PSY 352 Final Laz

What Field dependence/ independence predict about education and learning style?

Field Dependent Learners You tend to rely on structure and on receiving direction. Basic Teaching Style: Instructors who give explicit direction, assignments, and guidelines. Potential Advantage: With good organization, direction, and support systems, you can do very well in school. Field Independent Learners Definition: Tend to prefer autonomy; you like direction your own learning. Best Teaching Style: Instructors whose teaching style is not too structured and which allows students several options. Potential Advantage: If you learn to distinguish between what you know and what you need to learn you are at an advantage, because you are a self-starter who needs minimal support from others.

What Field dependence/ independence predict about social interaction?

Field dependent -> aware of social cues, ask others for opinions, high agreeableness Field independent -> more autonomy, interpersonal detachment, prefer nonsocial settings

What Field dependence/ independence predict about career selection?

Field independent -> science, math, engineering Field dependent -> social sciences, education

Oedipus Complex

For boys, the main conflict in Freud's phallic stage. It is a boy's unconscious wish to have his mother all to himself by eliminating the father. (Oedipus is a character in a Greek myth who unknowingly kills his father and marries his mother). castration anxiety: Freud argued that little boys come to believe that their fathers might make a preemptive Oedipal strike and take away what is at the root of the Oedipal conflict: the boy's penis. This fear of losing his penis drives the little boy into giving up his sexual desire for his mother.

Psychosexual Development Stage 3

PHALLIC STAGE 3-5 years The third stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development. It occurs between three and five years of age, during which time the child discovers that he has (or she discovers that she does not have) a penis. This stage also includes the awakening of sexual desire directed, according to Freud, toward the parent of the opposite sex.

cognitive therapy

technique that teaches new, adaptive ways of thinking

Psychosexual Development Stage 2

ANAL STAGE 2-3 years The second stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development. Typically occurs between the ages of 18 months and three years. At this stage, the anal sphincter is the source of sexual pleasure, and the child obtains pleasure from first expelling feces and then, during toilet training, from retaining feces. Adults who are compulsive, overly neat, rigid, and never messy are, according to psychoanalytic theory, likely to be fixated at this stage

example of the modern conception of the unconscious

Freudian definition of unconscious vs. today's definition: Freud: repressed desires, impulses, memories, etc. today: "implicit" processes (automatic, uncontrolled) blindsight: the ability to respond to visual information without consciously seeing it. Psychologists study blindsight to learn more about how the brain processes visual information. priming: tendency for recently-used words/ ideas to come to mind easily & influence interpretation of new info subliminal priming: sensory signal that is not registered by our conscious awareness (too quiet, too dim, etc) e.g. messages hidden in songs

Genotype vs Phenotype

Genotype: genetic material an individual inherits i.e. DNA Phenotype: observable expression of genotype (physical, behavior) i.e. hair color

repression

One of the first defense mechanisms discussed by Freud; refers to the process of preventing unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or urges from reaching conscious awareness.

psychoanalytic theory

Psychoanalysis: hydraulic theory of personality that attributes thoughts & behaviors to unconscious motives & conflicts

epigenetics

System by which genes are activated/silenced by environment. Genotype doesn't change, but (genotype) expression does. -Interactionism??? examples being of identical twins who have exactly the same genotype but different physiological or behavioral responses or disease susceptibility due to traumatic experiences, etc.

Personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, acting, & feeling -Focus on individual differences

inclusive fitness theory

anything that promotes survival of genes = adaptive Example: kin selection: tendency to offer more help to those with more genetic overlap with us •E.g. sibling (50% shared genes) vs. niece/nephew (25%) vs. cousin (12.5%)

trait

characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act a certain way

the unconscious

collection of inaccessible thoughts, wishes, desires, feelings, & memories (Freudian definition) Unconscious wields powerful influence (often in disguise) 1. E.g. dreams: "the royal road to the unconscious" Manifest content: actual memorable dream content Latent content: symbolic, deeper meaning of dream Safe to express unacceptable urges; consequence-free 2. E.g. Freudian Slips Slips of the tongue through which strange or unacceptable thoughts are (allegedly) expressed "A Freudian slip is like saying one thing, but meaning your mother." 3. Free association Relax, respond to stimulus with first thing that comes to mind 4. Resistance: attempts to protect unconscious from outside access /client's unwillingness to discuss a particular topic in therapy. E.g. missing appointments, small talk, stuttering, etc. Sign that we are getting close 5. Transference: transferring feelings from close others to therapist "reenactment" of unconscious conflict

Genome

complete set of genes that an organism has Mapping the sequence of DNA molecules in humans.

reliability

consistent results from a measure

frontal brain asymmetry

differing levels of influence of left & right hemispheres o Left: logical, rational, analytical, mathematical, language (more active with pleasant emotions) o Right: creative, spatial relations, artistic, musical, intuitive, vocal tone/ inflection (more active with unpleasant emotions)(stress)

"hostile forces of nature":

disease, predators, famine, drought, weather, etc.

Attitudes

likes/dislikes values: heritability of conservative beliefs: .59 (we're looking at twin/adopted studies)

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI):

o 567 item survey o Most widely-used & researched clinical assessment tool in mental health o Designed to detect mental illnesses (10 subscales)

Charles Darwin's theory of evolution

process by which change takes place over time 2 major evolutionary goals: survival and reproduction

circadian rhythem

regular bodily rhythms that occur within a (roughly) 24 hour cycle •real life: everyone adjusts to 24 hrs, but... o e.g. 22 hour cycle vs. 26 hour cycle o 22 (shorter circadian rhythm): hit peaks earlier in day Easy to get up, early energy, get tired earlier (morningness) o 26 (longer circadian rhythm): hit peaks later in day Difficult to get up, later energy, get tired later (eveningness)

Relationships

tendency to get married heritability = .68 -marital satisfaction heritability = .5

validity

test measures what it claims to measure

adaptions

the process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat. Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival.

natural selection

variations that promote survival/ reproduction -> more descendants (and vice versa) •Some adaptions seem problematic?

the HPA axis

H: Hypothalamic P: Pituitary A: Adrenal allows for a delayed stress response, involving the hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal cortex. One of the main stress hormones released by the HPA axis, cortisol, helps combat inflammation and mobilize energy resources. It also sends feedback messages to the brain and pituitary to regain homeostasis.

manipulation

-intentionally influencing, changing others' thoughts, emotions, beliefs, behaviors, etc. foot-in-the-door phenomenon: tendency for people who first agree to a small request to later comply with a large request

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

Preoccupation with order o Attention to detail (rules, rituals, schedules, procedures) Strive for perfection o Very high standards for self, never satisfied with work o Only one way to do things, reluctant to delegate work to others difficult working in groups o Can squelch productivity Sacrifice leisure/ socializing for work o Rarely take time off o "serious" hobbies that require attention to detail (e.g. chess, collecting stamps, sewing, computer programming) Keep worn-out, useless things o Hoard money, resources OCD vs. OCPD o OCD (more "serious" than OCPD?) Obsessions (repeated, unwanted thoughts) & compulsions (repeated, unwanted behaviors o OCPD Collection of traits (need for order, conscientiousness) o OCPD = risk factor for OCD (and other anxiety disorders) Mutation to DRD3 gene high rate of OCPD, depression (esp. for men) Predisposition? Childhood abuse, traumatic events = risk factors DSM still largely categorical o But lots of variability within categories... Think back over the 10 personality disorders. Do you do a little bit of any of those things? Is it good to do a little bit of any of those things? o E.g. OCPD wanting to do well, having firm opinions, being neat & orderly (good things!) o Disorder = deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional

apperception

-making sense of world by assimilating it into existing knowledge Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): write stories about ambiguous situations •Criticisms? o-low test-retest reliability o Assessing state vs. trait levels of need •Modern version -> Multi-Motive Grid o Show TAT-like pictures, then answer questions about 3 big motives (achievement, power, intimacy)

Selective Breeding

(also called artificial selection) the process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits (characteristics) by choosing which typically animal or plant males and females will sexually reproduce and have offspring together. - Cannot be ethically conducted with humans - Selective breeding studies are conducted on dogs - Selective breeding can only be successful if the trait is heritable

Family Studies

- Correlates the degree of genetic overlap among family members with the degree of similarity in personality trait - If a trait is highly heritable, family members with greater genetic relatedness should be more similar to one another on the trait than family members who are less closely genetically relate

identity crisis

-refers to the anxiety that accompanies efforts to define or redefine one's individuality or social reputation -more likely to occur in adolescence/middle adulthood -the feelings of anxiety that accompany efforts to define or redefine one's own individuality and social reputation

social identity

-the self we present to others -doesn't always match our self-concept -how you present yourself to others. studies social identity does not match our self concept

interactionism

-Personality: B = f(p) -Situation: B = f(s) -Interactionism: B = f(P x S) -Strong vs. weak situations influence weighting

possible selves

-Possible selves schemata for selves in the future; amu ideas each person has about who they might become, hope to become, or fear they will become -possible selves acts as inspiration and incentive for behavior -some possible selves are undesired--these are the possible selves the person does not want to become

self esteem

-your general evaluation of your self-concept along a good-bad or like-dislike dimension -attitude towards ourselves - one's overall attitude toward the self - the degree to which the self is perceived positively or negatively; stable or unstable

Situational Selection

-Tendency to choose or select situations in which one finds oneself, as a function of personality -personality may drive situations chosen by person -strong pos. correlation between extraversion, positive emotions

self complexity

-a measure of self-concept organization -refers to the number of self-aspects in an individual's self concept and the degree of redundancy among attributes in self-aspects -the view that each of us has many roles and many aspects to our self-concepts consequences of self-complexity AFFECTIVE SPILLOVER: lower self-complexity leads to more intense affective responses how does it influence reactions to negative events

self-handicapping

-a process in which a person deliberately does the things that increase the probability that he or she will fail -person deliberately does things that increase the probability of failure- when failure occurs, they have the excuse for failure (and hence failure is not attributable to self)

defensive pessimism

-a strategy in which a person facing a challenge, such as an upcoming test, expects to do poorly -expect to fail; when failure occurs, no new negative information about the self is revealed

molecular genetics

-attempts to link specific GENES with specific TRAITS e.g. DRD4 -the field of biology and genetics that studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level. -D4DR gene: gene linked to dopamine receptor activity (and also to sensation-seeking) dopamine associated with pleasant physical feelings (sensation seeking)

evocation

-certain traits may evoke situational reactions (i.e. self-fulfilling prophecies) 4 steps to a self-fulfilling prophecy: 1. Perceiver has expectations about how target will behave 2. Perceiver behaves in a way that is likely to evoke the expected target behavior 3. target indeed behaves in a way that confirms perceiver's expectations 4. perceiver sees predicted behavior

objective self-awareness (OSA)

-highly self-aware -self-awareness increases goal pursuit (trying to reduce self-discrepancy) -If self-discrepancy can't be reduced, people try to escape self-awareness -seeing yourself as an object of others' attention -the beginning of social identity, may lead to shyness

11 common manipulation tactics

1. Charm; I try to be loving when I ask her to do it 2. Coercion; I yell at him until he does it. 3. Reason; I explain why I want him to do it. 4. regression; I whine until she does it. 5. self-abasement; I act submissive so he will do it. 6. responsibility invocation; I get her to make a commitment to doing it. 7. Hardball; I hit him so that he will do it. 8. Pleasure induction; I show her how much fun it will be to do it. 9. Social comparison; I tell him that everyone else is doing it. 10. Monetary reward; I offer her money so that she will do it. o Men & women use these tactics often (except regression. Women use that one slightly more than men) 11. silent treatment; I don't respond to her until she does it

humanistic psychology

1. Importance of choice and taking responsibility for choices 2. emphasis on growth, meeting full potential (positive, optimistic approach) 3. motives = need to grow & develop (as opposed to overcoming deficits)

2 basic "instincts" (psychic energies, forces, motives)

1. Libido: life instinct (sexual energy/desire, self-preservation) 2. Thanatos: death instinct (aggression, destruction, self-harm)

Three main attachment styles

1. Securely attached: Infants in Ainsworth's strange situation stoically endure the separation. When mother leave the room and return the child were glad to see her since they were confidence the mother would return 2. avoidantly attached: Avoidantly attached infants in Ainsworth's strange situation avoided the mothers when she returned. Infants in this group typically seemed unfazed when the mother left, and typically did not give her much attention when she return. Avoidant children seem to be aloof from their mothers. 3. ambivalently attached: Determined by Aisworth's stranger situation paradigm are very anxious about the mother leaving. Start to crying and protesting vigorously and they show both anger and the desire to be close to the mother.

Type A personality

1. competitive achievement motivation enjoys working hard, achieving goals, overcoming obstacles, power, recognition 2. time urgency hates wasting time, feels rushed, "multitasking" 3. hostility easily frustrated/ upset when blocked from goals, aggressive behavior •Type A behavior pattern o Achievement motivation and competitiveness o Time urgency o Hostility and aggressiveness •Early studies of Type A found it was an independent risk factor for developing cardiovascular disease •Early studies conducted by physicians using structured interview •Later research used self-report surveys •Studies using surveys less likely to find relationships between Type A and heart disease than studies using structured interview •Structured interview gets at the lethal component

2 ways that negative schemas affect us

1. self-defeating beliefs •Negative assumptions about self, present, future •Learned helplessness 2. negative explanatory style

3 components of an emotion

1. subjective feelings 2. bodily changes •Nervous system •Breathing •Blood chemistry •expressions 3. action tendencies •emotions motivate behavior ex: happiness -> generosity

2 primary dimensions of emotion

1. valence = pleasant or unpleasant 2. arousal = high or low

6 theoretical approaches to personality

1.psychoanalytic: unconscious forces o Have traumatic experiences have repressed, shaped personality? 2. trait: stable, defining characteristics o Do you have a steady, unchanging personality? 3. biological: inherited predispositions, physiological processes o Are your genes. Brain chemistry responsible for your personality? 4. humanistic: self-actualization, growth potential, feelings of self-worth o Is your personality a result of your drive (or lack thereof) to succeed and flourish? 5. behavioral/social learning: conditioning, learned expectations o Have you been taught to have a certain type of personality? 6. cognitive: information-processing o Is your personality a result of the way that you think and make decisions?

Erik Erikson

8 stages of development Each stage: issue/ crisis to be resolved ("identity crisis") o Success = psychosocial growth ("virtues") o Failure = psychosocial deficits (fixation) 1. trust vs. mistrust •Birth - 1 YO •If cared/ provided for -> trust! •If not cared for -> Mistrust! 2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt •1 YO - 4 YO o Develop sense of competence, independence Self-control & self-esteem -> autonomy! Lack of control & punishment/ ridicule -> Shame & doubt! 3. initiative vs. guilt • Identification with parents (like Freud) o "[the child] hitches his wagon to nothing less than a star: he wants to be like his parents, who to him appear very powerful and beautiful (Erikson, 1959) • Setting goals -> working to achieve them -> initiative! 4. industry vs. inferiority • 6 YO - puberty o Begin school (cognitive, social skills) Hard work + cooperation with peers -> industry! Inability to meet these goals -> inferiority! 5. identity vs. role confusion • Adolescence - young adulthood o "who am i??" Development of identity o Finding roles that work -> identity! o Difficulty defining self -> role confusion! 6. intimacy vs. isolation •Young adulthood o Seek companionship, romantic relationships 7. generativity vs. stagnation •Adulthood o Emphasis of productivity, contributions to society 8. integrity vs. despair • Late adulthood o "was my life worthwhile?"

sex differences in people-things dimension

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sex differences in sex, sexuality, & relationships

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projection

A defense mechanism based on the notion that sometimes we see in others those traits and desires that we find most upsetting in ourselves. We literally "project" (i.e., attribute) our own unacceptable qualities onto others. i.e. omg he/she hates me!

reaction formation

A defense mechanism that refers to an attempt to stifle the expression of an unacceptable urge; a person may continually display a flurry of behavior that indicates the opposite impulse. Makes it possible for psychoanalysts to predict that sometimes people will do exactly the opposite of what you might otherwise think they would do. It also alerts us to be sensitive to instances when a person is doing something in excess. One of the hallmarks is excessive behavior. occurs when a person feels an urge to do or say something and then actually does or says something that is effectively the opposite of what they really want.

sublimation

A defense mechanism that refers to the channeling of unacceptable sexual or aggressive instincts into socially desired activities. For Freud, this is the most adaptive defense mechanism. A common example is going out to chop wood when you are angry rather than acting on that anger or even engaging in other less adaptive defense mechanisms such as displacement.

fixation

According to Freud, if a child fails to fully resolve a conflict at a particular stage of development, he or she may get stuck in that stage. If stuck at this stage, he or she exhibits a less mature approach to obtaining sexual gratification. These fixations occur when an issue or conflict in a psychosexual stage remains unresolved, leaving the individual focused on this stage and unable to move onto the next. For example, individuals with oral fixations may have problems with drinking, smoking, eating or nail biting.

behavioral genetics

Aims to determine the degree to which genes account for variance -variance: how much people vary from one another e.g. height -heritability: statistic that estimates % of variance that is due to gene (the amount of photypic variance that is attributable to genotypic variance" -50 heritability=50% variability due to genes •Other 50% due to environment •e.g. height- .90 •e.g. weight .50 a field in which variation among individuals is separated into genetic versus environmental components. The most common research methodologies are selective breeding, family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies.

displacement

An unconscious defense mechanism that involves avoiding the recognition that one has certain inappropriate urges or unacceptable feelings (e.g., anger, sexual attraction) toward a specific other. Those feelings then get displaced onto another person or object that is more appropriate or acceptable.

Self-report data

Ask person about themselves (e.g. 20 statements test) o Open-minded questions, true/false, adjective checklists, etc. Likert scale: range of numbers represent answers e.g. how creative are you? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strengths of S-data: o Access to info that other don't have (e,g, anxiety, self-esteem, goals) o Easy to measure Weaknesses of S-data: o Do people have accurate self-knowledge? o Will people be honest? social desirability: tendency to answer in attractive/ likeable ways Lying, distorted self-perception getting around social desirability: •If you think SD is a bias to be filtered from data: o Statistically control for it (e.g. Crowne-Marlowe scale) o Use forced-choice questionnaire (no SD involved) •... or maybe it's not something to be filtered at all? o Components of happiness, mental health?

self-concept

Basis for self-understanding forms an answer to "who am i?" Why might personality psychologists be interested in the self-concept?

manipulation

Buss (1992): "We are interested in the things that people do to influence others in order to get what they want. Please think of your (romantic partner, close friend, mother, father, etc.) How do you get this person to do something? What do you do?"

classical conditioning

Classical conditioning involves associating between an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating between a voluntary behavior and a consequence creating an association between 2 external stimuli a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. -Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex -Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors

operant conditioning

Classical conditioning involves associating between an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating between a voluntary behavior and a consequence creating an association between behavior & consequences -Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior -Focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors

personality traits & happiness

Costa & McCrae (1980): o Demographic variables (e.g. age, race, gender, income, education, religion, etc) account for 10-15% of variance in happiness o Where's the rest? o Personality Extraversion predicts positive emotions which predicts happiness levels Neuroticism predicts negative emotions which predict happiness levels o High extraversion & low neuroticism -> accounts for 3x as much happiness variance as all demographic variables together

Twin Studies (monozygotic & dizygotic twins)

Estimates heritability by gauging whether monozygotic (MZ) twins, who share 100% of genes, are more similar than fraternal dizygotic (DZ) twins, who share only 50% of genes - If MZ twins are more similar than DZ twins, this provides evidence of heritability conducted to evaluate the degree of genetic and environmental influence on a specific trait.

Embedded Figures Test (strongly pos. correlated with RFT)

Example: This is a typical task found in books for children in which they have to find items in the context of a figure. Can you find the pickle, the pencil, the cup, the pail, the girls face, the strawberry, the bottle, or the letter "V"?

Psychosexual Development Stage 5

GENITAL STAGE 11-18 years The final stage in Freud's psychosexual stage theory of development. This stage begins around age 12 and lasts through one's adult life. Here the libido is focused on the genitals, but not in the manner of self-manipulation associated with the phallic stage. People reach this stage with full psychic energy if they have resolved the conflicts at the prior stages.

George Kelley's personal construct theory

Gave more active alternative to behaviorism (passive conditioning) & psychoanalysis (unconscious, repressed experiences) suggests that people develop personal constructs about how the world works. People then use these constructs to make sense of their observations and experiences.

nAch & life outcomes

Goleman (1980): tracked 1528 California kids -> top 1% IQ • nAch -> best predictor of high/ low success 40 years later Singh (1978): high nAch farmers -> more likely to innovate, increase productivity Andrews (1967): high nAch students -> care more about grades, more likely to review course requirements, speak with professor before/ after exams Koestner & McClelland (1990): high nAch workers laid off -> more likely to find job sooner, Using multiple strategies Duckworth & Seligman (2005): self-discipline = better predictor of school performance, attendance, graduation honors than IQ test scores • "discipline outdoes talent." • Outstanding performers practice all the time • Achievement = "natural talent" + motivation •Need to consider domain o Assessing abilities depends on what people care about o E.g. 2 different "achievement trajectories" for women? 1. Focus on family + work goals: High nAch -> better grades, graduating, marrying, starting family 2. Focus on family: high nAch -> investment in physical appearance (dating needs), speaking with friends about relationships

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Hierarchical structure -> more basic needs at bottom •General need to satisfy lower needs before focusing on higher ones o Lower needs more pressing when not met o Motivation for higher needs = fragile, easy to disrupt physiological needs: •Critical for survival (food, water, air, sleep, sex) safety needs: • Shelter, security • ???? belongingness needs: • Need to belong social groups • Role of evolutionary pressures esteem needs: • Desire to be seen as competent, able, strong • Translates to self-esteem

nInt & life outcomes

High nIntL o More satisfying jobs, relationships o Better coping with stress o Less likely to abuse alcohol

nPow & life outcomes

High nPow: o More arguments o More likely to run for student council o More risky behavior o More assertiveness in small groups o More "prestige possessions" (sports cars, nameplates on dorm doors, etc.) o Preference for controllable others (esp. in relationships) More likely to abuse spouse More likely to seek low-status friends

What Field dependence/ independence predict about facial recognition?

IV: field independent/dependent Ps interpret facial expressions o Equally good when seeing full face, but... ... independent better when seeing only part of face

identity deficit vs. identity crisis

Identity deficit: -feel like they don't have an identity -this arises when a person has not formed an adequate identity and thus has trouble making major decisions identity conflict: -2 identities conflicting with each other --an incompatibility between two or more aspects of identity. -this kind of crisis occurs when a person is forced to make an important and difficult life decision

implicit self-esteem

Implicit self-esteem refers to a person's disposition to evaluate themselves in a spontaneous, automatic, or unconscious manner. It contrasts with explicit self-esteem, which entails more conscious and reflective self-evaluation.

generalizability

Is the test valid across various contexts to a broad population? e.g. age, gender, culture, etc./ How talkative are you?

Who cares about personal constructs?

Kelly: anxiety at heart of many psychological problems •If constructs fail to make sense of world -> anxiety! o E.g. unpredictable job interview questions o E.g. "I just can't understand why you are breaking up with me."

coherence and education

Kipnis 1971 had a group of individuals self-report on their levels of impulsivity. He also obtained their SAT scores. Among those with low SAT scores there was no link between impulsivity and subsequent gpa, among those with high scores, the impulsive individuals had has lower gpas. conscientiousness: Single best predictor of successful achievement in school and work. High conscientiousness at age 3 predicts successful academic performance nine years later.

Psychosexual Development Stage 4

LATENCY STAGE 6-11 years The fourth stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development. This stage occurs from around the age of six until puberty. Freud believed few specific sexual conflicts existed during this time, and was thus a period of psychological rest. Subsequent psychoanalysts have argued that much development occurs during this time, such as learning to make decisions for oneself, interacting and making friends with others, developing an identity, and learning the meaning of work. It ends with the sexual awakening brought about by puberty.

assortive mating

Lots of evidence that we seek similarity Behaviors & mimicry Physical attributes •Height •Weight •Age •Nose breadth Personality traits What does it predict about romantic relationships?

Best predictors of evoked anger & upset

Low agreeableness Condescension Treatment as if inferior Neglecting, rejecting partner Physical abuse Infidelity Alcohol abuse Insults Self-centeredness High neuroticism Similar list, plus moody behavior, jealous & possessive behavior

Substance use

MZ twin who smokes 16x more likely to have smoking twin than MZ twins who doesn't smoke DZ twins: 7x more likely -Alcohol results mixed, but alcoholism heritability's almost always above .50

mean level stability

Maintaining consistent levels of a trait

rank order stability

Maintaining individual position within group o E.g. height

personality coherence

Maintaining rank order but changing behavioral manifestations of trait o E.g. aggression

self actualization

Motivation to develop potential o Being best person you are capable of being o Highest level of motivation (Maslow) 1% of people at this level?

money & happiness

Myers & Diener (1995): •positive correlation between nation's happiness and gross national product (adjusted for population size) •R = +.67 •But national wealth -> better health care, more civil rights, care for children & elderly, etc. •Recent windfall (inheritance, lottery, economic upturn) -> temporary elation Diener & Diener (1995): •Positive correlation between money & happiness, in very poor countries o E.g. Maslow's hierarchy of needs o Once basic needs are met -> much weaker (non-existent?) link How you spend your money matters... Dunn et al. (2008): o Ps rate happiness in morning o IV: receive $5/$20 to spend by : pm in the personal/prosocial spending conditions Personal: bill, expenses, gift for self Prosocial: gift for someone else, charitable donation o DV: call after pm, self-reported happiness o Results: spending = only significant result prosocial spending = happier than personal spending Pchelin & Howell (2012): o Spending on experiences -> more happiness than spending on material objects

need for intimacy (nInt)

Need for warm, fulfilling relationships with others •High nInt: o More time thinking about relationships o More pleasant emotions when around others o More smiling, laughing, eye contact o More likely to start conversations, write letters/email, etc.

Psychosexual Development Stage 1

ORAL STAGE Birth-18 months The first stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development. This stage occurs during the initial 18 months after birth. During this time, the main sources of pleasure and tension reduction are the mouth, lips, and tongue. Adults who still obtain pleasure from "taking in," especially through the mouth (e.g., people who overeat or smoke or talk too much) might be fixated at this stage.

Neo-Freudians

People who further developed Freud's ideas o Kept many of his original ideas (e.g unconsciouis, id/ego/ superego, anxiety & defense, etc) o More emphasis on conscious mind, other motivations

Rod and Frame Test

Pitch black room -> glowing rod, surrounded by tilted glowing box -> adjust rod perfectly upright a psychophysical method of testing perception

object relations theory

Places an emphasis on early childhood relationships. internal wishes, desires and urges of the child are not as important as his or her developing relationships with significant external others. -the important of forming social relationships to the developing personality attachment: Begins in the human infant when he or she develops a preference for people over objects.

Why are positive illusions about the self healthy? Why are they problematic?

Positive illusions are a form of self-deception or self-enhancement that feel good, maintain self-esteem or stave off discomfort, at least in the short term. There are three broad kinds: inflated assessment of one's own abilities, unrealistic optimism about the future, and an illusion of control.

Sigmund Freud

Psychologist most prominently associated with psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud was the first to use the term psychoanalysis in 1896. From that point his theories blossomed. Freud did not invent the terms unconscious, conscious, or conscience; however, he was pivotal in making them popular. Freud accomplished this through his theory of psychological reality: id, ego, and superego. The method has drawn criticism because there is still no real empirical study to support psychoanalysis in the form of a frequent, long-term therapy.

operant chamber or "Skinner Box"

Reinforcement: outcome that increases behavior by making organism happy • Positive reinforcement: give unpleasant stimulus after desired behavior o E.g. food pellets o E.g. money, praise, attention • Negative reinforcement: remove unpleasant stimulus after desired behavior o E.g. turn off electric shock o E.g. seatbelts and dinging noise Punishment: Outcome that decreases behavior by making organism unhappy • Positive Punishment: present unpleasant stimulus after undesired behavior o E.g. spanking o Electric shock • Negative punishment: remove pleasant stimulus after undesired behavior o E.g. take away food o E.g. confiscate cell phone, car, etc.

regression

Reverting back to immature behavior from an earlier stage of development

press

Situations ("presses") draw out motives o Alpha press: objective reality o Beta press: subjective interpretation E.g. stranger smiles on street -> friendly or laughing at you?

statistical approach

Starts with a large, diverse pool of personality items—e.g., trait words or series of questions about behavior, experience, and emotion Most researchers using lexical approach turn to statistical approach to distill ratings of trait adjectives into basic categories of traits Goal of statistical approach is to identify major dimensions of personality Factor analysis Identifies groups of items that covary or go together, but tend not to covary with other groups of items Provides means for determining which personality variables share some property or belong within the same group Useful in reducing the large array of diverse traits into smaller, more useful set of underlying factors Factor loading: Index of how much of a variation in an item is "explained" by a factor Cautionary note: You only get out of factor analysis what you put in; thus, researchers must pay attention to the initial selection items

lexical approach

Starts with lexical hypothesis: All important individual differences have become encoded within the natural language over time Trait terms are important for people in communicating with others Two criteria for identifying important traits Synonym frequency Cross-cultural universality Problems and limitations Many traits are ambiguous, metaphorical, obscure, or difficult Personality is conveyed through different parts of speech (not just adjectives), including nouns and adverbs Lexical approach is a good starting point for identifying important an individual difference, but should not be the exclusive approach used

sensation-seeking

The SSS was designed to assess the personality traits of thrill and adventure seeking, disinhibition, experience seeking, and susceptibility to boredom. It is actually a revision of Zuckerman et al.'s (1964) original measure. Because the constructs of the SSS are presumed to contribute to risk preferences, it is used both as a measure of the personality constructs in and of themselves and as a measure of risk preferences. When does sensation-seeking peak in a person's life? & what other traits is it correlated with? •Rises until late adolescence, then drops o Expect boredom susceptibility... that stays stable) •More common in men High SS: new, stimulating, unpredictable jobs that require flexibility Low SS: structured, routine, ordered Where does sensation seeking come from? •Genetic component? •Differing levels of optimum arousal? optimum arousal: •desire to avoid stimuli that are too boring or to arousing o best performance at intermediate level of arousal (aka. Yerkes-Dodson law) o predicts preferences for patterns, art, music

Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy

Therapist tries not to influence client's choices, but instead created the right conditions for self-change. There are 3 core conditions: 1. Genuine acceptance 2. Unconditional positive regard 3. Empathic understanding

Sex differences

There are different adaptive pressures for men vs. women e.g. sexual behavior and motivation -important role of hormones androgens: male hormones (e.g. testosterone) •Cause male characteristics (e.g. facial hair, low voice) estrogens: female hormones •Cause female characteristics (e.g. bone structure of female pelvis) -Relationship between hormones & sexual motivation? •Female sexual motivation varies with menstrual cycle Buss & Schmitt (1993): men & women seek different things when it comes to sex, relationships •E.g. short-term vs. long-term interests •E.g. preferred number of sexual partners •"if the conditions were right, would you consider having sexual intercourse with someone you viewed as desirable if you had known that person for __________?" Trivers (1972): men & women differ in parental investment •"any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offspring's chances of surviving (and hence reproducing), at the cost of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring" •Greater investment = more choosy/ discriminating about mating partners •Less investment = more competition for access to most desirable mating partners Evolutionary Perspective •Adaptive for men to be "liberal" in mate selection oInterests: short-term sex, less particular about mates •Adaptive for women to be "conservative" in mate selection o Interests: resources, support, long-term •Different sources of romantic jealousy? o Men: sexual infidelity (100% certainty baby carries your genes?) o Women: emotional infidelity (100% certainty his time, energy, & resources for your children?)

Memory repression

Very little empirical evidence for repression -emotional memories = better memory memory construction & false memories: Memory is NOT just perfect stored information about what happened oMemory = stored info + assumptions + what we currently know Loftus & Palmer (1974): participants watched a video of car accident o"How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" o"How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" Elizabeth Loftus' work on false memories? FALSE MEMORIES are often created by combining actual memories with suggestions received from other What does Loftus' work suggest about possible causes of "recovered memories"? Memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus argues that we should not conclude that all recovered memories are false, just because some are apparently false Also, we should not assume that all recovered memories are true, just because some are true Loftus argues that we must be aware of processes that contribute to the construction of false memories

explanatory style

Whom or what do we blame when things don't go well? •Depression o Internal ("I failed the test because I'm not smart enough.") o Stable ("I'm going to be stupid for the rest of my life.") o Global (I'm not smart enough to do anything right.") •Non-Depression o External ("I failed the test because my teacher wrote dumb questions.") o Temporary ("This grade hurts, but ill be able to pull it up on the next test.") o Specific ("Maybe physics just isn't my strong suit....")

Electra Complex

Within the psychoanalytic theory of personality development, the female counterpart to the Oedipal complex; both refer to the phallic stage of development. is a girl's psychosexual competition with her mother for possession of her father. penis envy: The female counterpart of castration anxiety, which occurs during the phallic stage of psychosexual development for girls around 3 to 5 years of age.

aggregation

adding up multiple observations of personality -Ex. Batting average -Uses larger sample size to describe typicality -Identifies consistent traits while allowing for situational influence

motive

a need or desire that energizes & directs our behavior Motives vary from person to person o Motivational differences can be measured o Differences predict life outcomes o Differences are stable over time

genes

a region of DNA that encodes function. -sections of chromosomes, DNA "packets" -Only 2% of genome -DNA --> genes --> chromosomes •We got to start understanding the language of genes by understanding the protein bases of DNA, if we can learn to read the human genome we cans tart tying genes to real life stuff like diseases and behaviors

conditioning

a theory that the reaction ("response") to an object or event ("stimulus") by a person or animal can be modified by 'learning', or conditioning.

cluster C disorders

anxious, fearful disorders

sex

being born male or female, biologically (reproductive system anatomy, secondary sex characteristics)

coherence and health

best personality predictors of long lifespan: •high conscientiousness •high extraversion •high agreeableness (low hostility) •low neuroticism Why? •Conscientiousness -> better health habits (diet, exercise, substance use, doctor visits, etc) •Extraversion -> healthy social life •Low hostility, neuroticism -> less stress, cardiovascular problems

ascending reticular activating system (ARAS):

brainstem structure that controls arousal in higher parts of brain Eysenck's taxonomies of traits includes: psychotocism, extraversion, and neuroticism. system that transmits messages to the limbic system and hypothalamus, triggers release of hormones and neurotransmitters, and facilitates functions such as learning, memory, and wakefulness. Eysenck's 1960s idea: ARAS like a gate o closed gate -> lower resting arousal level extraverts? Underarousal -> need more stimulation? o Open gate -> higher resting arousal level Introverts? Overarousal -> need less stimulation? o Extraverts & introverts = similar brain activity when resting E.g. asleep, in dark room, etc. o Difference lies in arousability o Extravers = lower arousability Should seek out more stimulation oIntroverts = higher arousability Geen (1984): IVs: Recruit extraverts/introverts for study on "effects of noise on learning" •Select correct word from word pair, based on rule -> figure out rule •Random bursts of headphone noise during task Noise level: choice/ assigned-same/assigned-other •Choice: choose volume for ideal performance (can't choose zero) •Assigned-same: volume set to last setting from same group oE.g. introvert gets last introvert's chosen setting oE.g. extravert gets last extravert's chosen setting •Assigned- other: volume set to last setting from other group oE.g. introvert gets last extravert's chosen setting oE.g. extravert gets last introvert's chosen setting DVs: chosen volume, heart rate, skin conductance, learning task performance

behaviorism

branch of psychology focused on observable behaviors

unconditional positive regard

caring, accepting, non judgmental attitude- Rogers believe helps clients develop self-awareness and acceptance

descriptive research

case study: in depth examination of an individual's personality e.g. brain-damage patients e.g. Ted Bundy (serial killer) •Grandiosity, power fantasies, little empathy •Abusing animals, lie/cheat/ steal strengths: •Lots of detail •Good source for ideas to test in larger groups weaknesses: •Low generalizability

categorical vs. dimensional approach

categorical approach: try to identify "primary" emotions -disagreement about which emotions are important - diff criteria used for defining "primary" emotion dimensional approach: every emotion can be described in terms of valence & arousal Categorical approach Focus on identifying a small number of primary and distinct emotions Lack of consensus about regarding which emotions are primary Lack of consensus is attributable to different criteria used for defining an emotion as primary Dimensional approach Based on empirical research rather than theoretical criteria People rate themselves on a variety of emotions, then the researcher applies statistical techniques (mostly factor analysis) to identify dimensions underlying ratings Consensus among researchers on two basic dimensions: Pleasant/Unpleasant and High Arousal/Low Arousal Two-dimensional model suggests every emotion can be described as a combination of pleasantness/unpleasantness and arousal.

dysfunctional

causes difficulty in day-to-day life

distressful

causes the person upset

traits

characteristics that make people different from each other -E.g. shy, selfish, friendly -Implies consistency across situations (intuitive appeal)

situational selection

choosing/avoiding situations based on personality e.g. shyness •Feeling tense/worried/anxious in social situations Schmidt & Fox (1995): shy -> avoid social situations (isolation) Kowalski & Brown (1994): shy women -> less likely to see gynecologist (health risks) Bruch & Hynes (1987): shy -> less likely to discuss contraception with partner (sexual health risks) Addison & Schmidt (1999): o 95% chance of winning $0.25 vs. 5% chance of winning $4.75 o Shy -> less risky Greater heart rate increase than non-shy Ps e.g. sensation-seeking •Choose riskier situations •High SS -> sign up for unusual experiments (drugs, sex) •Attend more parties with drugs/alcohol, riskier sexual behavior, etc

longitudinal study

collect data over a long period of time, following same group of participants strengths: change within an individual over time weaknesses: takes a long time, expensive. Difficult to maintain Traits that remain stable over time?

flow

completely involved, focused state of consciousness • Diminished awareness of self, time • E.g. dancers, chess players, surgeons, writers, mountain climbers, sailors, farmers, etc. (all ages, all cultures) • Achieving flow requires an appropriate match of skill level & challenge level How does flow relate to the concept of self-actualization?

Five-factor model ("the Big Five)

conscientiousness: •How we control, direct, and regulate our lives o High conscientiousness: organized, neat, orderly, practical, prompt, meticulous, prefer order & organization o Low conscientiousness: disorganized, disorderly, careless, sloppy, impractical, prefer less structure agreeableness: •Concern with cooperation and social harmony o High agreeableness: sympathetic, kind, warm, understanding, sincere o Low agreeableness: unsympathetic, harsh, hard-headed, proud neuroticism: •Tendency to experience strong negative emotions (intense, long-lasting) o High neuroticism: moody, anxious, insecure o Low neuroticism (aka emotional stability): calm, relaxed, stable openness: •Somewhat broad trait: distinguishes imaginative, creative people o High openness: creative, imaginative, intellectual, preference for new & exciting things o Low openness: uncreative, unimaginative, practical, set in their ways, preference for routine &habit extraversion: •Engagement with the outside social world o High extraversion: talkative, assertive, forward, outspoken, prefers being around people o Low extraversion: shy, quiet, bashful, inhibited, prefers beings alone or with a small group oGenerally very stable through adult life Neuroticism, extraversion, openness: drop slightly after college Conscientiousness (20s), agreeableness (30s-60s): rise slightly o Cultural universality o Big 5 predicts other attributes Morning people = higher conscientiousness Evening people= more extraverted Different agreeableness, neuroticism. & openness levels -> marital & sexual dissatisfaction Conscientiousness often best predictor of work •Careful, thorough, dependable, take time on work, organized, planners •Higher evaluations, less likely to be laid off Some traits just don't fit Big 5 well • Religiousness • Youthfulness • Frugality • Humor • Cunning o Should our model take a broad or specific view? Advantages of broad view (like Big 5): •Concise •Predicts behavior reasonably well Advantage of specific view (like subtraits of Big ) -> better predictor of behavior

emotional inhibition and health outcomes

controlling & not displaying emotions e.g. controlling temper tantrums e.g. disappointing gifts Gross & Levenson (1993): •Ps watching happy/sad films, instructed/ not instructed to inhibit emotional reaction •When inhibiting: o Less outward emotion, but higher physiological arousal (even before film begins) •Chronic inhibition higher mortality rate, higher cancer recurrence rate, suppressed immune system •Express emotions healthier romantic relationships, less anxiety & guilt, more happiness disclosure: telling others about private aspects of self o Not disclosing = more health issues? o Pennebaker & O'Heeron (1984): Ps whose spouse recently died o More discussion with friends/ family/ professionals fewer stress-related illnesses o Pennebaker (1990): Ps write about stressful/ trivial events for 15 minutes (4 straight nights) o Stressful more stress & discomfort while writing, higher blood pressure fewer illnesses over next 6 months o Pennebaker et al. (1990): Ps write about stress of starting college/ trivial events sure o Pennebaker argues that not discussing traumatic, negative, upsetting event can lead to problems o Telling a secret can relieve stress, increase health Why does disclosure help? o Stressful to keep secrets (psychological effort) relief! o Allows reinterpretation & reframing of event

Hans Selye (1976): General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

created by Hans Selye; physiological fight-or-flight response to stress stage 1: Alarm the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous system and the associated peripheral nervous system reactions, which include the release of hormones that prepare the body for challenge shock phase: During this phase, the body can endure changes such as hypovolemia, hypoosmolarity, hyponatremia, hypochloremia, and hypoglycemia—the stressor effect. The organism's resistance to the stressor drops temporarily below the normal range and some level of shock (e.g., circulatory shock) may be experienced. antishock phase: When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the body starts to respond and is in a state of alarm. During this stage, the locus coeruleus/sympathetic nervous system is activated and catecholamines such as adrenaline are produced to create the fight-or-flight response. The result is: increased muscular tonus, increased blood pressure due to peripheral vasoconstriction and tachycardia, and increased glucose in blood. There is also some activation of the HPA axis, producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol. stage 2: Resistance the body is using its resources at an above average rate, even though the immediate fight-or-flight response has subsided (stress is being resisted, but is taking a lot of energy) stage 3: Exhaustion when a person is most susceptible to illness and disease, as his/her physiological resources are depleted

What often happens if a person has high explicit self-esteem, but low implicit self-esteem?

defensive self-esteem (or fragile self esteem) less forgiving than others

deviant

different from what is socially normal

personality disorders

disorders marked by long-lasting thoughts/feelings/behaviors (aka. Traits!) that: •Are inflexible, pervasive across situations •Can be traced back to adolescence (or earlier) not usually diagnosed in childhood •Deviate from social norms •Lead to distress and/or impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning •Are not better explained as manifestation or consequence of another disorder •Are not due to effects of substances, brain trauma, or other medical conditions •Experienced as part of the personality/self o Not symptoms per se, but instead a personality that is deviant, distressful, & dysfunctional

cluster A disorders (SSP)

eccentric, odd disorders

emotional content vs. emotional style

emotional content: which emotions are experienced example: emotional style: how emotions are experienced example:

Basic emotions

emotional labels that fit facial expressions universally: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. Alicia surprisingly sucks d for happiness

state vs. trait approaches

emotional state: - how you feel right now - temporary - depends more on situation than personality emotional trait: - how you feel in general - pattern of emotional reactions experienced across time & situations why is this distinction important in defining emotion?

emotion

emotions are a source of individual differences - different reactions to the same event - ex: public speaking (excitement vs fear)

cluster B disorders (ABHN)

erratic, dramatic, violent, unpredictable, emotional disorders

major life events

events that require people to make major adjustments in their lives

sexual seletion

evolution of characteristics that promote reproduction intrasexual competition: (characteristics that give winner more access to mates) E.g. intelligence, antlers, strength intersexual selection: (characteristics that increase chances of being selected as a mate) E.g. peacock feathers

locus of control

extent to which a person believes they can control events that affect them (e.g. failing an exam) internal LOC: attribute outcomes to self, abilities, choices •Hard work -> positive outcomes external LOC: attribute outcomes to outside circumstances (e.g. fate, luck powerful others, complexity of world) o More stress, more prone to depression •Continuum (not clearly one or the other)

Personality Traits

extraversion (high heritability) -extraversion: .60 heritability -neuroticism: .46 heritability very high -Activity heritability .40 heritability -Psychoticism has high heritability, every component of psychoticism (.7-.9)

sex differences in the Big Five

extraversion: o Overall: d=0.15 Gregariousness: d=-0.15 Activity level: d=0.09 Assertiveness: d= 0.50 agreeableness: o Overall: d=-0.32 Trust: d=-0.25 Tender-mindedness: being empathetic, nurturing/ d=-0.97 Smiling: d=-0.60 Aggression: •projective tests d=0.86 •peer report: d=0.63 •self-report: d=0.40 •imagining aggressive acts: d=0.84 •sensitivity to punishments: d=-0.33 conscientiousness: •overall: d=-0.14 o order: d=-0.13 •Can small differences make a big difference over time? neuroticism: •Overall: d=-0.49 o Anxiety: d= -0.28 •Largest overall sex difference in Big Five •Is it neuroticism? Emotional expressiveness? openness: •Overall: d= -0.07 o Self, spouse, & independent interviewer reports •Smallest overall sex difference in Big Five

learned helplessness

failure to escape/ avoid negative situations •Learned loss of control 0> no subsequent effort o Due to conditioning (previous unavoidable & unpleasant outcomes)

How self esteem influences reactions to failure

feedback and low self esteem: following failure feedback, more likely to perform poorly and to give up earlier on subsequent tasks, most concerned with avoiding failure feedback and high self esteem: following failure feedback, it spurs them into action on subsequent tasks, where thy are less likely to give up, and work just as hard as they did on the first taks. high self esteem people are concerned with projecting successful, prosperous, and thriving self image

Field dependence vs. field independence

field dependence: reliance on external visual cues for perception field independence: disregard of external cues

What Field dependence/ independence predict about police work?

field-independent police -> better at ignoring irrelevant info o Better performance at shooting judgment task

emotional content: happiness

happiness: subjective well-being life outcomes: •Happiness correlated with: o Marriage o Relationship satisfaction o Job satisfaction o Self-esteem o Health & lifespan •So good outcomes lead to happiness, right??? •Could it be that happiness -> good outcomes? Does happiness cause these outcomes, or do these outcomes cause happiness, or both?

high vs. low affect intensity

high affect intensity: strong emotions, emotionally reactive & variable •"get a lot" out of life o Enthusiasm, joy, positivity •Take negative events hard o Sadness, guilt, anxiety •High sympathetic nervous system activity (physiological arousal) o Muscle tension, stomachaches, headaches, fatigue o But no desire to change! (like optimum arousal?) low affect intensity: weak emotions, emotionally stable with small variations •Stable, calm, even-keeled o Deal better with negative events o Lack emotional highs •Less wear & tear on sympathetic NS

high vs. low nAch

high nAch: preference for moderate challenges o Too easy? Anyone can do it o Too tough? Might not succeed low nAch: prefer easy, difficult challenges o Easy -> guaranteed success o Difficult -> failure expected, no embarrassment • E.g. ring toss game o High nAch -> aim for middle sticks o Low nAch -> aim for closest, further sticks • E.g. high nAch students -> select majors/ careers of moderate difficulty

hostile attributional bias

how is it an example of evocation

objective self-awareness theory

how it relates to possible selves

id, ego, and superego

id: most primitive part of the mind, functioning on the pleasure principle. Present at birth and is primal, instinctive. The Id wants immediate satisfaction of all needs and wants. The Id operates on the PLEASURE PRINCIPLE. ego: The part of the mind that constrains the id to reality. According to Freud, it develops within the first two or three years of life. Operates according to the REALITY PRINCIPLE. Understands that the urges of the id are often in conflict with social and physical reality, and that direct expression of id impulses must therefore be redirected or postponed. The ego mediates between the Id and the superego. superego: That part of personality that internalizes the values, morals, and ideals of society. Makes us feel guilty, ashamed, or embarrassed when we do something wrong, and makes us feel pride when we do something right. Sets moral goals and ideals of perfection and is the source of our judgments that something is good or bad. It is what some people refer to as conscience. The main tool in enforcing right and wrong is the emotion of guilt. Develops by about age 5 or 6 and is the result of parental and societal rules and norms.

example of possible selves

ideal self: what persons themselves want to be ought self: a person's understanding of what others want them to be -what people take as their responsibilities and commitments to others- what they ought to do these are self guides- they represent standards a person uses to organize information and motivate appropriate behavior from emotions

developmental track of the self-concept in childhood and adolescence

infant: comes to realize that is distinct from the rest of the world age 2-3: learn to identify and associate with themselves according to sex and age --also expand self concept to include the reference of the family 3-4: self concept based mainly on developing skills and talents 5-6: children engage in social comparison -develops private self-concept (theory of mind) teen years: perspective taking

instinct

inherited tendency to produce unalterable response to stimuli o E.g. birds flying south for winter, salmon swimming upstream to spawn o Rooted in evolutionary theory Became popular to level all behaviors as instincts -> theory collapsed

Paul Ekman & basic emotions (categorical)

innate, not learned - emotions start with biological processes (infants, even blind, show emotion early on) - as we age, learning/cognition play a larger role - Ekman ('92) believes emotions come on quickly, and are difficult to control arise from the same circumstances for all people expressed uniquely & distinctively evoke a distinctive and highly predictable physiological patterned responses cross-cultural emotion expression happinesss sadness anger surprise disgust fear

Where does locus of control come from?

internal LOC: families who model internal beliefs (emphasize education & effort), parents deliver promised rewards/ supportive & consistent discipline, high SES external LOC: families model external beliefs, rewards/ discipline less consistent, lower SES

power stress

leads to physical and emotional exhaustion, if not adequately dealt with. So power stress is part of the experience that results from the exercise of influence and sense of responsibility felt in leadership positions.

active listening

listener echoes, restates, clarifies. why is it important in client-centered therapy?

sensation seekers

lots of stimulation needed for optimal arousal monoamine oxidase (MAO): enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters in synapse •High MAO -> not enough neurotransmitter -> reduced neural signal •Low MAO -> too much neurotransmitter -> too much neural signal (high sensation seekers!) o Not enough "brake pedal" (less inhibition = less psychological control)

Type B personality

low levels of type A traits HEALTH OUTCOMES?

protecting vs. enhancing the self?

low self esteem people are motivated to protect their self concept by avoiding failure, whereas high self esteem people are motivated to enhance they self concept by taking risks and striving for success. low self esteem people evade new negative information about themselves

effect size (d)

measures group differences in standard deviations o If d= 1.0 average group difference = 1 standard deviation o If d= 0.50 average group difference = ½ standard deviation D score •(+/-) .2 = small difference •(+/-) .5 = medium difference •(+/-) .8 = large difference o Assume for today that positive d score = men score higher than women o Assume for today that negative d score = women score higher than men

Chromosomes

molecules of DNA in cell nucleus 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs

DNA

molecules that contain biochemical instructions for formation, functioning of person

need for achievement (nAch)

need for achievement (nAch): •A desire for significant accomplishment o Attaining high standards of mastery of things, people, or ideas

is learned helplessness a permanent state in humans/ animals?

no

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):

o Based on Carl Jung's archetypes o Widely used in employment settings o Uses forced-choice questions to indicate preferences in perceptions, decision-making o "Do you value sentiment more than logic, or logic more than sentiment?" o Extraversion vs Introversion o Draws energy from outside socializations vs internal thoughts and ideas o Sensing vs intuition o Attending to sensory info vs "sixth sense" o Thinking vs feeling o Preferring logic and structure vs value-oriented thinking o Judging vs Perceiving o Preferring well-ordered life vs spontaneity criticisms of MBTI: o Problems with "types" o Most traits normally distributed What is the cutoff?? Small variations -> different type (low reliability) strengths of MBTI: o Easy to score, interpret o Intuitive results that seem sensible o May still be useful in team-building, counseling

cognition & depression

o Depression -> quicker to remember sad memories, dwell on problems, worry about what might go wrong, pessimistic, negative thoughts about self o LOTS OF DEPRESSING THOUGHTS

schizotypal personality disorder

o Detachment from normal social relations (but no delusions or hallucinations) o No need/desire for close friendships, relationships - prefer time alone (hobbies, jobs, etc.) o Little pleasure from bodily/ sensory experiences (limited emotional experience) o Acute discomfort in social situations, especially with strangers (distrust) o Believe they are different, don't fit in o Anxiety does not subside with familiarity o Odd, eccentric beliefs o E.g. ESP, magical powers o Distrust + anxiety + odd behavior social difficulties o E.g. little eye contact, unkempt unmatched clothes, etc. Genetic link with schizoid, schizophrenia

benefits of field independence

o Good at focusing on information in a busy environment (and ignoring irrelevant info) o Good at analyzing specific complex information (e.g. foreign languages) o Higher creativity sores

benefits of field dependence

o Good at processing large amounts of information o Good at seeing connections between different areas o Strong social skills, more attentive to social context

Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI):

o Personality test designed for employee selection o Measures aspects of Big 5 related to motives assumes 3 human motives in workplace: 1. acceptance 2. status & control of resources 3. predictability advantages of HPI: o Based on Big Five o High test-retest reliability (r= +.74 to +.86) o Fairly high validity o Predicts employee turnover, absenteeism, sales performance, customer service, employee satisfaction, customer satisfaction, etc.

schizoid personality disorder

o Rooted in schizophrenia: detachment from reality, including delusions, hallucinations, perceptual issues o Can seem awkward, socially clumsy o E.g. walking into room & staring at person silently o Can be unresponsive to important/negative events o But remember context... o E.g. move from rural urban area: schizoid-like behaviors (not a disorder!) o E.g. immigrants (not a disorder!) Genetic heritability -> increased risk in relatives of people with schizophrenia, schizotypal

Type A personality, hostility, & cardiovascular disease:

o Type A = independent risk factor for heart disease o In structured interviews (hostility), but not in questionnaires (included time urgency & achievement) o Hostility = key component Hostility systemic inflammation cardiovascular disease

correlation

o measures how closely related 2 variables are (how much they predict one another) E.g. sensation-seeking and skydiving E.g. S-report and O-report of talkativeness o Measured by correlation coefficient (-1 to +1) correlation coefficient: -1 to +1 direction of correlations: Positive: increase in one variable predicts increase in other •E.g. height & weight •E.g. health & income level Negative: increase in one variable predicts decrease in other •E.g. self-esteem & depression Zero: no predictive relationship size of correlations: •Larger (closer to +/- 1) = more predictive o Small correlation: .1 to .3 (+/-) o Medium correlation: .3 to .5 (+/-) o Large correlation: .5 to 1.0 (+/-) •Remember, direction & size are independent. -.65 is just as large a correlation as +.65 strengths: •Demonstrates covariation •Easy to do, low cost •When a variable cannot be manipulated weakness: •Correlation does not imply causation. (directionality problem) •Third variable problem o The more ice cream that is sold, the more drownings there are. o Cities with more churches have a higher crime rate o The more firemen that are sent to a fire, the more damage is done.

schema

organization/ structure of information Schema development influences perception, reactions to stimuli (e.g. Thatcher Illusion) Cognitive view of happiness? Positive schemas! (non-depressed people) •Focus on positive info •Ignore negative info •Interpret ambiguous info positively Negative schemas (depressed people) •Ignore positive info •Focus on negative info •Interpret ambiguous info negatively

primary appraisal

perceive event as threat to goals WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE EACH OF THESE PROCESSES

secondary appraisal

perceived inability to cope with event WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE EACH OF THESE PROCESSES

gender

personal identification as male or female

pleasure principle & reality principle

pleasure principle: The desire for immediate gratification. The id operates according to this principle therefore, it does not listen to reason, does not follow logic, has no values or morals (other than immediate gratification), and has very little patience. reality principle: In psychoanalysis, it is the counterpart of the pleasure principle. It refers to guiding behavior according to the demands of reality and relies on the strengths of the ego to provide such guidance

prevalence and comorbidity

prevalence: # of cases present in population at a given time Take these numbers with a major grain of salt... o Who is likely to go to therapy? How do people react to psychological difficulties? comorbidity: simultaneous presence of multiple disorders in one person o Many personality disorders share common features Total prevalence for personality disorders: 13% o Equal rates for men & women overall, but... Antisocial much more likely in men (4.5% prevalence) than women (0.8%) Paranoid, obsessive compulsive also more likely in men Borderline, dependent more likely in women OCPD = highest rate (4%) Schizotypal, histrionic, dependent = about 2% each Narcissistic = lowest rate (0.2%), but... •Unlike most traits, narcissism has weak correlations between self-report, observer-report •Less likely to admit narcissism? •Narcissism diagnosed least frequently

projective tests

projective tests: personality tests using ambiguous stimuli to elicit projection of inner conflicts Rorschach inkblot test: •77% of clinical psychologists report administering Rorschach at least occasionally (Camera et al., 2000) •Problems with Rorschach: o Extracting objective meaning from allegedly ambiguous stimuli o Requires subjective, projective perspective of clinician o No universal system for scoring & interpretation Thematic Apprerception Test •30 ambiguous pictures •Create a dramatic story, including: o What led up the event shown o What is happening now o What the characters are thinking, feeling o Outcome of the story • Criticisms of TAT: o Validity? (measuring what it actually claims to measure) o Reliability? (consistent results over time)

traumatic stress

refers to a massive instance of acute stress, the effects of which can reverberate for years or even a lifetime

episodic acute stress

refers to repeated episodes of acute stress, such as a weekend job that is stressful or having to meet a deadline each month; can lead to migraines, hypertension, stroke, anxiety, depression, or serious gastrointestinal distress

chronic stress

refers to stress that does not end & can result in serious systemic illnesses, such as diabetes

homeostasis

refers to this tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state that is optimal for functioning.

acute stress

results from the sudden onset of demands and is experienced as tension headaches, emotional upsets, gastrointestinal disturbances, feelings of agitation, and pressure

Sensation vs. Perception

sensation: detection of sensory info from outside world perception: interpretation and understanding of sensory information •These are not always the same... •In cases of ambiguity, the mind actively imposes order & understanding. •Are there individual differences in the way we do this?

learned helplessness vs. depression

similarities: • Lack of motivation, low feelings of control, pessimism, etc. • Similar developmental course> o E.g. struggle in a class -> struggles in school -> struggles in life • Depressed Ps -> increased depressed feelings when no control in experiments (e.g. irritating noise) differences: •Learned helplessness usually short-lived in studies o Other factors in depression?

Karen Horney's feminist interpretation of psychoanalysis

social theory: built on the assumption that social and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, are largely responsible for shaping personality. built on the assumption that social and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, are largely responsible for shaping personality. She disagreed with Freud about inherent differences in the psychology of men and women, and she traced such differences to society and culture rather than biology.

social explanations for sex differences

socialization theory: •sex differences due to reinforcement of certain behaviors by parents, teachers, media, culture, etc. o e.g. girls encouraged to stay close to home more often o more physical play with sons than daughters o gendered toys gender stereotypes: •cross cultural consistency in stereotypes o men: more aggressive, autonomous, achievement-orientated, dominant, exhibitionist, persevering asserting independence from group o women: affiliative, deferent, nurturing, self-abasing oriented toward the group •most people overestimate gender differences, but that matters... impact of gender stereotypes: •Goodman et al. (1991): wrongful death lawsuits o Male victim = more $ awarded to family •Larrance et al. (1979): women quoted higher prices for a car than men •Khan et al. (1990): men more likely to be recommended for coronary bypass surgery •Moore (1978): psychology research reviews more negative for men o Lloyd (1990): female reviewers give more positive reviews to female authors (no bias in male reviewers)

Ivan Pavlov's famous studies of classical conditioning in dogs

studied digestion in dogs o Unconditioned stimulus (US): something that elicits an automatic response Pavlov: Food o Unconditioned response (UR): automatic behavior elicited by US Pavlov: salivation due to food o Conditioned stimulus (CS): neutral stimulus gets paired with the US Pavlov: bell o Conditioned response (CR): learned response that is automatically elicited by CS Pavlov: salivation due to bell

Cognitive psychology

study of how we process information •E.g. memory, thinking, judgments & decision-making, language, etc. •What individual differences exist in information-processing? o 1. Perception o 2. interpretation

impact bias

tendency to overestimate long-term impact of emotional events, underestimate ability to adapt •poor affective forecasting •the good isn't THAT good... o lottery winners return to baseline happiness within 5 years •... and the bad isn't THAT bad o Average levels of happiness among HIV patients, kidney dialysis patients, bling, paralyzed, etc. •So who are the happy people?

androgyny

the combination of masculine and feminine characteristics. Gender ambiguity may be found in fashion, gender identity, sexual identity, or sexual lifestyle.

daily hassles

the major source of stress in most people's lives; minor, but chronic and repetitive; does not initiate GAS •Major events stress, but infrequent •Daily hassles provide most stress in most people's lives •Research indicates that people with a lot of minor stress suffer more from psychological and physical symptoms

health psychology

the realization that psychological and behavioral factors can have important health consequences

stress

the subjective feeling/response produced by events that are uncontrollable or threatening; refers to how people respond in particular situations feeling of being overwhelmed by events that you cannot seem to control •Events that lead to stress and have several common attributes o Extreme in some manner, in that stressors produce a state of feeling overwhelmed o Produce opposing tendencies in us, such as wanting and not wanting some activity or object o Perceive as uncontrollable possible benefits of stress: Performance of easy tasks can be enhanced with high level stress, but moderate level tasks require a certain balance between low and high stress. Complex tasks require low stress

interdependent culture vs. independent culture

transmitted self-concept: •Balance between tasks varies between cultures o Western cultures independence Individual choices, pay often based on performance Describe self with abstract, internal traits "The squeaky wheel gets the grease." o Non-Western cultures interdependence Fitting in, group harmony, pay often based on seniority Describe self with social roles "The nail that stands out gets pounded down." Markus & Kitayama (1991): •2 "cultural tasks" for every person interdependence: •Emphasis on collectivism o Affiliation, attachment to social group(s), relationships o How you are embedded in the group independence: •Emphasis on individualism o Unique skills, motives, traits, agency o How you separate yourself from the group acculturation: •Adapting to new culture o Rhee et al. (1995): test Asians living in NYC Identify as Asian interdependent self Markus & Kitayama (1998): Japanese/American Ps rate traits for self- descriptiveness •Interdependent culture process information holistically o Attention to links between objects & context (field dependence?) •Independent culture process information analytically o Evaluate objects detached from context (field independence?) Masuda & Nisbett (2001): •View animated fish for 5 seconds o Americans: attention to big fish "main characters" exert influence Better at recognizing big fish in changed contexts Japanese: attention to context Better at recognizing changes to context

affect intensity

typical strength of emotions (positive & negative) •Positively correlated with extraversion (strong positive reactions) & neuroticism (strong negative reactions) o High intensity -> high emotional variability •Affect intensity & life outcomes: o High intensity: High activity levels, do things to "liven up life" High sociability Can be problematic socially

situationism

view that personality is a function of situation, not of internal traits -E.g. social psychology (Milgarm, Asch, etc) -Walter Mischel (1960s) -> personality too minimal to focus on -Idea of multiple selves, situationally-elicited

Circumplex taxonomies

•"circular" personality models o Traits located along 2 dimensions o E.g. Timothy Leary, Jerry Wiggins •Wiggins most interested in interpersonal traits •"Dyadic interactions that have relatively clear-cut social and emotional consequences for both participants" •2 ways that interpersonal traits vary" o 1. Social ("status") o 2. Emotional ("love") •4 Advantages of Circumplex Theory o 1. Specific definition of traits as interpersonal characteristics o Should capture all interactions that deal in status, love o 2. Specifies relationships between traits o Adjacency: traits close together on circumplex -> positively correlated o Bipolarity: traits on opposite sides -> negatively correlated Perhaps every trait has an opposite? o Orthogonality: perpendicular traits -> zero correlation E.g. dominance expressed in agreeable, hostile ways? o 3. Points out gaps, unstudied traits E.g. unassuming, calculating o 4. Interpersonal relationship predictions o Opposite personalities often unpleasant •Problem with Circumplex Theory? o Limited to 2 dimensions -> what about traits not captured by those dimensions? E.g. high conscientiousness = dependability, reliability

personal constructs

•"man the scientist" perspective •Driven to understand, predict, & control world (anticipation -> thoughts & behaviors) •Create templates ("personal constructs") to understand world through o E.g. nerdy professor •Run "experiments" to test our constructs, modify them based on experiences •Everyone's personal constructs are different... •Personal constructs = bipolar o E.g. friendly-unfriendly, tall-short, intelligent-unintelligent, masculine-feminine •Personal constructs used differently by different people o What happens if I use friendly-unfriendly, fun-boring, & outgoing-quiet as constructs, but you use refined-gross, sensitive-insensitive, & intelligent-unintelligent? •Constructs = hierarchically organized o "higher" constructs = more fundamental to interpretation o Allows more specific impressions •Practically infinite number of constructs, hierarchies to make sense of world

situational selection and romantic relationships

•37 samples from 33 countries o Every major racial group, religious group, political system, SES level o 10,047 participants! o What are you looking for in a long-term partner? How important is each of the following characteristics? •Most important characteristics: o Mutual attraction or love o Dependable character (high conscientiousness) o Emotional stability (low neuroticism) o Pleasing disposition (high agreeableness) •Opposites attract vs birds of a feather flock together

inhibitory control

•Ability to control inappropriate behaviors o D=-0.41 •E.g. perceptual sensitivity

perceptual sensitivity

•Ability to detect subtle stimuli o D=-0.38

Observer-report data

•Ask someone else about person strengths of O-data: o Access to info not available to person (e.g. reputation, social perceptions) o Sometimes with extremely short exposure! o Can use multiple observers weaknesses of O-data: o Biased by own personality, experiences with person?

evoked mating strategies

•Belsky (2000): o harsh, inconsistent parenting impulsivity in child early reproduction, multiple partners learn not to rely on others o responsive, consistent parenting conscientiousness in child later reproduction, stable & committed relationships learn to rely on others •e.g. children of divorced parents more impulsive, reach puberty earlier, have sex earlier, more sex partners •e.g. Lei et al. (2011): o China: heavy parental investment divorce = rare o Sweden: single parents, less father involvement more common divorce

Big Five and evolution

•Big 5 traits = solutions to evolutionary problems? ("correct" solution depends on context) agreeableness: differences in cooperation vs. activing selfishly o Who will be a good cooperator and a loyal friend/ romantic partner? neuroticism: differences in responses to exclusion o Who will drain my resources, burden me with their problems, and monopolize my time? extraversion: differences in short-term vs. long-term mating strategies o Who is likely to have high status in the social hierarchy? conscientiousness: differences in delayed gratification/goal pursuit vs. impulsivity/ immediate evolutionary benefits o Who will be reliable and dependable? openness: differences in new strategies vs. tried & true o Who can I go for advice, new ideas?

Cardiovascular activity (heart & blood vessels)

•Can measure blood pressure -heart may pump w/ larger strokes, generating more volume or through a narrowing of the artery walls; response to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system in the fight-or-flight response i.e. solving a difficult math equation -Type A personalities would show A behavior pattern characterized by impatience, competitiveness, & hostility; higher likelihood of heart disease & heart attacks -Stress, anxiety, cognitive effort, etc. -> blood pressure & BPM increases ocardiac reactivity: bigger increases for some people than others

meta-analysis

•Combining results across studies, looks for patterns in results o Typically compares studies' effect sizes ADVANTAGES?

dopamine (novelty seeking)

•Controls brain's reward & pleasure centers -> physically good feelings o Deficits: Parkinson's disease o Excess: schizophrenia Clonigers (1986) tridimensional model: novelty-seeking -> low levels of dopamine Motive to seek out dopamine (novelty, thrills, excitement)

evoked cooperation

•Cosmides & Tooby (1992): o Sharing food among hunter-gatherer cultures "high variance" foods sporadic availability •Benefits to sharing more cooperation "low variance" foods consistent availability •Less need to share less cooperation E.g. Ache tribe (Paraguay) Gathered food = low variance •Depends more on skill •Gathered food typically not shared Hunted food = high variance •Depends more on luck (60% chance of success) •Meat given to "distributor" distributes based on family size •Food variance positively correlated with egalitarian beliefs o E.g. san groups in Kalahari desert Kung san highly variable food strong egalitarian beliefs •Stingy = bad trait strongly punished •Gana San low variance food hoard food, rarely share it

evoked conformity

•Cultural differences in conforming to social norms (evolutionary reasons?) o Murray et al. (2011): conformity positively correlated with # of disease-causing pathogens "behavioral immune system" discourages interaction with the sick •Lots of pathogens act more introverted Conform to food prep norms less likely to get sick

sex differences in self-esteem

•D=0.21 o But age matters... 7-10 YO: d=0.16 11-14 YO: d=0.23 15-18 YO: d=0.33 19-22 YO: d=0.18 23-59 YO: d=0.10 60+YO: d=0.03 Moderate differences....

need to belong

•Deep-seated motive to feel social connectedness oBaumeister & Leary (1996): "a pervasive drive to dorm and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and significant interpersonal relationships" •Homeostatic balance of social/alone time Adaptive value of having a need to belong: •Combat, hunting, protection •Bonds between children & parents aid survival •Social attachments -> reproductive opportunity, likelihood of staying together to raise offspring

Research on Maslow's hierarchy

•Deprived lower-level needs -> strong negative reactions •More motivation than deprived higher-level needs •Meeting high level needs -> strong positive reactions •Level of hierarchy does NOT predict happiness

need for power (nPow)

•Desire to have impact over others o Strong actions (elicit strong reactions from others) o Importance of status & reputation • Similar levels in men & women, but... o High nPow men -> more impulsive, aggressive than high nPow women, low nPow men More relationship dissatisfaction, arguments, divorce More sex partners, more sexual exploitation, earlier age of sexual behavior

locus of control & health

•Difference in medical compliance? •Internal LOC -> belief in ability to change health o Fewer health problems (mild to serious) o E.g. better diets, exercise habits, etc. • External LOC -> health out of hands, depends on genes, etc. o More health problems o E.g. likely to smoke, drink, skip breakfast, eat fatty food, consume less fruit & fiber

evolutionary explanations for sex differences

•Differential evolutionary pressures for men, women •Implications for dating, relationships, sex, etc. (see your ch 8 notes on evolutionary perspective)

evocation

•E.g. high vs. low activity levels in children o High -> evokes hostility, competitiveness, power struggles (e.g. parents & teachers) •E.g. aggression evokes hostility o Aggressive people -> hostile attribution bias: interpreting others' ambiguous behaviors as hostile, aggressive

life-outcome data

•Examine life events (e.g. marriage, divorce, jobs) •Often use S-data & O-data to predict L-data o E.g. Caspi et al (1987): mother;s answer questions about child's temper tantrum _> gather L-data 30-40 yrs later Boys early tantrums -> lower military ranks, less job stability, more unemployment, more divorce STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES?

histrionic personality disorder

•Excessive attention seeking, emotionality o Overly dramatic, center of attention behavior Often inappropriately sexually provocative o Emphasis on physical appearance •Express opinions frequently, loudly o But opinions are shallow, often don't have much substance or evidence o Highly suggestible, intuitive •Display strong (theatrical?) emotions in public o E.g. temper tantrums over little events •Anger, impulsivity when not getting attention •Crave novelty & excitement (but they wear off quickly)

dependent personality disorder

•Excessive need to be taken care of o Submissive let others take charge Little initiative, difficulty with decision-making need encouragement & advice from others Even for trivial matters (e.g. Do I take an umbrella today? What should I order for dinner?) -Avoid disagreements (even if they think other's decision is wrong) --Do not work well independently --Wait for others to start project, give direction --Display ineptitude or avoid expertise to garner help -Often willing to tolerate abuse, unreasonable demands from others Strong genetic contribution Correlated with history of anxiety disorders & physical illnesses

paranoid personality disorder

•Extreme distrust of others (they're out to exploit, manipulate, deceive me?) o Preoccupation with others' motives, hidden meanings •Do not reveal personal info ("mind your own business") •Resent others for mild offenses •Pathological jealousy (even with no evidence) •Argumentative, hostile nature o Can provoke hostile responses... Genetic ties to schizophrenia?

cultural universal

•Features of personality present in most/ all cultures o E.g. beliefs about men vs. women 4 (Ch. 16) o E.g. emotional expression (Ch. 8, 13) •Is there a universal structure of personality? o Are "traits" a Western concept only? Could "personality" be simply a Western concept? Probably not: •Many non-western cultures have trait words •Many non-western cultures have similar facture structure (i.e. Big Five...) •Two ways of studying Big Five across cultures: o 1. "test & transport" translate existing personality measures, use in other cultures Big 5 replicates in 50+ cultures, languages (self- and observer-report) o 2. Re-create taxonomy from scratch, using lexical & statistical approaches 4 of the 5 replicate well Openness: replicates sometimes (Poland, Germany) Openness least replicates something (on exam)

locus of control & happiness

•Generally, internal -> happiness o Lower depression, anxiety rates o Better grades, academic performance (better adjustments to feedback, pay closer attention) o Better work evaluation, high job satisfaction o Better reactions to therapy (through therapy should be suited to client)

Eysenck's hierarchical model of personality

•Hans Eysenck (1916-1997) •Biological model (heritability + physiological basis for trait) o Psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism (PEN) •Extraversion -> lively, active, dominant, sociable, sensation-seeking -> like parties, many friends, like practical jokes •Neuroticism-> anxious, depressed, tense, moody, shy, emotional -> worrying, trouble sleeping, overactive negative emotions (more sensitive, slower to subside, less likely to forgive) •Psychoticism -> aggressive, egocentric, impulsive, lacking empathy -> loners, cruelty (often to animals), insensitivity to others' pain biological basis of Eysenck's system: •Heritabilitiy o P-E-N all moderately heritable (among other traits) •Physiological basis o Extraversion -> lower arousal & reactivity levels o Neuroticism -> high lability (changeability) of autonomic nervous system (fight or flight) o Psychoticism -> high testosterone, low levels of MAO (breaks down excitatory neurotransmitters)

norepinephrine (reward dependence)

•Helps control alertness & arousal •"fight or flight response" •Low levels in depression Clonigers (1986) tridimensional model: reward dependence -> low levels of norepinephrine •More time, effort spent on rewarding tasks

serotonin (harm avoidance)

•Helps regulate mood •Low levels in depression o Often treated with SSRIs o Selected serotonin-reuptake inhibitors E.g. Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil Clonigers (1986) tridimensional model: harm avoidance -> serotonin Low harm avoidance: energetic, outgoing, optimistic High harm avoidance: cautious, shy, apprehensive -> irritability, hositility •Short term: spikes of serotonin (stress response) •Longer term: low levels of serotonin

surgency

•High activity level, impulsivity, approach behavior o D=0.38 o More discipline issues for boys? o Low inhibitory control + high surgency = aggression? Aggression d=0.60

biological explanations for sex differences

•Hormones o E.g. congenital adrenal hyperplasia Overactive adrenal gland in female fetus "hormonally masculinized" Prefer typically-male toys Prefer typically male careers Adult strengths in typically male areas (spatial rotation, throwing accuracy) o E.g. testosterone 10x higher in men •Predicts aggression, dominance, career choice •Higher levels in women more typically male characteristics

transmitted culture

•Ideas, values, attitudes, beliefs that are transmitted from one person to another o E.g. morality in American culture vs. Brahman Indian culture Is the following behavior immoral? •Is it immoral for children to disobey their parents? o In India: Men- 72% Women- 80% o In America: Men - 18% Women - 12% E.g. Samang (Malaysia) sins combing hair during thunderstorm, watching dogs mate, teasing animals, killing wasps, having sex during day, drawing water from container, etc.

age & happiness

•Inglehart: 170,000 people in 16 countries o Percentage "satisfied" with life as a whole (typically constant throughout lifetime)

borderline personality disorder

•Marked by instability •Instability of relationships o "love-hate" relationships o Intense, emotional interactions with others o Strong fear of abandonment angry, aggressive reactions Self-mutilation, suicide attempts as efforts to pull people back in Soloff et al. (a994): 72% if BPD sample had attempted suicide (avg. of 3 attempts!) •Instability of self-concept o Shallow, changing values & goals o Experiment with different social circles, sexual orientation, etc. •Instability of emotions o Panic, anger, despair (usually due to "abandonment"), followed by shame & guilt Poor attachments, sexual abuse in childhood o Chaotic homes, impulsive parents o Not much evidence for genetics?

experiment

•Measures causality (one variable influencing another) o E.g. does sleep deprivation negatively affect your memory? independent variable (IV): •Variable manipulated by researcher to create groups ("conditions") o E.g. sleep deprivation vs normal sleep dependent variable (DV): •Variable measured by researcher to compare conditions o E.g. memory test strengths: o Establishes causation Groups start the same -> treated differently -> groups now different random assignment: •assigning participants to condition by chance (reduces sole of individual differences) random sampling: •drawing experiment sample from population at random (generalizability) o Control of situation weaknesses: o Cannot experimentally control everything o Artificial situations?

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5):

•Most widely used guide to diagnosing disorders (diagnostic criteria) •Organizes disorders into categories based on shared symptoms •Undergoes revisions to reflect changing scientific & social perspectives o DSM-5: moving toward dimensional views of disorders (vs. categorical) Disordered behavior is often an extreme version of normal, everyday healthy behavior

optimism vs. pessimism

•Optimism predicts o Self-reported good health o Fewer doctor visits o Longer lifespan o Longer lifespan after heart attack o Quicker rehab from breast cancer surgery o Immune system activity o Positive health behaviors •Correlations typically +.20 to +.30 •Peterson et al. (1998): 1000 Ps over 50+ years o Negative correlation between pessimism & lifespan o Biggest optimist/ pessimist differences? Frequency of accidents (especially for men!) Frequency of violent deaths (especially for men!)

psychological disorder

•Pattern of thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors that is deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional

avoidant personality disorder

•Pervasive feelings of inadequacy, sensitivity to criticism o Coping with anxiety = avoid situations where criticism/ rejection may happen •Typically low self-esteem •Seem meek, shy, lonely, isolated to others o Limited sources of social support Unclear -> correlated with inhibited childhood attachment, childhood neglect. & peer group rejection

rational-emotive therapy

•Pioneered by Albert Ellis in 195-s •ABC model of disorders (A + B = C) o A: adversity (bad things happen sometimes...) o B: beliefs (self-defeating, irrational beliefs and perceptions) o C: consequences (psychologically) •Therapy should challenge, undermine depression-related thoughts

test data

•Put people in standardized situation, look for similarities/ differences •E.g. Megargee (1969) dominance & leadership study o 4 types of groups complete task: 1. high dominant man (75%) & low dominant man 2. high dominant woman (70%) & low dominant woman 3. high dominant man (90%)& low dominant woman 4. high dominant woman & low dominant man (80%) •Who becomes group leader? o Analyze Group 4 discussions -> 91% of time woman assigned man to leadership roles. Can be situational behaviors, physiological measures, projective tests strengths of T-data: •Controlled situations •Allow hypothesis testing weaknesses of T-data: •Possibility of participant, researcher bias (e.g. demand characteristics)

Cattell's taxonomy: 16 Personality Factor system

•Raymond Cattel (1905-1998) o Factor analysis -> more thorough taxonomy •Criticisms of Cattel's model: o Lack of replication, even with identical research methods (stats done by hand?) o Too many traits Laid groundwork for Big 5 •Factors o Warmth o Intellect o Emotional Stability o Aggressiveness o Liveliness o Dutifulness o Social Assertiveness o Sensitivity o Paranoia o Abstractness o Introversion o Anxiety o Open-mindedness o Independence o Perfectionism o Tension Don't need to memorize, just know its roots to the Big 5

Antisocial personality disorder

•Similar to psychopathy/ sociopathy •General disregard for others, lack of concern for social norms •Lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward close others o E.g. lying, stealing, criminal activity, substance abuse, aggression, unrestrained sexual behaviors, recklessness, impulsivity, irritability, superficial charm •Signs emerge early in life (e.g. cruelty toward animals, behavioral problems at school, destroying property, bullying younger kids, lying, etc.) o Problems worsen with age stronger, adult thinking, sexual maturity o APD unlikely if no signs by 16 YO o Most kids with conduct issues outgrow them Risk factors: childhood abuse & victimization, drug & alcohol use Fearless approach to life diminished autonomic nervous system activity o Magnusson (1990): measured adrenaline in 13 YO boys in stressful/nonstressful situations tracked for criminal convictions as 18-26 YO o Lower levels of arousal at 13 (adrenaline) higher conviction rate at 18-26 o Raine (1999): PET scans of 41 murderers Reduced activity in frontal lobes (emotional & executive control) & amygdala (emotions, fear/ anger) o Rain et al. (2000): violent repeat offenders = 11% less frontal lobe tissue than normal o Rain et al. (1996): IV: approx. 400 Danish men exposed to social/ biological/ both risk factors for APD • Social: childhood poverty • Biological: obstetrical complications DV: % criminal offenders by 20-22 YO Results: combination of both social and biological = highest # of criminal offenders • Biological next highest • Social is least

evoked aggression

•Since early 1800s, higher US homicide rate in South o Only explicit, intentional murders (not accidents) •Southerners no more likely to endorse violence in general, but are more likely to agree that: o 1. killing is justified to defend one's family, house o 2. Violence is justified to defend one's honor culture of honor: •Nisbett & Wilson (1996): North settled by farmers, South by herders o Southern culture: more rural, less law enforcement more perceived need for self-protection o Herds more susceptible to theft •Culture of honor: culture where tough reputation, severe retaliation (even for trivial events involving "honor") = necessary for economic survival •Is the Southern US still a Culture of Honor? •Cohen et al. (1996): o IVs: Southern/ Northern white males insulted/ not insulted just before psychology experiment o DVs: Perceptions of threat to masculinity % of testosterone Yielding to another confederate in same narrow hallway when leaving experiment results: Participants' estimates of evaluator's ratings of his masculinity •Southerners significantly decline with insult •Southerners significant % increase in testosterone with insult •Distance at which participant gives way to 2nd confederate when leaving study - southerners get really close

narcissistic personality disorder

•Strong sense of self-importance, need to be admired o See self very positively (inflate accomplishments, diminish others' contributions) o Daydreaming about power, victory, influence, adoration o Sense of superiority (insist on having "the best __________") •High expectations of others o Regular praise, admiration o Often choose less popular people as friends •High, but fragile, self-esteem o Dependent on others o No admiration from others anger! •Inability to recognize others' needs, desires o More use of 1st person pronouns o Evaluations of own performance more positive than others' o No usual give-and-take in relationships •Easily envious of others o Disparage others' accomplishments

electrodermal activity

•Sweat gland activity in skin •Controlled by autonomic nervous system o"fight or flight" •Electrodes on hands: one sends current, one detects it oMore sweat ("electrodermal activity") = more conductance/ arousal •Increases from surprise, emotional pictures, mental effort, pain, anxiety, fear, etc •Individual differences in resting activity oResting electrodermal activity pos. correlated with neuroticsm, anxiety Conductance Electricity will flow across the skin w/ less resistance if that skin is made damp w/ sweat. Sweating on the palms of the hands is activated by the sympathetic nervous system, & so electrodermal activity is a way to directly measure changes in the sympathetic nervous system.

Carl Jung

•Swiss psychiatrist, close friends with freud •Introduced concepts of: o Introversion/ extraversion o Archetypes o Collective unconscious •Shared belief in unsconsious, but differed on content Collective unconscious •"a reservoir of the experiences of our species" o Repository of all religious, spiritual, & mythological symbols and experiences o Symbols/experiences -> sum to archetypes Archetypes ???

optimistic bias

•Tendency to be over-optimistic about future outcomes •Most people see themselves as less than likely than peers to: o Become alcoholic o Drop out of school o Have heart attack by 40 o Get divorced o Be fired from a job o Get struck by lightning o Get cancer from smoking cigarettes

self-esteem variability

•The extent to which one's self-esteem changes, is susceptible to outside influence. high variability: o fragile SE stress vulnerability? Influenced by social situations? low variability: o Stable SE Less impact on stress, context •SE level, SE variability are not correlated •Fragile SE predicts social anxiety, public self-consciousness, fewer social interactions, depression

evoked culture

•cultural differences as product of different environmental pressures •requires: o 1. Universal underlying mechanism o 2. Environmental pressure to activate mechanism EXAMPLE?

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

•functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) o detects increases in bloodflow throughout brain ------increased bloodflow -> oxygen delivery -> parts of brain working hardest -Used for mapping the structure & function of the brain; allows physicians & researchers to look inside the working brains of their patients & subjects; show which portion of the brain are active while the person is performing a particular task; Canli (20 + & 20 - images)

temperament

•genetically-based behavioral tendencies seen in young children o Consistent across situations, over time o Heritable, emerges early in life (but there is mean level change during lifespan -> nature vs nurture) 6 components of temperament (Rothbart & Bates, 2006): 1. fearful distress/ inhibition Amount of withdrawal, distress in new situations 2. irritable distress anger, frustration if child can't do what (s)he wants to 3. attention span and persistence habituation, length of interest 4. activity level physical movement 5. positive affect/ approach orientation smiling, laughing, cooperation 6. soothability easy to calm importance of temperament: •its stable! Its who we are! •Influences social adjustment

culture

•group of people with ingroup similarities, differences from outgroups o physical, psychological, behavioral, attitudinal •describes groups (but doesn't explain)

trait taxonomy

•list of the most 'important' traits •taxonomy with most support: five factor model (the Big Five) o trait dimensions that capture clusters of correlated specific traits

Murray's hierarchy of needs

•organization of needs that is unique to individual o high vs. low levels -> high = more behavioral influence (e.g. need for power) •"dynamic" model -> need levels interact with each other o E.g. high need for power Plus high need to belong -> seek leadership opportunities that others approve of Plus low need to belong -> seek power regardless of others' views

self-esteem level

•overall evaluation (positive, negative) of one's self traditional view of SE •stable characteristic, distinguishes individuals (and a good thing!) o SE pos. correlated with physical & mental health, optimism, academic & career success, etc. o SE neg. correlated with aggressive behavior, substance abuse, marital dissatisfaction, etc.

electroencephalograph (EEG)

•recording of electrical activity generated by brain •looks for changes to activity what EEG's record patterns of activation in various regions of the brain which may be associated w/ different types of info. processing tasks evoked potential technique brain EEG is measured but the participant is given a stimulus, such as a tone or a flash of light, & the researcher assesses the participant's brain responsiveness to the stimulus.

coherence and relationships

•reminder: coherence= predictable, changing behaviors over time, even with stable underlying trait Kelly & Conley (1987): •longitudinal study of 300 engaged couples from 1930s-1980s -> friends rated personalities o who got divorced high neuroticism (both partners) •positively correlated with marital dissatisfaction in 1930s, 1955, 1980s. low impulse control (husband)

Act Frequency Approach

•traits= categories of acts •more acts performed = stronger trait •Prototypicality matters.... •Some members= "better" members of concept than others (typicality) •Memory for items shifts toward prototypes over time o Faces categorized by race, gender become remembered more stereotypically