal of intimidation is to create fear by showing that you can be aggressive. -The goal of exemplification is to create guilt by showing that you are a better person than the other -The goal of supplication is to create pity by indicating to others that you are helpless and needy. -The goal of self-promotion is to create respect by persuading others that you are competent.
The Self-
-Totality of the individual, consisting of all characteristic attributes, conscious and unconscious, mental and physical.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
-Whether people engage in low or high thinking depends on their momentary ability and motivation to think about the message
What causes aggression?
-aggression is a complex behavioral response
Preventing Aggression
-providing social support -modeling non-aggressive behaviors -teaching emotion- regulation and distress tolerance skills -teaching how to recognize potential aggression in others
Self-consciousness
-publicly induced self-awareness in which the self-concept becomes highly accessible because of our concerns about being observed and potentially judged by others
Self-monitoring is a way to learn more about ourselves, while self-awareness can refer to what we already know about ourselves.
True
Self-focused attention
-the direction of conscious attention on oneself and one's thoughts, needs, desires, and emotions, or the capacity of an individual to analyze and evaluate his or her mental and emotional states. Also called self-awareness.
Self-complexity
-the extent to which individuals have many different and relatively independent ways of thinking about themselves.
The Looking Glass Self
-the process wherein individuals base their sense of self on how they believe others view them. Three step process (Cooley) 1. We imagine how others see us 2. Based on their reaction to us, we determine if their view of us matches our view of ourself 3. We use these determinations to develop feelings about ourselves.
Research over the years has demonstrated:
-women find social status and resources attractive -women seek stability in relationships -men find physical features attractive -men seek multiple partners WHY? Gender differences in mate preferences may also be accounted for in terms of social norms and expectations.
Simply being exposed to some object can influence our attitudes about that object.
True
Gender Differences in Attraction -The vast majority of research only considers heterosexual attraction.
Gender Differences in Attraction -The vast majority of research only considers heterosexual attraction.
Person Perception: Understanding through traits
Person Perception: Understanding through traits People have many traits and understanding them requires us to integrate information. -frank is fun, happy, selfish, and inconsiderate -William is smart, serious, kind, and sad We tend to mentally average (rather than sum) information about others.
Marie always washes her hands as soon as she gets home. This is an example of:
A behavioral component of an attitude
Self- concept
A cognitive framework comprising organized information and beliefs about the self that guides a person's perception of the world. -Influences what information draws the individual's attention as well as how that information is evaluated and retained.
Attitudes:
A relatively enduring and general evaluation of an object, person, group, issue, or concept on a dimension ranging from negative to positive. (Like, find useful, find useless, dislike, hate, find helpful, enjoy, love, prefer)
Distinctiveness information:
A situation seems to be the cause of a behavior if the behavior occurs when the situation is present but not when it is not present. "Is the person only like this when X happens?"
Consistency information:
A situation seems to be the cause of a behavior if the situation always produces the behavior. "Is the person always like this?"
Consensus information:
A situation seems to be the cause of a behavior if the situation creates the same behavior in most people. "It seems like everyone in this situation is doing X."
The affect-as-information hypothesis states that people use their mood states as a source of information, which influences decision making and behavior.
True
How do we divide up culture?
· Collectivism vs individualism · Collectivist culture= more situational attributions, demonstrate greater memory and awareness of the situation,
The article on multiracial impression formation by Chen (2019) suggests that it is more difficult to categorize individuals who have multiple racial identities because multiracial identities is culturally newer, and thus such categorization is not cognitively automatic.
True
The self includes the totality of the person, both parts of them they are consciously aware of those they are not. Identity is a person's sense of self, and only includes elements a person is aware of.
True
Central traits:
Central traits: Warm and cold -Influence our perceptions of others more strongly than other traits. -Aaron is industrious, critical, warm, practical, and determined. -Marcus is industrious, critical, cold, practical, and determined. People make more favorable judgements when: -Holding hot coffee than when holding iced coffee - In a warm room than in a cold room -Warmth and competence vs. warmth and coldness -Positive evaluations of women often require them to be both warm and competent.
Viewing aggressive models increases aggressive behavior.
True
Individual Differences
· Current cognitive accessibility of characteristics varies by person o I'm currently thinking about generosity, so I'll be more likely to see it
Attitudes can best be described as a(n):
general evaluation of some object
Facial Attractiveness
Facial Attractiveness · Preferences for attractive faces begin in infancy · Attractive people are seen as more sociable, altruistic, and intelligent · Attractive people also have more choices of sex partners · People with attractive faces are more likely to be offered jobs, and may live longer · Physical attractiveness stereotype: The tendency to perceive attractive people as having positive characteristics, such as sociability and competence. Some facial characteristics are preferred seemingly cross-culturally, others may be unique to cultures.
Catharsis, or the idea that engaging in less harmful aggressive actions will reduce the tendency to aggress later in a moreharmful way (e.g., punching a pillow), is helpful in reducing aggression.
False
Communal relationships are health and successful. Exchange relationships are typically problematic and unhealthy.
False
Person perception is almost identical to how we perceive other, non-person objects.
False
Physical attributes are less informative to the self than psychological attributes.
False
Upward social comparisons typically make us feel good about ourselves, while downward social comparisons typically make us feel bad about ourselves?
False
Ability -Time available to read and process material-Complexity of treatment messages Motivation -Knowing there is a purpose behind their participation-Financial reward
Ability -Time available to read and process material -Complexity of treatment messages Motivation -Knowing there is a purpose behind their participation -Financial reward
The Elaboration Likelihood Model is a dual process model that suggests that more effortful processing (called central route processing in this model) requires which two factors to occur?
Ability and motivation
Affect and Attraction
Affect and Attraction Our relationships with others are based in large part on emotional responses. · We like others more when in a good mood · We like others less when in a bad mood Affect-as-information hypothesis: Individuals draw information from their affective states, which influence their decision making and behavior -Good mood= heuristic processing -bad mood= systemic processing
Nonphysical Aggression:
Aggression that does not involve physical harm.
Physical Aggression:
Aggression that involves harming others physically- for instance hitting, kicking, stabbing, or shooting them.
Instrumental Aggression:
Aggression that is intentional and planned.
Affective Aggression:
Aggression that occurs with only a small amount of forethought or intent and that is determined primarily by impulsive emotions. (Also called emotional or impulsive aggression)
Low balling technique:
Agreeing to a small cost increases likelihood of agreement if the price is raised. -Commitment- people do not like to go back on a commitment
The foot-in-the-doors technique:
Agreement to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a second, larger request. -Consistency- people do not like to contradict themselves
Identity
An individual's sense of self defined by: -A set of physical, psychological, and interpersonal characteristics that is not wholly shared with any other person and -A range of affiliations (e.g., ethnicity) and social roles
Two types of cues-
Central route cues: strength of the argument, facts, information, organization of information, content. Peripheral route cues: positive associations with the message. -The speaker -The design of a website/information leaflet
Nonverbal behavior:
Any type of communication that does not involve speech content, including facial expressions, body language, touching, voice patterns, and interpersonal distance. Nonverbal behaviors -Easily communicate if our focus is on self- concern (crossing our arms) or other- concern (leaning in) - Can be used to gently test what we would like to say verbally -Can contradict behavior Nonverbal behaviors vary across cultures: -Eye contact -Physical closeness/touch -Expressiveness -Speech pattern/volume -Timeliness -Personal appearance -Gestures
Assimilation and Contrast:
Assimilation: Judgements shift toward an anchor after it is introduced Contrast: Judgements shift away from an anchor after it is introduced
The importance of an attitude, as assessed by how quickly it comes to mind is referred to as:
Attitude strength
Person perception is the processes by which people evaluate other people. In that way, person perceptions is about how we develop X about others.
Attitudes
Attitude strength is related to which heuristic?
Availability heuristic
Aggression:
Behavior aimed at harming others physically or psychologically.
Hostile Aggression:
Behavior purposively performed with the primary goal of intentional injury or destruction.
Violence:
Behavior that has extreme physical harm, such as injury or death, as its goal.
People determine if behavior is due to the situation, as opposed to the person, based on a variety of types of information types. Which of the following is NOT one of them?
Casual information
Reducing Aggression What doesn't work?
Catharsis: Engaging in less harmful aggressive actions to reduce the tendency to aggress later in a more harmful way.
One of the primary goals of person perception is to try to determine the causes of people's behavior. When we make these determinations, we are making:
Causal attributions
Communal relationships:
Close relationships in which partners suspend their need for equity and exchange, giving support to the partner in order to meet their needs, without consideration for the costs to themselves.
Physical attraction Facial attractiveness
Determined by: · Symmetry · Youthfulness · Averageness (vs. distinctiveness) · Healthy · Masculinity/ femininity
Which source of attitudes leads to the strongest attitude-behavior consistency?
Direct experience
The door-in-the-face:
Disagreement with a large request that the increases likelihood of agreeing to a second, smaller request. -Reciprocity- I owe you something now
Sleeper effect:
Discount the speaker's credibility, but message context creeps in over time
Which of the following features does not increase facial attractiveness
Distinctiveness
Catharsis:
Engaging in less harmful aggressive actions to reduce the tendency to aggress later in a more harmful way.
Genuineness: Openness and honesty Acceptance: Unconditional positive regard Empathy: Listening to understand the other person's point of view
Genuineness: Openness and honesty Acceptance: Unconditional positive regard Empathy: Listening to understand the other person's point of view
Social attributions:
Inferences regarding the cause of a person's behavior or an interpersonal event.
The tendency to perceive attractive people as having positive characteristics, such as sociability and competence, or the physical attractiveness stereotype....
Influences a variety of occupational and social outcomes
Melanie and her friends plan to write rude things on Sarah's locker after school because Sarah took Melanie's spot on the softball team. This is an example of:
Instrumental, nonphysical aggression
Most people are not interested in changing attitudes alone. They wish to change behaviors by changing attitudes, such as in the model shown below. In this case, we can say that attitudes are often used as which kind of variable?
Mediator
Codependent:
Members of a close relationship are mutually reliant on one another to meet their needs and goals.
Interdependent:
Members of a close relationship rely to a great degree on each other to meet their needs and goals.
Narcissism
Narcissism is a personality trait characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration, and self-centeredness. - "I know that I am good because everybody keeps telling me so." - "I can usually talk my way out of anything." - "I like to be the center of attention" - "I have a natural talent for influencing people"
Astra and Khit are both teachers of unruly kindergarteners. Both tell their classes, "Settle down! That's enough!" Astra says it kindly, while Khit shouts it at her students. This difference is an example of a difference in:
Non-verbal behavior
In Couture Bue's article "The Looking Glass Selfie" they found that Instagram use, but not Facebook use, prompted more attention to high-anxiety body regions. What constructs mediated this relationship?
Physical appearance comparison and body dissatisfaction
Physical attraction Facial attractiveness · Evolutionary benefit: Direct and indirect benefits
Physical attraction Facial attractiveness · Evolutionary benefit: Direct and indirect benefits
Primacy effect and Recency effects
Primacy effect: Information that we learn first is weighted more heavily than is information that comes later. Recency effects: information that has been recently obtained is given more weight
Exchange relationships:
Relationships where each. Partner tracks their contributions to the partnerships.
Research says birds of a feather flock together
Research says birds of a feather flock together
Impression formation is the process by which we develop X of another person or group.
Schema
Publicly induced attention directed at the self, in which the self-concept becomes highly accessible due to our concerns about being observed and judged by others is called:
Self-consciousness
While waiting for class to start, Nieve asks Fionn what's been going on in their life. Fionn tells her about all of the projects they've been working on for class. This is likely because Fionn is currently embodying the social role of a student, which activates thoughts about other school related concepts for them due to their:
Self-schema
Social Comparison
Social Comparison occurs when we learn about our abilities and skills, about the appropriateness and validity of our opinions, and about our relative social status by comparing our own attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with those of others.
The principle which states that social participants seek to maximize their benefits (the rewards they receive minus the costs they incur) within the limits of what is regarded as fair or just is called:
Social exchange theory
Gender differences in attraction are likely due to
Social norms and expectations
Social exchange theory:
Social participants seek to maximize their benefits (the reward they receive minus the cost they incur) within the limits of what is regarded as fair or just. · Similarity in attractiveness, social status, financial status, etc. · We tend to prefer people who seem to like us about as much as we like them.
Self-monitoring:
Tendency to be both motivated and capable of regulating our behavior to meet the demands of social situations.
Self-focused attention can refer to two things. First, the direction of conscious attention on oneself and one's thoughts, needs, desires, and emotions. It can also refer to:
The capacity of an individual to analyze and evaluate his or her mental and emotional states.
Self-esteem refers to:
The degree to which the qualities and characteristics contained in one's self-concept are perceived to be positive
Self-esteem
The degree to which the qualities and characteristics contained in one's self-concept are perceived to be positive. How do you view -Physical self-image -Accomplishments and capabilities -Values and perceived success in living up to them A reasonably high degree of self-esteem is considered an important ingredient of mental health, whereas low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness are common depressive symptoms.
Commitment:
The feeling and actions that keep partners working together to maintain the relationship.
Attitude strength
The importance of an attitude, as assessed by how quickly it comes to mind - Attitude strength determines the influence an attitude has on our behaviors.
Impression formation:
The process in which an individual develops a schema of some object, person, or group.
Interpersonal attraction:
The strength of our liking or loving for another person
Reciprocal self-disclosure:
The tendency for all parties in a relationship to communicate frequently, without fear of reprisal, and in an accepting, genuine, and empathetic manner.
Mere exposure:
The tendency to prefer stimuli (including, but not limited to, people) that we have seen frequently.
Alcohol use is a strong predictor of aggression.
True
In Petty & Cacioppo's (1979) article, they manipulated message relevance in order to alter participant's motivation to effortfully process. How did they manipulate relevance in their first study?
They indicated that a policy change would occur at participant's own school vs another school
Individuals often weigh non-verbal behavior more strongly than verbal behavior.
True
Self-concept is less stable than identity. That is, a person's self-concept may be more subject to change.
True
Upward social comparisons and Downward social comparisons:
Upward social comparisons: Comparing ourselves to someone perceived as better Downward social comparisons: Comparing ourselves to someone perceived as worse.
Three traits are considered particularly important to impression formation. They are:
Warmth, coldness, and competence
Forewarning:
Warning people that someone will be trying to change their attitude. -"My opponent will sat this"
Proximity liking:
We like people we are exposed to frequently.
- FAE:
We tend to overestimate the role of person factors and overlook the impact of situations in others. (Also called correspondence bias)
Attributional analysis theory:
When a communicator expresses an expectation for a position, and them the expectation is disconfirmed, message recipients are more persuaded than if the communicator's expectation was confirmed.
Which of the following is not a source of attitudes, or in other words, which of these is not a way that individual's develop attitudes?
[All of these choices are sources of attitudes] Genetics Direct experience Indirect experience
Bait-and-switch-technique:
agreeing to a high-value option increases the likelihood of agreement to a low-value option. -Satisfice- I had something I wanted, now anything will work
Self-protection:
any strategic behavior designed to avoid losing, either self-esteem or the esteem of others.
Self-enhancement:
any strategic behavior designed to increase either self-esteem or the esteem of others.
Social status:
extent to which we are viewed positively and are esteemed by others.
Situational attribution:
infer that the behavior was caused by the situation (Also called external attribution)
Dispositional attribution:
infer that the behavior was caused primarily by the person. (Also called internal or personal attribution)
Casual attributions:
inferences about the cause of an event
· Sexual violence is
is forcing or attempting to force a partner to take part in a sex act, sexual touching, or non-physical sexual event (e.g., sexting) when the partner does not or cannot consent.
Invisible identities:
members of majority groups sometimes struggle to see elements of their identities. -Physical appearance- -Traits and personality- -Skills and abilities- -Important relationships- -Emotions- -Group memberships-
· Individual differences factors
o Need for cognition: The tendency to think carefully and fully about social situations o Entity vs incremental theorists: -Entity theorist: Tend to believe that people's traits are fundamentally stable and incapable of change. -Incremental theorists: Tend to believe that personalities change a lot over time.
Self-serving bias:
tendency to attribute events to internal causes when they are successful but to external causes when they fail.
Actor-observer difference:
tendency to make more personal attributions for the behavior of others than we do for ourselves and to make more situational attributions for our own behavior than for the behavior of others.
Arousal and attraction Dutton and Aron (1974)
· Attractive woman approaches men on a wobbly suspension bridge (200ft) or a solid bridge. · Asked them to complete a survey · Offered her number for them to follow up on the results
Person Perception:
the process by which people think about, appraise, and evaluate other people.
Attitude inoculation:
the process of resisting strong arguments/messages by practicing resisting weaker versions of the same arguments.
Self-presentation:
the tendency to present a positive self-image to others, with the goal of increasing our social status,
Self-perception:
using our own behavior as a guide to help us determine our own thoughts and feelings. -people who were asked to shake their heads up and down rather than sideways while reading arguments favoring or opposing tuition increases at their school ended up agreeing with the arguments more.
Intimate relationships:
when the partners in a relationship feel that they are close, and when they indicate that the relationship is based on caring, warmth, acceptance, and social support.
Nonphysical Aggression-
· Gossiping or spreading rumors · Turning people against each other · Dismissing the opinions of others · Making unwanted comments about another person's body · Criticizing other people behind their backs · Bulling · Leaving others out of a group or otherwise ostracizing them · "stealing" a boyfriend or girlfriend · Threatening to break up with. Partner if the partner does not comply · Flirting with another person to make partner jealous.
Maintaining Relationships
· Know that every relationship has conflict · Watch your negativity · Practice fairness and equity in your relationship · Understand the goals, values, and norms of the relationship · Have fun · Communicate fairly and kindly.
Why do we care about similarity?
· Makes interpersonal dynamics easier- relationships are less complicated and easier to maintain · They reinforce our beliefs and values
Factors associated with aggression
· Negative emotions · Drinking alcohol · Aggressive models (TV, videogames, corporal punishment) · Genetics · Hormones · Hot temperatures · Pain · Stress · Experiencing abuse
· Physical violence-
· Physical violence is when a person hurts or tries to hurt a partner by hitting, kicking, or using another type of physical force.
· Stalking is
· Stalking is a pattern of repeated, unwanted attention and contact by a partner that causes fear or concern for one's own safety or the safety of someone close to the victim.